2509-2.doc

Course: Social and Community Forestry (2509)
Semester: Autumn, 2020
1
ASSIGNMENT No. 2
Q.1 Describe in detail the key steps involved in planning of social forestry projects in Pakistan.
Sustainable forest management is a means of protecting forests whilst offering direct benefits to people and
the environment. It contributes to local livelihoods and offers environmental benefits such as carbon
sequestration and conserving water, soil and biodiversity.
Less than 5 percent of Pakistan’s total area is under forest cover, and 1.5 percent of these forests are lost
every year. This has profound impacts on Pakistan’s biodiversity, environment and agriculture. With
climate change, such events are becoming more frequent and more devastating, pointing to the urgent need
to conserve Pakistan’s indigenous forests.
Poverty, weak controls and lack of awareness contribute to over-exploitation. Bringing communities into
forest management and thereby helping them achieve sustainable livelihoods, can thus conserve forestland
across Pakistan.
This project focuses on seven forest landscapes (145,300 hectares) containing three vulnerable and
important forest types: temperate coniferous forests in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, dry scrub forests in Punjab,
and riverine forests in Punjab and Sindh.
Objectives:
To promote sustainable forest management in Pakistan’s west Himalayan coniferous forests, scrub forests
and riverine forests for biodiversity conservation, mitigation of climate change, and securing forest
ecosystem services.
Planned activities:
Embed sustainable forest management into landscape-scale planning by:
 Mapping forest resources and ecosystem services to inform planning, development,
implementation and monitoring at the landscape level.
 Developing landscape level spatial plans which integrate biodiversity, ecosystem services, climate
mitigation and use of resources by local communities.
 Developing protocols to mainstream ecosystem services, climate risk mitigation and biodiversity
into forest management planning.
Strengthen biodiversity conservation in and around high conservation value forests by:
 Changing the use of high conservation value forests towards biodiversity conservation and non-
exhaustive community forest management, thereby avoiding deforestation.
 Establishing model community governance and management systems.
 Strengthening capacities in biodiversity conservation through training, guidelines, co-
management and enforcement.
Enhance carbon sequestration in and around high conservation value forests in target landscapes by:

2
 Protecting existing forests.
 Restoring and rehabilitating degraded coniferous forests by closing them for natural regeneration
and new plantation.
 Rehabilitating scrub forests through dry afforestation techniques.
 Reforesting riverine tracts with indigenous trees.
 Documenting best practices and building capacities in silviculture (local-level forest management)
for reforestation and restoration.
 Applying and validate the Pakistan-specific REDD-RPP methodology for measuring carbon stock in
target areas.
The methodological approach has not been developed in isolation but through dialogue with similar community
forestry projects in Senegal, other Sahelian countries and elsewhere. Instead of pressuring local communities to
participate in project activities through incentives (putting the sustainability of these activities at risk), the
approach of this project is to create the conditions for a permanent dialogue between the local population and
the "development agents". The point of departure is to support the local people in taking their development into
their own hands according to the principles of self-help: the implementation of their own projects through
analysis of the situation, determination of priorities, selection of actions to be undertaken, and mobilization of
local knowledge and means.
The approach aims to develop an iterative process of identification, planning, implementation, evaluation, and
back to identification, etc. In the end, this, will result in the accountability of the beneficiaries for their projects.
Based on the annual planning of activities, the villagers progressively take charge of these activities through the
combination of their own knowledge and skills and the application of new technologies. The approach
strengthens their capacity for appraisal, problem identification and analysis, organization, training,
implementation and monitoring and evaluation. It brings together efforts and knowledge as well as promoting
the sharing of responsibilities and a mutual commitment of the different parties involved. In addition, the
approach seeks to strengthen the coordination and collaboration between the different governmental and non-
governmental agencies working in the same area in order to identify their complementarity and to implement or
support mutually agreed activities.
A distinction is made between two categories of actors. The first category is the principal actors (the villagers),
who initiate actions and decide to implement them for their own benefit, either at community level, or at the
level of the specific interest group (e.g. youth clubs, women's groups), or at individual level. In the second
category are the support actors (development agents) who provide their political, technical, educational or
organizational support for planning and implementation of activities. These include administrative and local
authorities, technical/educational project staff, peasant associations and NGOs.
Methods and tools developed by the Research and Support Group for Peasant Self-help (GRAAP - Groupe de
recherche et d'appui pour l'autopromotion paysanne) have been adapted and improved. Many of these methods

3
and tools have been used in the field, such as theatre, cassettes, village maps, intervillage visits, etc. In addition,
particularly during the planning phase, PRA methods and tools are frequently used, such as historical profiles,
transect walking and listing of intervening factors.
At regional or zone level, the first step is to inform the different authority levels about the project, to explain its
methodology and to present its staff. These contacts are maintained during project implementation, providing
regular feedback and strengthening institutional support and collaboration. The next step is a general appraisal
of the socio-cultural, economic and ecological characteristics of the region and the development of criteria for
the selection of villages to work with. This general appraisal is supported with more specific environmental
profiles prepared by the forestry staff. On the basis of the results of this preparatory work, an action plan is
prepared, which will constitute an important tool for the orientation of the project staff.
Based on the appraisal studies, target villages are selected for direct project support. In each village, workshop
meetings are conducted by the project staff with the villagers. At these meetings, villagers are asked to analyse
their natural environment on the basis of their own observations and experiences, discussing the role they can
play in the battle against desertification and degradation of their environment. These exercises are aimed at the
identification of needs, opportunities and constraints. A series of educational support materials, produced by
GRAAP, are used for these workshops. The role of the project staff is to orient and facilitate these workshops
and to promote the evolution of this process into a self-sustaining activity. These workshops are organized in
public places and have been attended by both old and young people of both sexes.
The following step for the villages is the prioritization and selection of the forestry activities they will
undertake. This process is supported by the project staff, who provide technical assistance in such areas as
species selection, tree production and management techniques. Initially, these activities are carried out on an
experimental and educational basis. The next step is the organization and programming of activities, aimed at
strengthening the local capacity to assume full responsibility for their implementation. Villagers adapt the
activities to their specific needs and conditions and integrate them into their agricultural production systems. In
most cases, existing local organizations assume the coordinating responsibility, delegating specific tasks to
forestry committees. The project policy is not to work with blueprint organizational proposals but to promote
design by the villagers themselves of the most adequate organizational structure, according to their own
customs and traditions.
Farmers' training is an important component of the project. In PREVINOBA, farmers' training is conceived in
terms of the exchange of experiences between the farmers and the project. During the first phase of the project,
theoretical and practical training for contact farmers from different villages took place at project offices. The
idea was to achieve a multiplier effect upon their return to their villages. Results were disappointing, so this
training method was modified in 1992 and decentralized to village level, thereby also making it more accessible
to women.

4
The project incorporates systematic monitoring, which permits the different actors not only to supervise and
control implementation of the activities but also to identify specific aspects to be strengthened, adjusted or
modified. With technical support from the project, the village forestry committees usually supervise the. project
activities carried out at family and community level. In addition, field visits by the project team, administrative
authorities and local representatives are organized in order to strengthen the political and institutional
commitment to these local-level initiatives for forestry development.
The final step is evaluation. A distinction is made between ongoing evaluation, self-evaluation and global
evaluation. The ongoing evaluation is annual, retrospective and guided by the local forestry committee. Its main
emphasis is on technical aspects of tree production and management. The self-evaluation of project
implementation by the village takes place annually during village meetings. Specific materials, based on the
GRAAP approach, have been developed to support and orient this process of self-evaluation and to use the
results as inputs for planning. A global evaluation of the technical packages and results, village participation
and the project methodology is carried out annually, and all actors directly involved in the project take part. The
results of these exercises are used as internal discussion points for corrective actions and as an agenda for
further dialogue during meetings with other parties involved.
The approach of the project contains important components designed to achieve a real strengthening of local
accountability for sustainable community forestry development. In general, very important conditions are being
met in the field: motivation and interest, technical knowledge and skills, strong local organizations, rights and
equitable benefit sharing. Overall, the experience of the PREVINOBA project indicates that the participatory
approach leads to a progressive accountability of the villages and appropriation of the project by the
participants. There is an active participation of the villagers in forestry activities, and in particular of women, in
spite of their heavy daily workload. Investments are made by the villages themselves with their own resources
to finance the fencing of village woodlots and to purchase new materials. More and more village organizations
have adopted measures such as sanction systems for the protection of the environment.
There is a common understanding of the project objectives and approach among the different parties involved.
At village level this understanding reveals itself through a significant change of attitude towards external
support, which has come to be considered as something temporary. Village land use management (gestion des
terroirs villageois) has proven to be an appropriate framework for designing project interventions using the
participatory approach. It has taken at least five years, however, to develop the methods and tools of this
approach on the basis of practical field experience, and to make the different parties involved familiar with their
use. These years of collaboration and partnership between the project and the villages have resulted in a
strengthening of village capacity for diagnosis, organization, implementation and evaluation. In addition, new
technologies have been learned, with regard not only to forestry and related activities but also to developing
skills for improving existing land use management systems.

5
The village land use management plan contains the signed contracts between the village and the project, the
action programme and a draft management plan. New working and exchange relations within the community
and between the community and the outside world have been defined. It has been strongly emphasized in the
planning phase that it is up to the villagers to implement what they have planned. The role of the project is to
help the villages during the planning phase and to provide them in due time with the necessary support, such as
training and technical and organizational advice.
At institutional level, an increasing number of governmental and non-governmental agencies are providing
support to project-related activities through specific services that are beyond the capacity and mandate of the
project or the forestry department. These services are delivered for the implementation of microprojects, such as
health centres, functional adult literacy courses, small-scale irrigation or grain mills. These microprojects are
identified and designed in the context of the village action plans promoted by the project. For their
implementation, PREVINOBA assumes the role of catalyst and facilitator, mobilizing its institutional network.
The project has been able to establish close relations with the "Multifunction Centres for Rural Development"
(Centres d'expansion rurale polyvalents), administrative authorities and local representatives. This has had a
positive impact on the use of the participatory planning approach in village land use management.
Interinstitutional coordination and collaboration are extremely useful, if not indispensable, for effective
participatory planning and the mobilization of external support for the village plan implementation. As
demonstrated in PREVINOBA, the establishment and consolidation of interinstitutional collaborative networks
requires the project to provide specific inputs and attention, and to promote this activity systematically. On the
other hand, the resources available from the project and the collaborating institutions are too limited to respond
effectively to the increasing claiming capacity of the target villages. In order to "democratize" the delivery of
external support, some kind of interface is needed between villages and the institutions, such as intervillage
peasant associations. Such associations could also play an important role in ensuring that regional or
departmental resource management planning exercises take the village plans into consideration.
Q.2 What is conflict resolution? Discuss with reference to social forestry and how to manage it?
Conflict, arguments, and change are natural parts of our lives, as well as the lives of every agency, organization,
and nation.
Conflict resolution is a way for two or more parties to find a peaceful solution to a disagreement among them.
The disagreement may be personal, financial, political, or emotional.
When a dispute arises, often the best course of action is negotiation to resolve the disagreement.
The goals of negotiation are:
 To produce a solution that all parties can agree to
 To work as quickly as possible to find this solution
 To improve, not hurt, the relationship between the groups in conflict

6
Conflict resolution through negotiation can be good for all parties involved. Often, each side will get more by
participating in negotiations than they would by walking away, and it can be a way for your group to get
resources that might otherwise be out of reach.
WHY SHO ULD YO U RESO LVE CO N FLICT?
The main goal of negotiation with your opposition is to come to an agreement that benefits all parties.
Some other good reasons to negotiate are:
 To understand more about those whose ideas, beliefs, and backgrounds may be different from your own.
In order to resolve a conflict, you'll need to look at the conflict from your opponent's point of view and
learn more about this person or group's perspective and motivations.
 To ensure that your relationships with opponents continue and grow. If you make peace with your
opponents, you increase your own allies in the community. Successful negotiations pave the way for
smooth relationships in the future.
 To find peaceful solutions to difficult situations. Full-blown battles use up resources -- time, energy,
good reputation, motivation. By negotiating, you avoid wasting these resources, and you may actually
make new allies and find new resources!
WHEN SHO ULD YO U RESO LVE CO N FLICT?
Conflict resolution is appropriate for almost any disagreement. Our daily lives offer plenty of opportunities for
negotiation - between parents and children, co-workers, friends, etc., and as a result, you probably already have
a variety of effective strategies for resolving minor conflicts. But for more serious conflicts, and conflicts
between groups rather than individuals, you may need some additional skills. How, for example, should you
structure a meeting between your group and your opponent? When should you settle, and when should you fight
for more? How should you react if your opponent attacks you personally? Read on for more information on
specific conflict resolution techniques.
HO W SHO ULD YO U RESO LVE CO N FLICT?
There are seven steps to successfully negotiating the resolution of a conflict:
1. Understand the conflict
2. Communicate with the opposition
3. Brainstorm possible resolutions
4. Choose the best resolution
5. Use a third party mediator
6. Explore alternatives
7. Cope with stressful situations and pressure tactics

7
1. UN DERSTAN D THE CO N FLICT
Conflicts arise for a variety of different reasons. It is important for you to define clearly your own position and
interests in the conflict, and to understand those of your opponent. Here are some questions to ask yourself so
that you can better define the conflict.
Interests
 What are my interests?
 What do I really care about in this conflict?
 What do I want?
 What do I need?
 What are my concerns, hopes, fears?
Possible Outcomes
 What kinds of agreements might we reach?
Legitimacy
 What third party, outside of the conflict, might convince one or both of us that a proposed agreement is a
fair one?
 What objective standard might convince us that an agreement is fair? For example: a law, an expert
opinion, the market value of the transaction.
 Is there a precedent that would convince us that an agreement is fair?
Their Interests
 What are the interests of my opposition?
 If I were in their shoes, what would I really care about in this conflict?
 What do they want?
 What do they need?
 What are their concerns, hopes, fears?
Interests play an important role in better understanding conflict. Often, groups waste time "bargaining over
positions." Instead of explaining what the interests of their position are, they argue about their "bottom line."
This is not a useful way to negotiate, because it forces groups to stick to one narrow position. Once they are
entrenched in a particular position, it will be embarrassing for them to abandon it. They may spend more effort
on "saving face" than on actually finding a suitable resolution. It is usually more helpful to explore the group's
interests, and then see what positions suit such interests.
2. CO MMUN ICATE WITH THE O PPO SITIO N
Now that you have thought through your own interests and those of the other party, you can begin to
communicate directly with your opposition. Here are some tips for productive talks:

8
 Listen. Their opinions are important to you, because their opinions are the source of your conflict. If
something is important to them, you need to recognize this. Recognizing does not mean agreeing, of
course!
 Let everyone participate who wants to. People who participate will have a stake in a resolution. They
will want to find a good compromise.
 Talk about your strong emotions. Let the other side let off steam.
 Don't, however, react to emotional outbursts! Try an apology instead of yelling back. Apologizing is not
costly, and is often a rewarding technique.
 Be an active listener. Rephrase what you're hearing as a question: "Let me see if I'm following you.
You're saying that... Have I got that right?" You can still be firm when you're listening.
 Speak about yourself, not the other party. In the textbook example, you might say, "I feel angry to know
that my children are reading this old-fashioned textbook," rather than, "How could you choose such a
racist book?"
 Be concrete, but flexible. Speak about your interests, not about your position.
 Avoid early judgments. Keep asking questions and gathering information.
 Don't tell the opposition, "It's up to you to solve your problems." Work to find a solution for everyone.
 Find a way to make their decision easy. Try to find a way for them to take your position without looking
weak, but don't call it a way for them to "save face." Egos are important in negotiations!
3. BRAIN STO RM PO SSIBLE RESO LUTIO N S
Now that you know what the interests of both parties are, and how to better communicate with the opposition,
you can start thinking about solutions. Look at all of the interests you have listed, for you and for your
opponents, and look for common interests. Often both parties share many interests -- for example, both groups
may want stability and public respect.
Before you hold a brainstorming meeting, think carefully about how you'll set up the meeting. Write a clear
purpose statement for the meeting. Try to choose a small group of 5-8 people total. Hold the meeting in a
different environment from your usual setting. Make sure the setting is an informal one where people feel
comfortable and safe. Find an unbiased facilitator, someone who can structure the meeting without sharing his
or her own feelings about the conflict.
To begin brainstorming, decide whether you want to brainstorm with your opposition, or with only your group.
In either case, you will want to establish some ground rules.
 Work on coming up with as many ideas as possible. Don't judge or criticize the ideas yet -- that might
prevent people from thinking creatively.
 Try to maximize (not minimize) your options.
 Look for win-win solutions, or compromises, in which both parties get something they want.
 Find a way to make their decision easy

9
 During the meeting, seat people side by side, facing the "problem"-- a blank chalkboard or large pad of
paper for writing down ideas. The facilitator will remind people of the purpose of the meeting, review
the ground rules, and ask participants to agree to those rules. During the brainstorming session, the
facilitator will write down all ideas on the chalkboard or pad.
4. CHO O SE THE BEST RESO LUTIO N
After the meeting, you will need to decide which resolution is best. Review your brainstorm ideas. Star the best
ideas - these are what you will work with during the conflict resolution process. Set a time to discuss them and
determine which idea is the best.
The goal here is to use both groups' skills and resources to get the best result for everyone. Which resolution
gives both groups the most? That resolution is probably the best one.
5. USE A THIRD PARTY MEDIATO R
As you are brainstorming and choosing a good resolution, you may want to use a third party mediator. This is a
person who is not from your group or your opponent's group, but whom you both trust to be fair. Your mediator
can help both sides agree upon a standard by which you'll judge your resolution. Standards are a way to
measure your agreement. They include expert opinions, law, precedent (the way things have been done in the
past), and accepted principles.
Your mediator could also, for example, run your brainstorming session.
Here are some other possible jobs for a mediator:
 Setting ground rules for you and your opponent to agree upon (for example, you might both agree not to
publicly discuss the dispute)
 Creating an appropriate setting for meetings
 Suggesting possible ways to compromise
 Being an "ear" for both side's anger and fear
 Listening to both sides and explaining their positions to one another
 Finding the interests behind each side's positions
 Looking for win-win alternatives
 Keeping both parties focused, reasonable, and respectful
 Preventing any party from feeling that it's "losing face"
 Writing the draft of your agreement with the opposition
6. EXPLO RE ALTERN ATIV ES
There may be times when, despite your hard work and good will, you cannot find an acceptable resolution to
your conflict. You need to think about this possibility before you begin negotiations. At what point will you
decide to walk away from negotiations? What are your alternatives if you cannot reach an agreement with your
opponent?

10
It is important that you brainstorm your alternatives to resolution early on in the negotiation process, and that
you always have your best alternative somewhere in the back of your mind. As you consider possible
agreements with your opponent, compare them to this "best" alternative. If you don't know what the alternative
is, you'll be negotiating without all the necessary information!
In order to come up with an alternative, start by brainstorming. Then, consider the pros and cons of each
alternative. Think about which alternative is realistic and practical. Also think about how you can make it even
better.
At the same time, don't forget to put yourself in the shoes of your opposition. What alternatives might they
have? Why might they choose them? What can you do to make your choice better than their alternative?
Roger Fisher and Danny Ertel call this alternative your BATNA -- Best Alternative To a Negotiated Agreement.
You can read more about BATNA in their book Getting Ready to Negotiate.
7. CO PE WITH STRESSF UL SITUATIO N S AN D PRESSURE
TACTICS
So far, we've talked about how to negotiate with a fairly reasonable opponent. However, you need to be
prepared to negotiate with all kinds of opponents, both reasonable and unreasonable. What if your opponent is
more powerful and influential that you are? What if they refuse to meet or talk with you?
All of these situations are stressful, and intended to put extra pressure on you to make a quick decision in the
opposition's favor. When a situation like this takes place, stay calm and go slow. Don't get angry or make a
rushed decision. Instead, talk about the pressure tactic without judging.
Q.3 Social forestry is the primary source of uplifting rural livelihood; give reasons to justify your
comments..
Forests provide a wide range of economic and social benefits to humankind. These include contributions to the
overall economy – for example through employment, processing and trade of forest products and energy – and
investments in the forest sector. They also include the hosting and protection of sites and landscapes of high
cultural, spiritual or recreational value. Maintaining and enhancing these functions is an integral part of
sustainable forest management.
Information on the status of and trends in socio-economic benefits is thus essential in evaluating progress
towards sustainable forest management, together with the more usual statistics on the predominantly
environmental values considered under the other themes.
Economic benefits are usually measured in monetary terms and may include: income from employment in the
sector; the value of the production of goods and services from forests; and the contribution of the sector to the
national economy, energy supplies and international trade. In addition, the economic viability or sustainability
of the sector can be assessed by measures such as the profitability of forest enterprises or the level of
investment.

11
The social functions of forests are often more difficult to measure and can vary considerably among countries,
depending on their level of development and traditions. For example, in developed, post-industrial societies, the
benefits of forests for recreation and amenity values or the maintenance of a rural way of life may be most
important, while in developing countries, the area of forests available for subsistence activities or the number of
people employed in the sector may be a better indication of their social value. Given the difficulties of
measuring the social benefits of forests, social functions are often measured in terms of inputs rather than
outputs (e.g. the area or proportion of forests used to provide various social functions).
All the international processes on criteria and indicators include a section on the monitoring and assessment of
socio-economic functions or benefits of the forestry sector. A wide variety of variables may be measured:
production and consumption; recreation and tourism; funding and investment in the forest sector; cultural,
social and spiritual needs and values; forestry employment; health and safety; and community needs.
In FRA 2005, countries provided information on four measures of socio-economic functions:
o Value of wood and non-wood forest product removals. FRA 2005 examines the production of primary
products, excluding the benefits of downstream processing.
o Employment in forestry. Figures refer to employment in forestry activities rather than employment in
the whole forestry sector (i.e. they exclude employment in processing of wood and non-wood forest products)
and they only include formal employment. Countries were asked to provide information for 1990 and 2000
only. No forecasting to 2005 was done.
o Ownership of forest and other wooded land. Three classes of ownership were used: public, private and
other. Countries were asked to provide information for 1990 and 2000 only. No forecasting to 2005 was done.
o Areas of forest designated for social services. Two measures were included: area of forest for which the
provision of social services was designated as the primary function and total area of forest for which
recreation, education and other social services were designated as one of the functions.
In general, the measures presented in FRA 2005 are more restrictive than those proposed in some international
criteria and indicators processes because they refer to benefits from forests only (rather than benefits from the
whole forestry sector, which include downstream processing). No information was requested from countries on
socio-economic indicators related to health and safety, funding, investment, recycling and contribution to
energy supplies, owing to a lack of information on these aspects in many countries.
In general, the availability of information was highest for the area of forest designated for different functions
and ownership of forests and lowest for the value of NWFP removals (Figure 7.1). In addition, the quality of
information reported on the value of outputs (removals of wood and non-wood forest products) was quite weak
in several respects (e.g. incompatible definitions and measurement units, partial responses from some countries,
and statistics that contradict other sources or seem otherwise implausible).
The reported value of wood removals in Europe has increased slightly, showing a slight drop from 1990 to 2000
and then an increase. These changes probably reflect market liberalization in the formerly centrally planned

12
economies of eastern Europe. A significant fall in production levels occurred in the early 1990s in Europe,
followed by rapid growth in the latter part of the decade. The figures shown above do not capture all the
profound changes that have occurred in Europe over the last 15 years (UNECE, 2005), but they do indicate that
the value of removals is now higher than at the start of these changes.
In the other three regions (Africa, North and Central America and Oceania), the reported value of wood
removals has roughly doubled. In Africa and Oceania this is due, to some extent, to increases in the level of
removals. In addition, in all three regions, it seems likely that this has been supported by an increase in unit
prices over the period. In contrast to the other regions, it is also likely that the reported value of removals has
increased in real terms (i.e. after adjusting for inflation).
In terms of the substance of these figures, the most interesting feature is the trend in the reported value of wood
removals shown in Brazil, as production shifted from natural forests to forest plantations. Given the current and
projected trends in wood supply, it can be expected that more countries will display such a trend in the future.
This trend also highlights a final problem with these figures: they are an indication of the gross rather than the
net value of output (or value-added). A decline in the value of removals (as shown in Brazil) may not
necessarily indicate that the economic sustainability of forestry has declined. Rather, it could indicate that the
sector has become more cost-efficient. In such cases, it is quite possible that gross value is declining while
value-added (and hence economic viability) is increasing. In the future, it would be useful to include statistics
for value-added for the whole sector, including processing, rather than only for the value of removals. These
statistics would give a better indication of economic sustainability. They are found in national income accounts
and can often be obtained relatively easily (Lebedys, 2004).
Q.4 Discuss the benefits of planting forest trees as an intercropping with seasonal crops. Describe the
role of forest departments in strengthening social forestry projects to uplift rural economy.
There is increasing awareness globally and in low forest cover countries (LFCCs), in particular of the need to
integrate planted trees and forests in holistic, landscape approaches that focus on environmental services and
biodiversity benefits, that also meet peoples’ short- and long-term needs. Combined with increased availability
of new technologies and knowledge available in country and through international networks, this means there
are opportunities to establish sound extension and technical support systems. However, landscape restoration
goes beyond the forestry sector alone, and requires Governments of LFCCs to integrate forestry initiatives into
multi-disciplinary, inter-sectoral policy and planning mechanisms to address sustainable livelihoods.
Based on the case studies and the recommendations from the workshops, the following landscape restoration
issues apply to a greater or lesser extent to all LFCCs in the Near East and Africa. These issues are repeated
through the Tehran Process, the Case Studies and the Workshops, and therefore need urgent consideration in the
development of action plans, strategies and implementation for the future:
 Strong government policies, strategies and institutions are required, in addition to a decentralized
approach, and need to be supported by motivated and knowledgeable staff. Ongoing reviews of legal,

13
planning and policy frameworks will allow for the incorporation of new concepts and approaches in
landscape restoration;
 Inter-sectoral and inter-disciplinary approaches are necessary to address landscape restoration solutions
to the problems of forest loss and environmental degradation. These should not be solely forestry driven,
but receive input from all sectors involved in natural resource management;
 Foresters and the forestry sector have been somewhat marginalized in the past and need to be
mainstreamed in inter-sectoral approaches to landscape restoration;
 Participatory processes are essential. Government officials and other groups need to work with local
people, to learn from their traditional knowledge, to help meet their needs and to focus on integrated
landscape management;
 Land tenure. Communities need to have secure land tenure in order to have confidence in their benefits
from planting and managing trees;
 Many LFCCs need better information on the status of their resources. Sound planning, management and
monitoring require valid and up to date data whether on forest and tree resources, social or
environmental issues. Assessment and monitoring need to be ongoing;
 Networks for access to new technologies, information exchange and communication are vital, whether
national, regional or international;
 Application of new technologies into planted tree and forest development, including improvements in
water management efficiency, genetic resources and tree improvement practices, are necessary;
 Financial costs, user pays, provision of low interest loans for afforestation. Managers, policy makers and
stakeholders all need to be made aware of the long-term benefits and eventual returns, if they are to be
prepared to invest in forests and trees in the landscape;
 Awareness raising and capacity building of stakeholders. Through environmental education programmes
in schools and communities, it is possible to change attitudes to land-use management to ones of
sustainable landscape restoration and environmental management;
 Integration of scientific with traditional knowledge is a relatively new concept, that needs to be more
fully accepted;
 In many countries, the value of trees outside forests, although recognized legally, have not been fully
quantified in terms of wood, non-wood forest products (NWFPs), diversifying the landscape and
providing other services; and
 Support to the Tehran Process, which in turn can provide an enabling environment for the establishment
of a full LFCC Secretariat as a body that can lead, liaise, coordinate and inform for and on behalf of the
LFCCs in rehabilitation of degraded lands and forest landscape restoration.
In support to the Tehran Process to address key issues identified in the Tehran expert meeting, FAO, co-
sponsored by the Netherlands and collaborating Government partners, prepared case studies to assess forests

14
and tree resources and evaluate the role of planted forests, trees outside forests (including urban and peri-urban
forests) in forest landscape restoration under a range of environmental, socio-political and economic conditions
in low forest cover countries. Six countries were selected (Ethiopia, the Islamic Republic of Iran, Mali,
Namibia, Sultanate of Oman and Tunisia) to host the case studies and to provide inputs to two regional
workshops: in Tehran, October, 2002 for the Near East countries; and in Nairobi, December 2002 for the
African countries. (Carle et al., 2003)
The purpose of the two regional workshops, based upon the Tehran Process recommendations, through the
LFCC case studies, was to share lessons learned and translate recommendations into achievable strategies and
actions, for incorporation into national forest programmes and preparation of proposals to donors, including
follow-on support through the FAO-Netherlands Partnership Programme (FNPP). A third event included an
Africa–Near East Workshop on Sustainable Urban and Peri-Urban Forestry and Green Spaces Development,
held in Tehran, in July 2003.
A fourth workshop was held in Bamako, Mali, in January 2004, with the aim of translating the proposed actions
into implementation. The objectives of the workshop were to:
 Evaluate the lessons learned from the LFCCs case studies and proposed actions from previous
workshops;
 Translate the proposed actions into realistic programmes for sustainable forest and range resources
management and the implementation of the Tehran Process in LFCCs.
This document summarizes the recommendations and resolutions of the Tehran Process, the case studies and the
workshops. It then synthesizes and evaluates the recommendations and resolutions from the combined case
studies and workshop proceedings, along with outcomes from the Bamako workshop, the Urban and Peri-urban
Forests and Green Spaces Workshop for low forest cover countries (Tehran, July 2003) and the Strategic
Framework for LFCC (2004), into some strategic and priority actions to move forward.
Preamble
The specific set of issues and challenges facing LFCCs are unique to each country. The institutional, economic,
ecological and social frameworks of each country are sufficiently different to require that unique sets of national
plans and solutions be developed in each instance. Many features that contribute to low forest cover are,
however, common to many countries. It is therefore possible to compile a generic list of key issues relating to
planning and investment, and to group together challenges common to particular regions. (Tehran Process,
1999)
Low Forest Cover Countries (LFCCs) have special needs and requirements. These can be addressed by adopting
important strategic proposals for action and rendering practical approaches for the consideration of the decision
makers, for eventual use in compiling and drawing up National Action Programmes of the countries, as well as
at regional and international level and in global forestry agreements. (Tehran Process, 1999)

15
LFCC definition
According to FAO’s Forest Resources Assessment 2000 (FRA 2000)1, there are 56 low forest cover
countries2 found primarily in arid and semi-arid zones of Africa and the Near East/Asia. They encompass 2.726
billion hectares of land and have 105 million hectares of global forest areas (3.9 % of forest cover), 10 million
hectares of planted forests (9.8 % of the forest area), and a population of 900 million, of which 64% live in
Asia. (Carle et al., 2003)
People of developing countries facing desertification and severe land degradation, particularly in arid and semi-
arid areas, can experience extreme food insecurity and abject poverty. In most countries, their relationships with
forests and trees are inseparably interlinked and inter-dependent. Poor people recognize that forests and trees
protect soil, water and biological diversity, provide shelter and shade for their villages as well as havens for
cultural customs and help to combat desertification. In order to meet their basic needs for food, fuel-wood,
fodder, medicine and construction materials, from the meagre resources available, they adopt survival attitudes,
overexploit forests and rangelands, and provoke alarming rates of deforestation and forest degradation, which
further erode their livelihoods. (Carle et al., 2003)
Traditional sustainable forest management principles and practices are effective at enhancing the quality of life
and livelihoods of rural people, however they can be difficult to apply in circumstances where people struggle
to survive at very basic subsistence levels. But it is possible to enhance the role of planted forests and trees
outside forests (including agroforestry) to better meet the needs of poor people and relieve some of the
pressures on natural forests and rangelands. (Carle et al., 2003)
Tehran Process
The Tehran Process launched at the international expert meeting on ¨Special Needs and Requirements of
Developing Countries with Low Forest Cover and Unique Types of Forest3, hosted by the Government of the
Islamic Republic of Iran, Tehran, October 1999, recognized the uniqueness of the issues and needs for
sustainable forest management in low forest cover countries. A Secretariat was established in Tehran to support
the process and to champion the cause of low forest cover country issues in international processes (UNCBD,
UNFCCC, UNCCD, UNFF) and provide support services to member countries. (Carle et al., 2003)
It was recognized that planted forests, trees outside forests, urban and peri-urban forests and agroforestry
provided benefits and services, such as:
 Rehabilitation of degraded lands, enhancement of biodiversity conservation, protection of soil and water
values, improvement of agricultural production through maintenance of soil fertility and diversification
of the landscape;
 Improvement and diversification of revenues in the fight against poverty and food insecurity through the
utilization of wood and non-wood forest products;
 Sustainable supply of wood and non-wood forest products for subsistence and industrial uses; and

16
 Improvement of quality of life through shelter, shade, beautification and absorbing pollutants and
sequestering carbon. (Carle et al., 2003)
The meeting of LFCCs in Tehran, Iran, in 1999, emphasized the need for concerted action, government
commitment and collaboration among countries with similar problems. The declaration that established the
Tehran Process called for increased investment from within the region, the donor community and from
international agencies. It also suggested that non-governmental organizations (NGOs), the private sector,
research and training institutions and the rural poor could play a positive role, especially at the local level. The
Tehran Process has potential to make a real difference in the future, particularly if efforts are geared to national
forestry planning, forest management and planting programmes aimed at increasing forest cover, diversifying
the landscape and meeting the needs of rural people. (Carle et al., 2003)
The Tehran Process concluded that:
 Existing legislative, policy and institutional frameworks have failed to adapt to meet increased demand
for forest goods and services in LFCCs;
 The quantity and quality of forest resources need to be measured and recorded more effectively;
 There is a need to adopt participatory processes with communities, rural families and NGOs, to
equitably share benefits, adopt rural development programmes, decentralize administration; conduct and
apply relevant ecological and social research; and derive sound criteria and indicators for sustainable
forest management;
 There is an urgent need to develop successful development programmes for regeneration, afforestation
and reforestation in LFCCs in order to increase forest cover, restore landscapes and meet their diverse
forest products needs, particularly in wood energy;
 Removal of energy price distortions through subsidies, the reconciliation of potentially conflicting
sectoral policies (agricultural sector, marketing and market development and the provision of
information related to technology improvements) is necessary; and
 High-level political priority and support to apply modern technology and environmentally sound
practices (including criteria and indicators) are necessary to achieve sustainable forest management.
(Forestry Component)
LFCCs recognized that the main policy, strategic planning and institutional issues require inter-sectoral and
multi-disciplinary approaches to landscape restoration in order to address:
 Severe poverty alleviation;
 Advancing desertification;
 Pressures of urban and peri-urban development;
 Balance between economic and environmental sustainability;
 Secure rights to land, land-use and crop ownership;
 Greater participatory planning with communities, rural people and NGOs;

17
 Response to market signals and market economy. (Forestry Component)
The main constraints related to sustainable forest management reported at the Tehran Process are important,
because they form the basis of most of the issues surrounding past failure of LFCCs to achieve successful
landscape restoration. Therefore, these constraints must be overcome for any strategic way forward to be
successful. They included:
 Lack of knowledge on the extent of forest resources and true value economic, environmental, social and
cultural importance of these ecosystems for the well being of poor rural people;
 Lack of legislative, policy and strategic planning framework, the institutional structures and capacity
and capability (technical and financial) to manage natural and planted resources in a sustainable way;
and
 Lack of local participation in planning and decision-making, settling land tenure questions, in the
improvement of rural infrastructure and improving the status of rural communities. (Forestry
Component)
Recommendations relating to the achievement of landscape restoration and sustainable forest management
included:
 Collection, analysis, and dissemination of forest resource information for planning, management and
monitoring;
 Development of criteria and indicators for sustainable forest management benefiting from the existing
processes, particularly Dry-zone Africa and the Near East;
 Conduct joint research projects on issues affecting LFCCs, particularly the development of models for
management and rehabilitation of natural forests and woodlands;
 Greater participation of stakeholders (communities, rural families and NGOs) to take into account
broader perspectives in forestry planning, implementation and monitoring;
 Greater emphasis on food security and non-wood forest products in the rural community, including
provision of fuelwood and fodder;
 Greater account of the role of forests in carbon sequestration;
 Review institutional structures and strengthen capacities to address the newly defined priority needs of
stakeholders;
 Secure international support to facilitate sustainable forest management;
 Direct increased resources and priority to reforestation, regeneration, afforestation and restoration of
degraded lands in LFCCs;
 Match species/provenance with site and incorporate indigenous species whenever possible; and
 Promote renewable energy programmes based on wood. (Forestry Component)
Q.5 Write in detail the constraints in social forestry and how to minimize them.

18
Social forestry refers to the management of forests for the benefits of local communities. It includes aspects
such as forest management, forest protection, and afforestation of deforested lands with the objective of
improving the rural, environmental, and social development. Unlike other forestry projects, in the setting of
social forestry, the needs of local communities come first.
For this reason, the main goal of social forestry is to grow trees and plantations to meet the growing needs of
people in reference to increased demand for timber, wood, food, fuel, and food to reduce the pressure and
dependency on traditional forest areas.
The practice also aims to protect agriculture from adverse climatic conditions by improving the environment,
increase the natural beauty, and increasing the supply of forest produce for local use.
1. Increased Biodiversity
Growing of trees in barren lands within the community helps to increase biodiversity value. As trees grow
larger, the nature of the habitat will change. Well managed forests encourage biodiversity as they offer
habitation for various animals, plants, shrubs, insects, and birds among others. In nature, wherever there are
trees, other plants and wildlife follow.
In social forestry, trees and associated plants become the source of food and shelter for a variety of small
animals and birds. Furthermore, mature trees create an environment that encourages the growth of other
plants that would otherwise not be existent thereby increasing food varieties for animals and the local people.
2. Carbon removal – trees act as carbon sinks!
In the fight against the global warming effect, trees play an essential role in the removal of carbon from the
environment. Trees use carbon dioxide when growing and thus, removing it from the environment. Social
forestry is seen as the best way to reduce carbon dioxide in urban settings. Trees’ energy-saving effect also
indirectly lowers carbon dioxide emissions by reducing the demand for power. It is estimated that planting of
100 million trees would help save 22 billion kilowatt-hours and about 33 million tons of carbon dioxide
annually after ten years according to a 1990 study by Akbari and others. However, it is worth noting that the
actual amount of carbon dioxide removed from the air depends on the types of trees and vegetation in the forest.
On its own, a mature Bradford pear can store up to 306 kg of carbon dioxide in its aboveground biomass. Trees
help to reduce carbon dioxide by acting as a carbon dioxide sink and by reducing energy use. Neighborhoods
well covered with trees can be up to 6 to 10 degrees cooler than areas without tree cover.
3. Soil conservation
Another critical benefit of social forestry is soil conservation. Communities that embrace social forestry enjoy
significant benefits in terms of improved agricultural activities. Tree roots prevent soil erosion by holding
soil in place, mitigating the negative effects of soil erosion. In a medium-sized city, planting trees in parks and
along paths and roads can help save up to 10. 886 tons of soil annually. It is also worth noting that trees reduce
soil erosion by reducing the impact of raindrops on barren surfaces. Decaying tree leaves also help form an
organic layer on the ground that makes the soil rich while also allowing water to percolate into the soil,

19
reducing the likeliness of runoff and soil erosion. They also act as mulch reducing evaporation. Roots also
reduce soil compaction, increasing the rate at which rainfall infiltrates soil as well as the capacity of soil to store
water, reducing the likeliness of overland flow.
4. Health benefits
The effects of trees and nature on human health are well researched. Trees and nature are natural remedies for
stress and anxiety. When people are stressed, they usually take a walk in the parks and other nature trails for the
calming effect. Therefore, bringing trees to human habitats can contribute to better health and improved general
wellbeing. It is also becoming common to find hospitals growing trees due to the healing effect of trees. Studies
have shown that hospital patients with a view of trees outside their windows can help them recover faster and
with fewer complications. Trees also absorb tailpipe pollutants that can have a negative effect on people’s
health such as carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxides, volatile organic compounds, and particulate matter.
Traditionally, trees and forests have been a source of medicinal value for communities around the forest.
5. Community enrichment
Trees make the neighborhood more attractive and more serene. An area with an abundance of trees is more
likely to attract newcomers than an area without trees.
Furthermore, properties in an area with an abundance of trees are more valuable than the same properties in an
area without trees. Trees create shade that helps improve the longevity of outdoor furniture and even pavement.
Studies have shown that providing 20 percent shade can help improve the condition of your pavement by up to
11 percent resulting in up to 60 percent savings in resurfacing costs. It is also worth noting recreational areas
that are well stocked with trees can help keep the community together at home.

2509-2.doc

Recommended

Recommended

More Related Content

Similar to 2509-2.doc

Similar to 2509-2.doc (20)

More from Noaman Akbar

More from Noaman Akbar (20)

Recently uploaded

Recently uploaded (20)

2509-2.doc