One of the key objectives that should feature in any business and organizational plan is motivation of one’s employees. It goes without saying that a motivated workforce is a more creative and productive one. Innovation is necessary to produce quality work. Only driven employees would put in the effort to find better methods to deliver quality output in the most efficient manner possible. The more engaged and motivated your employees are, the more it helps with reducing turnover. Those who frequently look out for better opportunities may be the ones with great potential while the ones who stay on could be just settling for their circumstances.
6. The Motivation ProcessThe Motivation Process
DrivesDrives
Search
Behavior
Search
Behavior
TensionTension Reduction
of Tension
Reduction
of Tension
Satisfied
Need
Satisfied
Need
Unsatisfied
Need
Unsatisfied
Need
Overview
Unsatisfied
Need
Unsatisfied
Need
7. The Objective of MotivationThe Objective of MotivationThe Objective of MotivationThe Objective of Motivation
Overview
The objective of motivation is to create conditions in which people are willing
to work with zeal, initiative, interest and enthusiasm. It also creates conditions
in which people work with a sense of responsibility, loyalty, discipline and with
pride and confidence so that the goals of an organization are achieved
effectively.
8. Early Theories of MotivationEarly Theories of Motivation
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
MacGregor’s Theories X and Y
Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
Early Motivation Theory
10. Maslow’s Hierarchy ofMaslow’s Hierarchy of
NeedsNeeds
• Is predetermined in order of importance.
• Lower level needs had to be satisfied before
the next higher level need would motivate
employees.
• Might create misunderstanding
(1 or 5 needs)
Early Motivation Theory 1: Abraham Maslow
11. Theory XTheory X
WorkersWorkers
Dislike WorkDislike Work
Avoid ResponsibilityAvoid Responsibility
Little AmbitionLittle Ambition
Theory YTheory Y
WorkersWorkers
Enjoy WorkEnjoy Work
Accept ResponsibilityAccept Responsibility
Self-DirectedSelf-Directed
Early Motivation Theory 2: Douglas McGregor
12. Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
◦ Job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction are created
by different factors.
Hygiene factors: environmental factors that create
job dissatisfaction.
Motivators: psychological factors that create job
satisfaction.
◦ Attempted to explain why job satisfaction does not result in
increased performance.
The opposite of satisfaction is not dissatisfaction, but
rather no satisfaction.
Early Motivation Theory 3: Frederick Herzberg
13. Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
Hygiene FactorsHygiene Factors MotivatorsMotivators
High HighJob Dissatisfaction Job Satisfaction0
• Quality of supervision
• Salary and benefits
• Company policies
• Working conditions
• Relations with others
• Security and status
• Quality of supervision
• Salary and benefits
• Company policies
• Working conditions
• Relations with others
• Security and status
• Career advancement
• Recognition
• Work itself
• Responsibility
• Advancement
• Growth
• Career advancement
• Recognition
• Work itself
• Responsibility
• Advancement
• Growth
Early Motivation Theory: Frederick Herzberg
14. Contrasting Views ofContrasting Views of
Satisfaction-DissatisfactionSatisfaction-Dissatisfaction
Early Motivation Theory: Frederick Herzberg
15. Contemporary Theories of MotivationContemporary Theories of Motivation
Three-Needs Theory
Equity Theory
The Job Characteristics ModelThe Job Characteristics Model
Expectancy Theory
Contemporary Motivation Theory
16. The TheoryThe Theory
of Needsof Needs
DavidDavid
McClellandMcClelland
The TheoryThe Theory
of Needsof Needs
DavidDavid
McClellandMcClelland
Need forNeed for
AchievementAchievement
(nAch)(nAch)
Need forNeed for
AchievementAchievement
(nAch)(nAch)
Need forNeed for
PowerPower
(nPow)(nPow)
Need forNeed for
PowerPower
(nPow)(nPow)
Need forNeed for
AffiliationAffiliation
(nAff)(nAff)
Need forNeed for
AffiliationAffiliation
(nAff)(nAff)
Contemporary Motivation Theory 1: David McClelland
17. Employees perceive
what they get from
a job situation (outcomesoutcomes) in relation to
what they put into it (inputsinputs)) and
then compare their input-outcome ratio
with the input-outcome ratios of
relevant others.
Equity TheoryEquity TheoryEquity TheoryEquity Theory
Contemporary Motivation Theory 2: J Stacey Adams
18. Outputs typically include:
Financial rewards
Intangibles that include:
◦ Recognition & Praise
◦ Reputation
◦ Responsibility
◦ Sense of Achievement
◦ Sense of Advancement
◦ Job Security
Equity TheoryEquity TheoryEquity TheoryEquity Theory
Contemporary Motivation Theory: J Stacey Adams
Inputs typically include:
• Effort
• Loyalty & trust
• Hard Work
• Commitment
• Skill
• Ability
• Tolerance
• Support of
colleagues
19. Equity TheoryEquity TheoryEquity TheoryEquity Theory
Ratio
Comparison*
Employee’s
Perception
Outcomes A
Inputs A
Outcomes A
Inputs A
Outcomes A
Inputs A
Outcomes B
Inputs B
Outcomes B
Inputs B
Outcomes B
Inputs B
<
=
>
Inequity (Under-Rewarded)
Equity
Inequity (Over-Rewarded)
*
Where A is the employee, and B is a relevant other or referent.
Motivation Theory: J Stacey Adams
20. Equity TheoryEquity TheoryEquity TheoryEquity Theory
ReferentReferent
◦ The other persons, the systems, or the personal
experiences against which individuals compare
themselves to assess equity.
◦ The choice of a particular set of referents is related
to the information available about referents as well
as to the perceived relevance.
Motivation Theory: J Stacey Adams
21. Inequity people’s choiceInequity people’s choice
When employees perceive an inequity they
may:
◦ Distort either their own or others’ inputs or
outcomes.
◦ Behave so as to induce others to change their inputs
or outcomes.
◦ Behave so as to change their own inputs or
outcomes.
◦ Choose a different comparison referent.
◦ Quit their job.
Motivation Theory: J Stacey Adams
23. Characteristics Examples
Skill Variety
• High variety The owner-operator of a garage who does electrical repair, rebuilds engines,
does body work, and interacts with customers
• Low variety A bodyshop worker who sprays paint eight hours a day
Task Identity
• High identity A cabinetmaker who designs a piece of furniture, selects the wood, builds the
object, and finishes it to perfection
• Low identity A worker in a furniture factory who operates a lathe to make table legs
Task Significance
• High significance Nursing the sick in a hospital intensive-care unit
• Low significance Sweeping hospital floors
Autonomy
• High autonomy A telephone installer who schedules his or her own work for the day, and
decides on the best techniques for a particular installation
• Low autonomy A telephone operator who must handle calls as they come according to a
routine, highly specified procedure
Feedback
• High feedback An electronics factory worker who assembles a radio and then tests it to
determine if it operates properly
• Low feedback An electronics factory worker who assembles a radio and then routes it to a
quality control inspector who tests and adjusts it
Examples of High and Low Job Characteristics
Motivation Theory: Job Characteristic Model
25. Expectancy Theory
An individual tends to act in
a certain way, in the expectation that
the act will be followed by given outcome, and
according to the attractiveness
of that outcome.
Contemporary Motivation Theory 4: Victor Vroom
27. ContemporaryContemporary
Motivation IssuesMotivation Issues
How to motivate a diverse workforce
How to Pay -- for performance or time
How to motivate minimum-wage workers
How to motivate professional and technical employees
How to use flexible work options
Other issues
29. The Key To MotivatingThe Key To Motivating
A Diverse WorkforceA Diverse Workforce
Recognizing the different personal needs and goals of
individuals
Providing a diversity of rewards to match the varied
needs of employees
Being flexible in accommodating the cultural differences
within a diverse workforce
◦ Motivating a diverse workforce through flexibility:
Men desire more autonomy than do women.
Women desire learning opportunities, flexible work schedules, and good
interpersonal relations.
Other issues: Diversity of workforce
30. Use Pay to Motivate
Pay forPay for
PerformancePerformance
Pay forPay for
PerformancePerformance
Pay forPay for
CompetencyCompetency
Pay forPay for
CompetencyCompetency
Pay forPay for
TimeTime
Pay forPay for
TimeTime
Other issues 2: payment
32. Motivate Minimum-wage WorkersMotivate Minimum-wage Workers
Money is important, but not the only reward that
people seek
Other rewards can help motivating
◦ Recognition program
◦ Praise
◦ Empowering
Other issues 3: Minimum wage workers
33. Tend to likeTend to like
Challenges from jobsChallenges from jobs
Tend to likeTend to like
Challenges from jobsChallenges from jobs
May not be interestedMay not be interested
in becoming managersin becoming managers
May not be interestedMay not be interested
in becoming managersin becoming managers
Professional andProfessional and
Technical EmployeesTechnical Employees
Professional andProfessional and
Technical EmployeesTechnical Employees
Loyal to theirLoyal to their
profession ratherprofession rather
than their employersthan their employers
Loyal to theirLoyal to their
profession ratherprofession rather
than their employersthan their employers
Strong and long-termStrong and long-term
commitment tocommitment to
their fieldtheir field
Strong and long-termStrong and long-term
commitment tocommitment to
their fieldtheir field
Other issues 4: Professional and technical
34. Motivating ProfessionalsMotivating Professionals &&
Technical EmployeesTechnical Employees
◦ Motivators
Job challenge
Organizational support of their work
New assignments
Autonomy
Training and educational opportunities
Recognition
……
Other issues 4: Professional and technical
35. Flexible Work OptionsFlexible Work Options
CompressedCompressed
WorkweekWorkweek
FlextimeFlextime
JobJob
SharingSharing
TelecommutingTelecommuting
Other issues 5: Flexibility
36. Conclusion of Motivation
Employee motivation is an important task for managers. Early
motivational theory such as that of Taylor suggested that pay
motivated workers to improve production.
However businesses now need employees to have greater
motivation and have a stake in the company for which they
work, as shown by Mayo. Maslow and Herzberg demonstrated
that employees are motivated by many different factors.
Editor's Notes
An unsatisfied need creates tension; this tension drives a person to satisfy the need.
A motivated employee works intensely and persistently. However, effort and persistence will not pay off unless they are channeled in a direction that benefits the organization.
Douglas McGregor proposed in 1960 in his book The Human Side of Enterprise that managers hold one of two sets of assumptions about human nature, and named them Theory X and Theory Y.
Seeing people as irresponsible and lazy, managers who follow Theory X assume the following:
Employees inherently dislike work and will try to avoid it.
Since employees dislike work, they must be coerced, controlled, or threatened to achieve goals.
Employees avoid responsibilities and seek formal direction, if possible.
Most workers place security above all other work-related factors and will display little ambition.
Seeing people as responsible and conscientious, managers who follow Theory Y assume the following:
Employees can view work as being as natural as rest or play.
When committed to their objectives, people will exercise self-direction and self-control
The average person can learn to accept, even seek, responsibility.
Many workers besides managers have innovative decision-making skills.
No hard evidence confirms that either set of assumptions is universally true. It is more likely that the assumptions of Theory X or Theory Y may or may not be appropriate, depending on the situation at hand.
By asking people “what do you fell exceptional good or bad about your job”, Frederick Herzberg identified two categories of factors affect people’s motivation in their their jobs. His findings are called motivation-hygiene theory.
Herzberg asserted that intrinsic factors are related to job satisfaction whereas extrinsic factors are associated with dissatisfaction. So, he called company policy, supervision, interpersonal relations, working conditions, and salary hygiene factors. When these factors are adequate, people will not be dissatisfied; however, they will not be satisfied either. He believed that achievement, recognition, the work itself, growth, and responsibility are motivators because people find them intrinsically rewarding.
Based on his findings, Herzberg proposed the existence of a dual continuum: the opposite of “satisfaction” is “no satisfaction,” and the opposite of “dissatisfaction” is “no dissatisfaction.”
David McClelland asserts that there are three relevant motives or needs that motivate behavior in the workplace, which he believed are acquired from the culture of a society.:
The need for achievement (nAch) is the need to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of standards, to succeed.
The need for power (nPow) is the need to shape and control the behavior of others.
The need for affiliation (nAff) is the desire for interpersonal relationships.
The consistent findings in the areas
High achievement need people prefers job satisfaction with personal responsibilities,feedback and intermediate degree of risk.
High achievement need people are NOT necessarily good managers, especially in large organizarions.
High need for power
People can be trained to stimulate their achivement need
Some people have a compelling drive to succeed, but they strive for personal achievement, not for the rewards of success, per se (nAch). These high achievers seek situations in which they can take responsibility for solving problems, can receive rapid unambiguous feedback on performance, and can set moderately challenging goals.
Persons with a high need for power (nPow) desire to be influential, in charge, and seek competitive, status-oriented situations.
Those who have a high need for affiliation (nAff) want to be liked and accepted by others; so, they strive for friendships, cooperation, and high-trust situations.
Equity theory seeks to find how the outcome of job influence motivation, and proposes that inequity creates tension, which then would cause an employee to seek fairness.
Workers compare their job inputs and outcomes with others. There are four referents that an employee can use:
(1) Self-inside: an employee’s experiences in a different position inside the organization.
(2) Self-outside: an employee’s experiences in a position outside of the organization.
(3) Other-inside: an employee’s perception of persons inside the organization.
(4) Other-outside: an employee’s perception of persons outside of the organization.
There are three possible perceptions: inequity due to being under-rewarded, equity, or inequity due to being over-rewarded.
Workers who perceive an inequity will react in one of the six following ways:
change inputs, change outcomes,
distort perceptions of self, distort perceptions of others
choose a different referent, or leave the field.
Two key properties of the theory: relative and conceived
The Job Characteristics Model (JCM) proposes that any job can be described in terms of the following five core job dimensions:
Skill variety. Does the job require workers to use different skills and abilities?
Task identity. Does the job require workers to complete identifiable pieces of work?
Task significance. Does the job have a significant impact on the lives or work of others?
Autonomy. Does the job allow workers substantial freedom, discretion, and independence?
Feedback. Does the job allow workers to obtain direct, clear performance information?
Richard Hackman and Greg Oldhan proposed the framework to analyze and design jobs in 1977.
The figure above offers examples of job activities that rate high and low for each characteristic.
The first three dimensions--skill variety, task identity, and task significance--combine to create meaningful work.
The jobs that possess autonomy give the worker a feeling of personal responsibility for the results.
If a job provides feedback, the worker will know how well he or she is performing.
From the standpoint of motivation, the model tells that internal rewards are obtained by a worker when one learns (knowledge of results) that he or she personally (experienced responsibility) has done well on a task that he or she cares about (experienced meaningfulness). The more that these three elements are present, the greater will be the employee’s motivation, performance, and satisfaction.
The links between job dimensions and outcomes are moderated by the strength of the individual’s growth need: that is, by his or her desire for self-esteem and self-actualization. Therefore, those with high growth needs are more likely to experience the psychological states when their jobs are enriched than those with low growth need.
Research has shown the following:
The model is a usable framework for defining the core characteristics in a cross-section of jobs.
Workers whose jobs rate high on core job dimensions are generally more motivated, satisfied, and productive than workers whose jobs rate low.
Job dimensions influence personal and work outcome by operating through the critical psychological states rather than influencing outcomes directly.
Expectancy theory argues that an employee will be motivated to produce more when he or she believes that the effort will lead to a good performance appraisal; that a good appraisal will lead to organizational rewards; and that the rewards will satisfy the employee’s personal goals. This theory focuses on three relationships.
The effort-performance relationship is the probability perceived by the individual that exerting a given amount of effort will lead to performance.
The performance-rewards relationship is the degree to which an individual believes that performing at a particular level will lead to the attainment of a desired outcome.
The rewards-personal goals relationship is the degree to which the rewards of an organization satisfy an individual’s personal goals or needs and the attractiveness of those rewards.
When motivating a diverse workforce, flexibility is the key. Employees have different needs and goals that they hope to satisfy through work. So, the rewards system must be flexible to meet their diverse needs.
Managers must also be sensitive to cultural differences. Managers cannot assume that motivation concepts are universally applicable, so they must adjust motivation techniques according to the culture.
Most of the theories of motivation were developed by psychologists who were studying American workers. For instance, theories based on self-interest that are applicable in cultures that value capitalism and individualism may be of questionable value in collectivist cultures.
Before most people do anything, they look for a pay-off or reward. Therefore, managers must consider how pay can be used to motivate high levels of performance in the workplace.
Pay-for-performance programs are getting popular these days, such as profit sharing, lump sum bonuses, or wage incentive plans, piece rate plans, pay employees according to some performance measure. Such pay programs are compatible with expectancy theory because workers will perceive a strong relationship between their performance and their rewards.
Competency-based compensation program pays and rewards employees on the basis of their skills, knowledge, or behaviors.
One of the toughest challenges a manager can face is motivating minimum-wage workers.
Money is important. But, managers should also use other rewards: for instance, employee recognition programs, praise, and employee empowerment. ---- to overcome one of most common misunderstandings.
Professional and technical employees are loyal to their fields of expertise, typically more so than to their employers. To stay current, they need to update their knowledge regularly.
They rarely define their workweek in terms of 9-to-5 and 5 days a week. They tend to be paid well and enjoy what they do; so money and promotions are low on their priority list.
They like challenging jobs and want others to think that what they are doing is important. Managers should give professional and technical employees new assignments and challenging projects. They should be given autonomy and rewarded with educational opportunities and recognition.
To motivate Professional and technical employees ……
Flexible work options refers any other arrangement than 8 hours a day 5 days per week
A compressed workweek consists of four ten-hour days. This schedule allows employees time off to take care of personal business. But studies have shown that there are drawbacks: for instance, decrease in service to customers, decrease in productivity, and under-utilization of equipment.
A special type of part-time work, job sharing allows two or more individuals to split a traditional 40-hour-a-week job. Therefore, the organization can draw upon the talents of more than one person for a given job and acquire skilled workers who are only available part-time. However, it is hard to find compatible employees who can coordinate job responsibilities.
Flextime allows employees some discretion over when they arrive and leave work. While they still work a specified number of hours, workers can vary the hours within constraints. Flextime offers several benefits: improved employee motivation and recruitment of higher qualified, more diverse workers. But, flextime is not applicable to every job. It works best with clerical tasks that require minimal employee contact with persons outside of the organization.
No commute time, flexible hours, no dress code, and few interruptions are some of the benefits of telecommuting: employees working at home on a computer that is linked to their office. The long-term future of telecommuting depends on the answers to some questions. Will work-at-home employees be at a disadvantage in office politics? Will they be less likely to be considered for pay raises or promotions? Will non-work distractions reduce productivity?