Pharmacognosy- Carminatives and GI regulators part II

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Synopsis Drug name Synonyms Biological Source Family Chemical Constituents Uses

CHAPTER – V CARMINATIVES AND GI REGULATORS
M.NITHYA B.PHARM, LECTURER, ECOP. 1
CARMINATIVES AND GI REGULATORS
Drug name Synonyms Biological Source Family Chemical
Constituents
Uses
Black Pepper
Alkaloids
&
Volatile oil
Pepper
Piper nigrum
Maricha
Pepper is the dried
unripe fruit of
perennial climbing
vine Piper nigrum
Piperaceae Piperine(Alkaloid)
Piperidine
Resin
Starch
1. Aromatic
2. Carminative
3. Stimulant
4. Stomachic

CHAPTER – V CARMINATIVES AND GI REGULATORS
M.NITHYA B.PHARM, LECTURER, ECOP. 2
Drug name Synonyms Biological Source Family Chemical Constituents Uses
Asafoetida
Resin
Gum
Volatile oil
Devil’s dung Asafoetida is the oleo-
gum resin obtained by
incision from the
Rhizomes and roots of
Ferula foetida
Umbelliferae 1. Asaresinotannol
2. Ferulic acid + Hcl
Umbellic acid
Losses water
Umbelliferone
3. Oleo-gum resin
1. Carminative
2. Nervine Stimulant
3. Intestinal
Flatulence
4. Flavouring agent
5. Veterinary
medicine

CHAPTER – V CARMINATIVES AND GI REGULATORS
M.NITHYA B.PHARM, LECTURER, ECOP. 3
Drug name Synonyms Biological Source Family Chemical Constituents Uses
Nutmeg
Volatile oil
Fixed oil
Myristica Nutmeg consists of dried
kernels seeds of
Myristica fragrans
Myristicaceae Myristicin
Saffrole
Elimicin
Palmitic acid
Oleic acid
Lauric acid
Protein
Starch
1. Aromatic
2. Stimulant
3. Carminative
4. Flavouring
agent
5. Treatment of
Rheumatism

CHAPTER – V CARMINATIVES AND GI REGULATORS
M.NITHYA B.PHARM, LECTURER, ECOP. 4
Drug name Synonyms Biological Source Family Chemical
Constituents
Uses
Cinnamon
Volatile oil
&
Tannins
Ceylon cinnamon It consists of the dried
inner bark of the
shoots of coppiced
trees of Cinnamomum
zeylanicum
Lauraceae Cinnamaldehyde
Eugenol
Benzaldehyde
Cuminaldehyde
1. Carminative
2. Stomachic
3. Mild astringent
4. Flavouring agent
5. Stimulant
6. Aromatic
7. Antiseptic
8. Dentrifices

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DEFINITION: Cell is a structural and functional unit of all living organisms. STRUCTURE OF THE CELL: PARTS OF THE CELL  Plasma Membrane  Cytoplasm a. Cytosol b. Organelles  Cytoskeleton  Endoplasmic Reticulum  Golgi Apparatus  Lysosome  Centrosome  Nucleus  Mitochondria PLASMA MEMBRANE Structure of Plasma Membrane  The Cell membrane also known as the Plasma membrane.  It is a Biological Membrane that separates the interior of all cells from the outside environment.  It consists of a lipid bilayer with embedded proteins.  The Lipid layer made up of three types of lipid molecules such as Phospholipids, Cholesterols and Glycolipids.  The bilayer arrangement occurs because the lipid are amphipathic molecule (Both Polar and Nonpolar parts)  Phospholipids – Phosphate (Polar) – Head – Hydrophilic Lipid (Non Polar) – Tail – Hydrophobic  Cholesterols – Slightly Amphipathic  Glycolipids – Carbohydrate (Polar) – Head Lipid (Non Polar) – Tail Functions of Plasma Membrane:  Acts as a barrier separating inside and outside of the cell.  Controls the flow of substances into and out of the cell.  Helps identify the cell to other cells (e.g., immune cells).  Participates in intercellular signalling. CYTOPLASM  Cytoplasm consists of all the cellular contents between the plasma membrane and the nucleus and has two components. a) Cytosol b) Organelles a) Cytosol: (pH - 7)  The Cytosol (Intracellular fluid) is the fluid portion of the cytoplasm that surrounds organelles.  Cytosol is 75 – 90% of water plus various dissolved and suspended components.  Among these are different types of ions, glucose, amino acid, fatty acid, protein, lipid, ATP and waste products.  The cytosol is the site of many Chemical reactions for a cell existence. b) Organelles  Cytoskeleton  Endoplasmic Reticulum  Golgi Apparatus  Lysosome  Centrosome  Nucleus  Mitochondria CYTOSKELETON:  The cytoskeleton is a network of protein filaments.  It Consists of three types of filament proteins 1. Microfilament 2. Intermediate filament 3. Microtubules 1. Microfilament  Microfilaments are the thinnest elements of the cytoskeleton.  Diameter – 6nm  They are composed of protein Actin and Myosin.  Most Prevalent at the edge of a cell. Functions of Microfilament:  They help generate movement and provide mechanical support.  Microfilaments are involved in muscle contraction, cell division and cell locomotion.  The Mechanical support that is responsible for the basic strength and shape of cells. 2. Intermediate filaments  Several different proteins such as keratin, collagen can compose intermediate filament.  Diameter – 10 nm Functions of Intermediate filaments:  They help stabilize the position of organelles such as the nucleus. 3. Microtubules  Largest cytoskeletal components.  Diameter – 25 nm  Unbranched hollow tubes composed mainly of the protein tubulin. Functions of Microtubules  Microtubules help determine Cell shape.

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INTRODUCTION TO DOSAGE FORMS DRUG (Active Pharmaceutical Ingredients)  It is the single active chemical molecule present in a medicine that is used for diagnosis, prevention, treatment and cure of disease in human or animals. EXCIPIENTS OR ADDITIVIES:  Pharmaceutical excipients are substances other than the active pharmaceutical ingredients (API). DOSE:  A quantity of a medicine. DOSAGE FORM: DRUG (API) + EXCIPIENTS DOSAGE FORM  Drugs are converted into suitable formulation is called dosage form. SOLID DOSAGE FORMS Unit solid dosage form:  Tablets  Capsules  Pills  Pastilles  Lozenges  Cachets  Powders Bulk powder Bulk powder meant for internal use  Granules  Fine powder Bulk powder meant for external use  Dusting powder  Insufflations  Snuff  Toothpowder LIQUID DOSAGE FORMS  Monophasic liquid dosage form  Biphasic liquid dosage form. Monophasic liquid dosage form Internal:  Mixture  Syrup  Elixir  Linctus External:  Application on the skin  Lotion  Liniment  Used in the mouth  Mouthwash,  Gargles,  Throat paint  Instilled into body cavities  Douches  Ear drop  Nasal drop  Nasal spray Biphasic liquid dosage form  Emulsion  Suspension SEMI SOLID DOSAGE FORM External:  Ointments  Creams  Pastes  Jellies Internal  Suppositories  Pessaries STERILE DOSAGE FORM  Injections  Infusions  Ophthalmic GASEOUS DOSAGE FORM  Aerosols  Inhalation

INTRODUCTION TO DOSAGE FORMS

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SOURCES OF ERROR IN PRESCRIPTION 1. Abbreviation 2. Name of the drug 3. Strength of the preparation 4. Dosage form of the drug prescribed 5. Dose 6. Instructions for the patient 7. Incompatibilities 1. ABBREVIATION  Abbreviation presents a problem in understanding parts of prescription order.  Extreme care should be taken by a pharmacist in interpreting the abbreviation.  Pharmacist should not guess at the meaning of an ambiguous abbreviation. E.g: Dispense Achromycin for “Achro” may cause difficulty when a intention of the prescriber is to dispense Achrostatin. 2. NAME OF THE DRUG  There are certain drugs whose name look or sound like those of other drugs. E.g: Digitoxin Digoxin Prednisone Prednisolone 3. STRENGTH OF THE PREPARATION  The strength of preparation should be stated by prescriber.  It is essential when various strengths of a product are available in the market. E.g: It will be a wrong decision on the part of pharmacist to dispense paracetamol tablet 500 mg when prescription for paracetamol tablet is received with no specific strength. 4. DOSAGE FORM OF THE DRUG PRESCRIBED  Many medicines are available in more than one dosage form. E.g: Liquid, Tablet, Capsule and Suppository.  The pharmaceutical form of the product should be written on the prescription in order to avoid ambiguity. 5. DOSE  Unusually high or low doses should be discussed with the prescriber.  Paediatric dosage may present a problem. So pharmacist should consult paediatric posology to avoid any error.  Sometimes a reasonable dose is administered too frequently. E.g: A prescription for sustained release formulation to be administered after every 4 hours should thoroughly check because such dosage forms are usually administered only two or three times a day. 6. INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE PATIENT  The instructions for the patient which are given in the prescription are incomplete or omitted.  The quantity of the drug to be taken, the frequently and timing of administration and route of administration should clearly give in the prescription so as to avoid confusion. 7. INCOMPATIBILITIES  It is essential to check that there are no pharmaceutical or therapeutic incompatibilities in a prescribed preparation and that different medicines prescribed for the same patient do not interact with each other to produce any harm to the patient.  Certain antibiotics should not be given with meals since it significantly decrease the absorption of the drug.

SOURCES OF ERROR IN PRESCRIPTION

SOURCES OF ERROR IN PRESCRIPTION

SOURCES OF ERROR IN PRESCRIPTION

HANDLING OF PRESCRIPTION The following procedure should be adopted by the pharmacist while handling of prescription for compounding and dispensing. 1) Receiving 2) Reading and checking 3) Collecting and weighing the materials 4) Compounding, labeling and packaging 1) RECEIVING:  The prescription should be received from patient by the pharmacist himself.  While receiving a prescription, a pharmacist should not change his facial expression which gives an impression to the patient that he is confused after seeing the prescription. 2) READING AND CHECKING:  On receiving a prescription, always check it that it is written in a proper format i.e. doctor’s pad or OPD slip (Out Patient Department) of the hospital/nursing home and signed by the prescriber along with date.  A prescription should be always being screened behind the counter.  In case of any difficulty in reading or any doubt regarding the prescription ingredients or directions, the pharmacist should consult the other pharmacist or the prescriber.  But under no circumstance patient should come to know about it. Pharmacist should never guess about the meaning of any illegal or confused word. It may lead to serious consequences.  Sometimes prescription is received on telephone by senior pharmacist.  In such case, after taking down the prescription, it should be verified by repeating it on phone to the prescriber.  It is very important because nowadays, the number of drugs with almost the same pronunciation and spelling are available in the market. For example:- Acidin (R) Apidin(R) Prednisone Prednisolone Digoxin Digitoxin  If there is any omission of any important particulars, such as the dose, the prescriber should be contacted. 3) COLLECTING AND WEIGHING THE MATERIALS:  Before compounding the prescription, all the materials required for it, should be collected on the left hand side of the balance.  After weighing the material it should be shifted to right hand side of the balance.  This gives a check of ingredients which have been weighted. While compounding, the label of every stock bottle should be read at least three times in order to avoid any error:- a) When taken from the self or drawer. b) When the contents are removed for weighing and measuring. c) When the containers are returned back to its proper place. 4) COMPOUNDING, LABELLING AND PACKAGING:  Compounding should be carried out in a neat place. All the equipment etc. required should be thoroughly cleaned and dried.  Only one prescription should be compounded at one time.  All the ingredients should be according to pharmaceutical art.  The compounded medicaments should be filled in suitable containers depending on its use.  The filled containers suitably labelled.  White plain paper of good quality should be used for labeling the containers.  The size of the label should be proportional to the size of the container. This is written or typed, giving all the desired information.

HANDLING OF PRESCRIPTION

HANDLING OF PRESCRIPTION

HANDLING OF PRESCRIPTION

PRESCRIPTION DEFINITION:  Prescription is a written order from a registered medical practitioner or other properly licensed practitioners such as dentist, veterinarian etc.  To a pharmacist to compound and dispense a specific medication for the patient.  The prescriptions are generally written in the English language but Latin words or abbreviations are frequently used in order to save time. PARTS OF PRESCRIPTION: Prescriptions are gentrally written on a typical format which is usually kept as pads. 1. Date. 2. Name, age, sex and address of the patient. 3. Superscription. 4. Inscription. 5. Subscription. 6. Signatura. 7. Renewal instructions. 8. Signature, Address and Registration number of the prescriber. 1) DATE:  It helps a pharmacist to find out the date of prescribing and date of presentation for filling the prescription. 2) NAME, AGE, SEX AND ADDRESS OF THE PATIENT:  Name, age, address of the patient must be written in the prescription because it serves to identify the prescription. In case, if any of these information is missing in the prescription, the same may be included by the pharmacist after proper enquiry from the patient.  Age and sex of the patient, especially in case of children, help the pharmacist to check the prescribed dose of medication. 3) SUPERSCRIPTION:  It is represented by a symbol Which is written before writing the prescription. is an abbrevation of the latin word receipe, meaning ‘You take’ (take thou). In olden days,the symbol was considered from the sign of jupiter, God of healing. 4) INSCRIPTION:  This is the main part of the prescription order, contains the names and quantities of the prescribed ingredients.  The names of ingredients are generally written in English language but common abbreviation used can written both in English and Latin languages. The medicament may be prescribed as an official preparation, a proprietary product, a nonproprietary product (Generic), not official or a specific or individual formula.  In case of special or individual formula, the quantity of each ingredient will be stated together with a description of the type of the preparation, e.g: cream, mixture, lotion etc.  The name of each ingredient is written on a separate line along with its quantity. 5) SUBSCRIPTION:  This comprises direction to the pharmacist for preparing and number of doses to be dispensed. 6) SIGNATURA:  This consists of the direction to be given to the patient regarding the administration of the drug.  It is usually written as ‘sig’ on the prescription.  The instructions given in prescription are required to be transferred to the label of the container in which the medicament is to be dispensed, so that the patient can follow it. RENEWAL INSTRUCTIONS:  The prescriber indicate on every prescription order, whether it may be renewed and if so, how many times.  It is very important particularly in the prescription containing the narcotic and habit form

PARTS OF PRESCRIPTION

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Nervous system Introduction Definition Examples Nervous System:  The network of nerve cells and fibres which transmits nerve impulses between parts of the body.  Central Nervous System (CNS) and Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) together make up the nervous system.  The Central Nervous System consists of the Brain and Spinal cord.  The Peripheral Nervous System further divides into Two types,  Somatic Nervous System (SNS) – Regulating sensation and motor control of skeletal muscle  Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) – Regulating involuntary functions such as heart rate and gut motility.  ANS further divides into Two types, Sympathetic Nervous System and Parasympathetic Nervous System. Drugs acting on nervous system:  Central nervous system agents are medicines affecting the CNS made up of nerves in the brain and spinal cord. Example,  Hyoscyamus  Belladonna  Ephedra  Opium  Tea leaves  Coffee seeds  Coca Synopsis Drug name Synonyms Biological Source Family Chemical Constituents Uses

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Pharmacognosy- Carminatives and GI regulators part II

1. CHAPTER – V CARMINATIVES AND GI REGULATORS M.NITHYA B.PHARM, LECTURER, ECOP. 1 CARMINATIVES AND GI REGULATORS Drug name Synonyms Biological Source Family Chemical Constituents Uses Black Pepper Alkaloids & Volatile oil Pepper Piper nigrum Maricha Pepper is the dried unripe fruit of perennial climbing vine Piper nigrum Piperaceae Piperine(Alkaloid) Piperidine Resin Starch 1. Aromatic 2. Carminative 3. Stimulant 4. Stomachic

2. CHAPTER – V CARMINATIVES AND GI REGULATORS M.NITHYA B.PHARM, LECTURER, ECOP. 2 Drug name Synonyms Biological Source Family Chemical Constituents Uses Asafoetida Resin Gum Volatile oil Devil’s dung Asafoetida is the oleo- gum resin obtained by incision from the Rhizomes and roots of Ferula foetida Umbelliferae 1. Asaresinotannol 2. Ferulic acid + Hcl Umbellic acid Losses water Umbelliferone 3. Oleo-gum resin 1. Carminative 2. Nervine Stimulant 3. Intestinal Flatulence 4. Flavouring agent 5. Veterinary medicine

3. CHAPTER – V CARMINATIVES AND GI REGULATORS M.NITHYA B.PHARM, LECTURER, ECOP. 3 Drug name Synonyms Biological Source Family Chemical Constituents Uses Nutmeg Volatile oil Fixed oil Myristica Nutmeg consists of dried kernels seeds of Myristica fragrans Myristicaceae Myristicin Saffrole Elimicin Palmitic acid Oleic acid Lauric acid Protein Starch 1. Aromatic 2. Stimulant 3. Carminative 4. Flavouring agent 5. Treatment of Rheumatism

4. CHAPTER – V CARMINATIVES AND GI REGULATORS M.NITHYA B.PHARM, LECTURER, ECOP. 4 Drug name Synonyms Biological Source Family Chemical Constituents Uses Cinnamon Volatile oil & Tannins Ceylon cinnamon It consists of the dried inner bark of the shoots of coppiced trees of Cinnamomum zeylanicum Lauraceae Cinnamaldehyde Eugenol Benzaldehyde Cuminaldehyde 1. Carminative 2. Stomachic 3. Mild astringent 4. Flavouring agent 5. Stimulant 6. Aromatic 7. Antiseptic 8. Dentrifices