This document discusses minerals and trace elements that are important for human health. It provides information on: 1. Major minerals that are components of body molecules or important for nutrition, including calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, sodium, potassium, and chloride. 2. Trace elements that are essential in small amounts, such as chromium, cobalt, copper, iodine, iron, manganese, molybdenum, selenium, and zinc. 3. Additional elements that are not essential for humans, including nickel, silicon, tin, vanadium, boron, and lithium. It describes the roles, transport, absorption, metabolism and deficiencies/toxicities of many of these minerals and trace

1. MINERALS AND
TRACE ELEMENTS

2. 1. Major components of body molecules
C, H, O, N, S
(obtained through intake of water fat, carbohydrates, proteins)
2. Nutritionally important minerals
Ca, P, Mg, Na K, Cl
(<100 mg/day)
3. Trace elements
Cr, Co, Cu, I, F, Fe, Mn, Mo, Se, Zn
4. Additional elements (non-essential for humans)
Ni, Si, Sn, V, B, Li

3. Transferrin – Fe, Cr, Mn, Zn
Albumin – Cu, Zn
Amino acids – Cu, (Fe)
Trancobaltamin - Co
Globulins - Mn
Transport and storage require
specific binding to carrier
proteins

4. Normal routes of excretion of trace
elements
Bile – Cu, Mn, Cr, Zn,
Urine – Co, Cr, Mo, Zn
Pancreatic juice – Zn
Sweat – Zn
Mucosal cell sloughing – Fe, Zn

5. Sodium
• Na+ is the major cation of extracellular fluid.
• Plasma concentration - 135 -145 mmol/L
• ICT concentration - 3-10 mmol/L.
• Maintaining of total body fluid homeostasis and water
balance.
• Decrease in blood pressure and decreases in sodium
concentration result in the production of renin →
aldosteron production → decreases the excretion of
sodium in the urine

6. Sodium
•Hypernatremia is associated with water depletion
(dehydratation).
• Low serum Na+ - hyponatremia, is associated with
excess of intravascular (and perhaps extravascular)
water.
• Maintaining electric potential in animal tissues
• Na+ are important in neuron (brain and nerve)
function – action potential
• Na+ are important in maintaining and influencing
osmotic balance between cells and the interstitial fluid
• Distribution is mediated by the Na+/K+-ATPase pump

7. Potassium
• K+ is the principal cation of the intracellular fluid.
• Plasma concentration - 3,5 - 5,2 mmol/L.
• ICF concentration - 110 -160 mmol/L.
• Key role of K+ in skeletal and smooth muscle
contraction
• The main dietary source is the cellular material we
consume as foodstuffs.

8. Potassium
• The concentration of K+ in plasma is influenced by the
pH of the blood (physiological pH 7,4 ± 0,04).
• Alkalosis (pH > 7.44) causes hypokalemia → transient
shifting of K+ into cells, presumably by stimulation of the
Na-K-ATPase.
• Acidosis (pH < 7,36) causes hyperkalemia → transient
shifting of K+ from cells at the expense of H+
• Hyperkalemia produces characteristic electrocardio-
graphic changes (life-threatening effect of K+ excess on
the heart).

9. • Total content of calcium in the body is more than 1200
mg.
• 99% of total content is deposit in bones and teeth,
• 1% in blood and body fluids
• Intracellular calcium:
- cytosol
- mitochondria
- other microsomes
- regulated by "pumps"
The serum level of calcium is closely regulated with a normal
total calcium of 2 -2.75 mmol/L (9-10.5 mg/dL) and a normal
ionized calcium of 1.1-1.4 mmol/L (4.5-5.6 mg/dL).
Calcium

10. Calcium metabolism
Multiple biological functions of calcium
Cell signaling
Neural transmission
Muscle function
Blood coagulation
Enzymatic co-factor
Membrane and cytoskeletal functions
Secretion
Biomineralization

11. • Absorption – duodenum and proximal jejunum.
• Active transport across cells.
• Calcium-binding proteins (calbindins) are synthesized
in response to the action of 1,25-
dihydroxycholecalciferol (vitamin D3).
• Parathyroid hormone – also increased intestinal
absorption of Ca.
Calcium metabolism

12. Calcium metabolism
Absorption is inhibited by:
oxalates (salts of oxalic acid),
phytates (salts of phytic acid - found in grain,
soyabeans),
phosphates (formation of insoluble salts),
sodium,
caffein

13. Recommended daily amount:
Children to age 11 – 1200 mg/day
From age 11 to 24 – 800 mg/day
From age 24 – 500 mg/day
In woman after menopase – 1500 mg/day (osteoporosis prevention).
Deficiency - hypocalcemia
tetany, increased neuromuscular excitability, neurological
disoders.
Result of vit. D deficiency, hypoparathyroidism, renal
insuficiency.
Symptoms are: rickets (children), osteomatacia (adults)
Toxicity – hypercalcemia (normally does not to occur)
Hyperparathyroidism, vitamin D intoxication, cancer.

14. Major role in structure and function of all living cells and as a
free ion
Integral part of:
nucleic acids
nucleotides
phospholipides
phosphoproteins
Enzymes that attach phosphates in ester or acid anhydride
linkages
Other enzymes (phosphatases, pyrophosphatases)
Blood phosphate: H2PO4
- and HPO4
2-
Concentration measured as phosphorus: 2.5 - 4.5 mg/100 ml
Skeletal hydroxyapatite - Ca(PO4)2 or Ca(OH)2
Phosphorus metabolism

15. Absorption in the jejunum.
Phosphate absorption is regulate by 1,25-
dihydroxycholecalciferol and parathyroid hormone.
PTH mediates mobilization and deposition of calcium and phosphate
from bone.
Deficiency
Rickets in children, osteomalacia in adults.
Abnormalities in erythrocytes, leucocytes, platelets, liver.
Depletion of phosphate occurs as a result of diminished absorption
from intestine or excessive wasting through kidney.
Hyperphosphatemia is associated with renal diseases.
Phosphorus metabolism

16. • Nearly 99% of the total body magnesium is located in bone or the
intracellular space.
• Second plentiful cation of the extracellular fluids.
• Mg2+ is a cofactor of all enzymes involved in phosphate transfer
reactions utilizing ATP and other nucleotide triphosphates as
substrate.
• Required for the structural integrity of numerous intracellular
proteins and nucleic acids.
• A substrate or cofactor for important enzymes such as adenosine
triphosphatase, guanosine triphosphatase, phospholipase C,
adenylate cyclase, and guanylate cyclase.
• A required cofactor for the activity of over 300 other enzymes.
• A regulator of ion channels; an important intracellular signaling
molecule.
• A modulator of oxidative phosphorylation.
Mg2+ is chelated between the beta and gamma
phosphates, diminishes the dense anionic
character of ATP
Magnesium

17. Magnesium metabolism
• Only 1% to 3% of total
intracellular Mg2+ exist as a free
ionized form (conc. 0.5 to 1.0
mmol/l).
• Total cellular concentration can
vary from 5 to 20 mmol/l.
• Intracellular Mg2+ is
predominantly complexed to organic
molecules.

18. Effect on central nervous system:
• Certain effects of Mg2+ are similar to Ca2+.
• Increased concentration of Mg2+ cause depression of CNS
• Decreased concentration of Mg2+ cause irritability of CNS
Effect on neuromuscular system:
• Direct depressant effect on skeletal muscles – excess of Mg2+
cause decrease in acetylcholine release by motor nerve impulse.
• The action of increased Mg2+ on neuromuscular function are
antagonized by Ca2+.
• Abnormaly low concentration of Mg2+ in extracellular fluid result in
increased acetylcholine release and increased muscle excitability
(tetany).
Excess of Mg2+ cause vasodilatation.
Magnesium metabolism

19. Hypomagnesemia cause:
• changes in skeletal and cardiac muscle
• changes in neuromuscular function,
• hyperirritability, psychotic behaviour
• tetany
Hypermagnesemia cause:
• muscle weakness
• hypotension
• ECG changes
• sedation and confusion
Hypermagnesemia is usual due to renal insuficiency.
Magnesium metabolism

20. Copper
• Cu is an essential nutrient.
• Rapid growth increases Cu demands in infancy.
• The adult body contains approximately 100 mg of copper
– the highest concentrations are in liver, kidney, and hearth.
• The absorption in gastrointestinal tract requires a specific
mechanism - metal binding protein
metallothionein (Cu2+ ions are highly insoluble).
• Ceruloplasmin (CP) is a glycoprotein, copper-dependent
ferroxidase (95% of the total copper in human plasma),
oxidizes Fe2+ to Fe3+ in gastrointestinal iron absorption
mechanism.

21. Copper metabolism
Model of Cu uptake and metabolism in hepatocytes:
Cu cross the plasma membrane through Ctrl1 (copper transporter1) or DMT1
(divalent metal transporter1) to the trans Golgi network (TGN) by chaperone Hah1.
Chaperone protein Ccs delivers Cu to cytosolic Cu/Zn SOD. Cox17 delivers Cu to
mitochondria for cytochrome c oxidase.
Carrol et all, 2004)

22. Copper metabolism
• Cu is an essential cofactor in a number of critical
enzymes in metabolism:
superoxide dismutase (Cu/Zn-SOD)
cytochrome c oxidase (COX)
tyrosinase
monoamino oxidase
lysyloxidase
• Cu metabolism is altered in inflammation, infection, an
cancer.
• In infection, Cu is essential for production of Ile-2 by
activated lymphocytes.
• In cancer, plasma CP is positively correlated with
disease stage.

23. Iron
Major function of Fe – oxygen transport by hemoglobin.
Fe2+ and Fe3+ are highly insoluble – special transporter
systems are required.
Food Fe is predominantly in Fe3+, tightly bound to organic
molecules.
Apoferritin assimilates up to 4300 Fe molecules to form
Fe storage protein – ferritin.
In the retikuloendothelial system ferritin provides an
available storage form for iron.
Apotransferrin (apoTf) – protein, that can bind 2 atoms
of Fe to form transferrin, Fe carrier in plasma.

24. Food iron is predominantly in the ferric state.
In the stomach, where the pH is less than 4, Fe3+ can
dissociate and react with low-molecular weight
compounds such fructose, ascorbic acid, citric acid,
amino acids to form ferric complexes soluble in
neutral pH of intestine fluid.
A protein DMT1 (divalent metal transporter 1),
which transports all kinds of divalent metals, then
transports the iron across the cell membrane of
intestinal cells. These intestinal lining cells can then
store the iron as ferritin.
The transfer of iron from the storage ferritin
(as Fe3+ ) involves reduction to ferrous state – Fe2+ in
order for it to be released from ferritine.
The Fe2+ is subsequently again oxidized by
ferroxidase ceruloplasmin and transported bound to
plasma transferrin to storage sites in the bone
marrow, liver muscle, other tissues.

25. Metal required for the function of the metalloenzymes:
xanthine oxydase
aldehyde oxidase
sulfite oxidase
Some evidence that Mo can interfere with Co
metabolism by the diminishing the efficiency of copper
utilization.
(the foot content of Mo is highly dependent upon the
soil type in which the foodstuff are grown).
Molybdenum

26. • an integral component of glutathion peroxidase
(intracellular antioxidant),
• a scavenger of peroxides,
• an essential element for immune function
(selenoproteins).
• Selenoproteins catalyse oxido-reduction reactions,
protective function from oxidative stress (macrophage-
or neutrophil-generated free-radical species, UV in
sunlight.
The foot content of Se is highly dependent upon the soil
type in which the foodstuff are grown.
Selenium

27. • High concentration of Mn2+ is present in mitochondria
• Functions as a necessary factor for activation of
glycosyltransferases (enzymes responsible for the
synthesis of oligosaccharides, glycoproteins,
proteoglycans.
• Required for superoxid dismutase activity, for
activity of metalloenzymes:
hydrolases
kinases
decarboxylases
transferases.
Deficiency of Mn extensively reduce glycoprotein and
proteoglycan formation.
Manganese

28. Component of zinc metalloenzymes :
carbonic anhydrase
lactate dehydrogenase
glutamate dehydrogenase
alkaline phosphatase
thimidine kinase
matrix metalloproteinases
Gustin – protein in saliva – major role in taste.
Zinc

29. Zinc
Deficiency of Zn has serious consequences :
• failure metabolism of nucleic acids (cell division, growth and
differentiation)
• multisystem disfunction as growth retardation,
hypogonadism, ophtalmologic, gastrointestinal,
neuropsychiatric symptoms.
Zinc deficiency in children are marked by poor growth and
impairment of sexual development.

30. Chromium
Regulation of glucose metabolism as a component of
glucose tolerance factor (GTF).
GTF increases effect of insulin (by facilitating its binding to
cell receptor site).
Chromium regulates plasma lipoprotein concentration.
Reduces serum cholesterol and serum triglycerides.
Iodine
Iodine is incorporated into thyroid hormones.
Iodine is absorbed in the form of inorganic iodine.
Thyreoperoxidase oxidizes inorganic iodine and oxidized I is
transported to phenyl group of tyrosin of thyroglobulin.

31. Fluorine
Inorganic matrix of bone and teeth.
Deficiency – osteoporosis and teeth caries.
Boron
Influences of metabolism and use of Ca, Cu, Mn, N,
glucose, triglycerides.
Control of membranes function and their stabilization.
Negative influence on many metabolic processes –
inhibition of some key enzymes (inhibition of energetic
metabolism), immune system (respiratory burst).

32. Vanadium
Control of sodium pump, inhibition of ATPase
Tin
Interaction with riboflavin
Lithium
Control of sodium pump, interference with the lipid metabolism
Silicon
Structural role in connective tissue, in metabolism of osteogenic cells
Nickel
Component of enzyme urease

33. Recommended Dietary
Allowances (RDAs)
RDA’s are the levels of intake of essential
nutrients that, on the basis of scientific
knowledge, are judged by the Food
and Nutrition Board to be adequate to meet
the known nutrient needs of practically all
healthy persons.

34. RDA Various Categories (#1)
Energy RDA Each individuals food energy intake must equal the energy expended, in order for
the person to maintain their body weight. The average energy consumption is aimed at setting
a standard for people to work from and it gives an example of how many kcalories are
reasonable for this group. An output side of the energy balance equation, how much energy
people should expend, has not been established.
Protein RDA Protein recommendations are mainly based on the individuals body weight. The
protein RDA is high, to cover most person’s needs. The average requirement for protein is 0.6
grams per kilogram of body weight; the RDA is 0.8 grams this is said to meet 97.5% of the
population’s needs.
No RDA for Carbohydrate and Fat The amount of protein recommended represents a small
percentage of a person’s energy allowance; with the remainder acquired from carbohydrates
and fats. The general guideline for carbohydrate and fat is that more than half of daily energy
should come from carbohydrates, with no more than one-third from fat.
Water Recommendation The larger and more active a person the greater the need for water.
Most people need a least 6 to 8 eight-ounce glasses of liquids a day. This is truly an area
neglected by most individuals.
Fiber recommendation There is no recommendation for fiber, however it is recommended that
sufficient fiber be obtained from fruits, vegetables, legumes, and whole-grain products, which
also provide vitamins, minerals and water.
The RDA for vitamins and minerals
The recommendations for vitamins and minerals are specific, as they have been studied for
decades.

35. Recommended Daily Allowances (RDA) Chart for Infants & Children
Recommended Daily Allowances for Minerals
Recommended Daily Allowances for Older Children (9 to 18 Years)
Recommended Daily Allowances for Minerals
Recommended Daily Allowances for Adults (19 Years and Up)
Recommended Daily Allowances for Minerals
Food and Nutrition Board (FNB) Recommendations
#2 : As 10 to 30 percent of older people may malabsorb food-bound B12, FNB advises
those older than 50 years to meet their Recommended Daily Allowances for it by
consuming foods fortified with B12 or a supplement containing B12.
#3 : In view of evidence linking folate deficiency with neural tube defects in the fetus, FNB
recommends that women capable of becoming pregnant consume 400 µg of folate from
supplements or fortified foods, in addition to intake of food folate from a varied diet.
#4 : Men from 31 to 50 need slightly more magnesium (420 mg) than those from 19 to 30
years old (400 mg). Women from 31 to 50 also need slightly more magnesium (320 mg)
than those from 19 to 30 years old (310 mg).
#5 : Adults over 70 years need slightly different levels of vitamin D (15µg), sodium (1.2g),
and chloride (1.8g).
For a list of the 33 top ranked supplements that meet RDA requirements

36. Classification
• Macro or Major minerals
– Sodium (Na), potassium
(K), magnesium (Mg),
calcium (Ca),
phosphorus (P), sulfur
(S), chloride (Cl)
• Present in body tissues at
concentrations >50 mg/kg
• requirement of these is
>100 mg/d
• Micro or Trace minerals
(body needs relatively less)
– Manganese(Mg), iron(Fe),
cobalt(Co), chromium(Cr),
molybdenum(Mo),
copper(Cu), zinc(Zn),
fluoride(F), iodine(I),
selenium(Se)
• Present in body tissues at
concentrations <50 mg/kg
• requirement of these is
﹤100 mg/d

37. Nutritionally Important Minerals
Macro Trace
Element g/kg Element mg/kg
Ca
P
K
Na
Cl
S
Mg
15
10
2
1.6
1.1
1.5
0.4
Fe
Zn
Cu
Mo
Se
I
Mn
Co
20-50
10-50
1-5
1-4
1-2
0.3-0.6
0.2-0.5
0.02-0.1