The document discusses the history of peace operations and concepts of sovereignty. It notes that the UN operation in Congo (ONUC) in the 1960s revealed the need for a comprehensive approach combining humanitarian aid, diplomacy, nation building, and a military security umbrella - similar to a counterinsurgency campaign. This demonstrated that the absence of war does not ensure peace and stability, and that non-military sources of instability like economic and social issues must also be addressed. The document examines how ideas of sovereignty, crisis management, and peace operations have evolved since the 1600s in relation to changing views of the international system and state authority.
3. Ministerie van Defensie3
Geschiedenis Vredesoperaties
“The fog [of war] is thickest at the low end of the conflict
spectrum (…) The constantly changing and imprecise array
of terms created to name such conflicts reflects the
profound discomfort of conventional armed forces with
unconventional war. ‘Small wars’, ‘imperial policing’,
‘counterinsurgency’, ‘counter-revolutionary warfare’, ‘Low
Intensity Conflict’, and ‘Military Operations Other than War’,
have been offered up to describe essentially the same
phenomenon. This same shifting and imprecise use of
terminology has also come to characterize the literature of
peace operations.”
(Thomas Mockaitis, Small Wars and Insurgencies 1999)
4. Ministerie van Defensie4
Geschiedenis Vredesoperaties
De belangrijkste vraag ….
The First , the Supreme, the
most far reaching act of
judgement that the statesman
and the commander have to
make; is to establish …the kind
of war on which they are
embarking…neither mistaking it
or trying to turn it into
something that is alien to its
nature. This is the first of all
strategic questions and the
most comprehensive.
6. Ministerie van Defensie6
Geschiedenis Vredesoperaties
Crisisbeheersing vs. Soevereiniteit: de
onmiskenbare samenhang tussen het denken over
vredesmissies en staatsvorming vanaf 1600.
1. Denken over vrede, (internationale) crisisbeheersing en
statelijke soevereiniteit in de 17e en 18e eeuw.
2. Denken over vrede, (internationale) crisisbeheersing en
statelijke soevereiniteit na het Concert van Europa in 1815.
3. Denken over vrede, (internationale) crisisbeheersing en
statelijke soevereiniteit na WOI.
4. Denken over vrede, (internationale) crisisbeheersing en
statelijke soevereiniteit na WOII.
7. Ministerie van Defensie7
Geschiedenis Vredesoperaties
“Statelijke soevereiniteit: de door andere staatkundige
eenheden erkende, exclusieve gezagsuitoefening door een
staat of vorst over zijn grondgebied.”
(D. Hellema, Humanitaire
interventie en soevereiniteit
2004)
8. Ministerie van Defensie8
Geschiedenis Vredesoperaties
“The foundation-stone of this work is and must remain the
State. Respect for its fundamental sovereignty and
integrity are crucial to any common international progress.
The time of absolute and exclusive sovereignty, however,
has passed; its theory was never matched by reality. It is
the task of leaders of States today to understand this and
to find a balance between the needs of good internal
governance and the requirements of an ever more
interdependent world.”
(An Agenda for Peace 1992)
9. Ministerie van Defensie9
Geschiedenis Vredesoperaties
“Sovereignty is more than just a functional principle
of international rights. For many states and peoples,
it is (…) a recognition of their equal worth and
dignity, a protection of their unique identities and
their national freedom, and an affirmation of their
right to shape and determine their own destiny.”
(The International Commission on Intervention and
Sovereignty, R2P-Rapport 2002)
11. Ministerie van Defensie11
Geschiedenis Vredesoperaties
“[f]ully convinced…that there is a common law among
nations, which is valid alike for war and in war, I have
had many and weighty reasons for undertaking to write
upon this subject. Throughout the Christian world I
observed a lack of restraint in relation to war, such as
even barbarous nations should be ashamed of.”
(Hugo de Groot, De Jure Belli ac Pacis [Over het recht van
oorlog en vrede] 1625)
“The power of the state is limited in order to protect
citizens from the arbitrary exercise of authority.”
(Kant, Zum Ewigen Frieden [Naar de eeuwige vrede] 1795)
Hugo Grotius in
Delft
12. Ministerie van Defensie12
Geschiedenis Vredesoperaties
“We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men
are created equal, that they are endowed by their
Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among
these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness.”
(United States Declaration of Independence 1776)
“Men are born and remain free and equal in rights.
Social distinctions may be founded only upon the
general good.”
(Déclaration des droits de l'homme et du citoyen [Verklaring van de
rechten van de mens en de burger] 1789)
14. Ministerie van Defensie14
Geschiedenis Vredesoperaties
“At the core of the balance
of power theory is the idea
that national security is
enhanced when military
capabilities are distributed
so that no one state is
strong enough to dominate
all others”.
(Kegley & Wittkopf, World
Politics: Trends and
Transformation 2005)
The Balance of Power Shifts
16. Ministerie van Defensie16
Geschiedenis Vredesoperaties
“His Majesty the King of the United Kingdom … [has]
the desire of putting a stop to the effusion of blood,
and of preventing the evils of every kind … for the
object [of the Treaty] … has been inspired no less by
sentiments of humanity, than by interests for the
tranquillity of Europe.”
(Verdrag van Londen - 1827)
17. Ministerie van Defensie17
Geschiedenis Vredesoperaties
Stellingen m.b.t. een tweetal kenmerken die typisch
lijken voor zowel negentiende-eeuwse als hedendaagse
internationale interventies en vredesoperaties:
A. Vredesoperaties zijn afhankelijk van
de politieke wil van een internationaal
erkende grootmacht die bereid is de
kar te trekken.
B. Strategische belangen spelen altijd
een (doorslaggevende) rol in
crisisbeheersingsoperaties en
humanitaire interventies.
19. Ministerie van Defensie19
Geschiedenis Vredesoperaties
“Any war or threat of war, whether immediately
affecting any of the Members of the League or not, is
hereby declared a matter of concern to the whole
League, and the League shall take any action that
may be deemed wise and effectual to safeguard the
peace of nations.” (Volkenbondpact, Artikel II)
20. Ministerie van Defensie20
Geschiedenis Vredesoperaties
“To maintain international peace
and security, and to that end: to
take effective collective measures
for the prevention and removal of
threats to the peace, and for the
suppression of acts of aggression
or other breaches of the peace,
and to bring about peaceful
means, and in conformity with the
principles of justice and
international law, adjustment or
settlement of international
disputes or situations which might
lead to a breach of the peace”
(VN-Handvest, Artikel 1.1)
21. Ministerie van Defensie21
Geschiedenis Vredesoperaties
Gemachtigd militair
ingrijpen te
mandateren
Gericht op het
promoten van
ontwikkeling en
samenwerking
Veiligheidsraad ECOSOC, World Bank,
UNAIDS, FAO, UNHCR,
UN-HABITAT, ICAO, ITC,
WHO, UN Women etc.
VN -organen / -organisaties die militair ingrijpen
mandateren of ontwikkeling en samenwerking
promoten
22. Ministerie van Defensie22
Geschiedenis Vredesoperaties
“The absence of war and military conflicts amongst States
does not in itself ensure international peace and security. The
non-military sources of instability in the economic, social,
humanitarian and ecological fields have become threats to
peace and security. The United Nations membership as a
whole, working through the appropriate bodies, needs to give
the highest priority to the solution of these matters.”
(Boutros Boutros-Ghali, An
Agenda for Peace: Preventive
diplomacy, peacemaking and
peace-keeping 1992)
24. Ministerie van Defensie24
Geschiedenis Vredesoperaties
Misverstand 1: de ‘comprehensive approach’ (CA) of ‘3D aanpak’ is
een recent instrument van crisisbeheersing, tot wasdom gekomen in
Afghanistan na circa 2004, na een moderne ontwikkeling, verdieping
en verbreding in internationale crisisbeheersingsoperaties sinds de
jaren negentig.
Misverstand 2: het concept van CA ontwikkelde zich na het besef van
overlap met en door teruggrijpen op succesvolle lessen die zijn
geleerd tijdens counterinsurgency-operaties, bezettingen en koloniaal
optreden uit vroeger tijden (‘Thompson’) en bij recente stabilisatie-
operaties in complexe inzetgebieden.
25. Ministerie van Defensie25
Geschiedenis Vredesoperaties
“The most advanced and sophisticated experiment in international
co-operation ever attempted”
(Walter Lippmann, “Today and tomorrow” 1961)
“ONUC revealed the need for a comprehensive response to civil
conflict, a response combining humanitarian aid, diplomacy and
nation building under the security umbrella of a military force –
a response not unlike a counterinsurgency campaign.”
(Thomas Mockaitis, Small Wars and Insurgencies 1999)
26. Ministerie van Defensie26
Geschiedenis Vredesoperaties
“The absence of war and military conflicts amongst States
does not in itself ensure international peace and security. The
non-military sources of instability in the economic, social,
humanitarian and ecological fields have become threats to
peace and security.”
(An Agenda for Peace: Preventive
diplomacy, peacemaking and
peace-keeping 1992)
31. Ministerie van Defensie31
Geschiedenis Vredesoperaties
“The United Nations in the Congo has neither
sought to replace the Congo Government nor
to make it a captive. The UNF is in the Congo
as a friend and partner, not as an army of
occupation.”
(SGVN Dag Hammarskjold, 1961)
32. Ministerie van Defensie32
Geschiedenis Vredesoperaties
Primaat van de politiek (Diplomacy): 1960 - 1961
- civiele leiding missie
- eerst diplomatieke oplossing gezagscrisis
(september 1960 - augustus 1961)
- militair optreden secundair aan politieke bemiddeling
Primaat van de peace-enforcement (Defence): 1961-1963
Primaat van de wederopbouw (Development): 1963-1964
33. Ministerie van Defensie33
Geschiedenis Vredesoperaties
“The most advanced and sophisticated experiment in international
co-operation ever attempted”
(Walter Lippmann, “Today and tomorrow” 1961)
“ONUC revealed the need for a comprehensive response to civil
conflict, a response combining humanitarian aid, diplomacy and
nation building under the security umbrella of a military force –
a response not unlike a counterinsurgency campaign.”
(Thomas Mockaitis, Small Wars and Insurgencies 1999)
