2. SOURCES OF DRUGS
A Drug may be defined as any artificial or natural substance
which is to be mentioned in all official books or
Pharmacopeias or compendia's & intended for use in
prevention, diagnosis, treatment or cure of any particular
disease.
To understand a drug completely we should always know
the source of drug.
4. A) NATURAL SOURCES
Natural source of drug is obtaining a drug from a complete
natural source without adding anything to it or modifying
it.
It is divided into:
a) PLANTS
b) ANIMALS
c) MICROBES
d) MARINE
e) MINERALS/ EARTH SOURCES
5. A) NATURAL SOURCES
PLANTS
The oldest natural source. Even now some drugs are obtained
from the plant source.
Most of the drugs in ancient times were derived from plants.
Almost all parts of the plants are used i.e. leaves, stem, bark,
fruits and roots.
This is the oldest source of drugs used empirically.
Leaves, seeds, flowers, roots, bark etc are the major parts
of plants used.
e.g. morphine, codeine, digitalis, quinine, atropine, reserpine
and pilocarpine
6. a) PLANTS
All traditional Indian system of medicine such as Ayurveda,
Allopathic & Unani are based on use of plant.
There are 200-1000 species of flowering plants grown on earth
which belong to different family & are wonderful sources of
drug.
Majority of drugs are derived from seed bearing plants known as
Spermatophytes or from flowering plants known as
Angiosperms.
Non flowering plants known as Gymnosperms are very useful
sources of oils, resins, alkaloids etc.
A crude drug consists of any plant part such as bark, seed,
flower, fruit & leaf etc.
7. VARIOUS FORMS OF PLANT DRUG
Extract, infusions, decoction, powders etc
Chemicals (alkaloids, glycosides, oil, resins, tannins, gums
etc.) isolated from different forms of plants are used for
humans and animals.
8. a) PLANTS
ROOTS-Ginger, Garlic, Onion
LEAFS-Neem leaves, Tulsi leaves, Mint leaves
FLOWER BUD-Clove
SEEDS-Nux-vomica, Almond, Fenugreek
EXUDATION FROM THE PLANT-Asafoetida
ENTIRE PLANT-Ephedra
9. Leaves:
1.Digitalis purpurea- Digitoxin and Digoxin cardiac glycosides.
2.Eucalyptus- oil of Eucalyptus cough syrup.
3.Tobacco- nicotine.
4.Atropa belladonna- atropine.
Flowers:
1. Poppy Papaver somniferum- morphine (opoid)
2.Vinca rosea- vincristine and vinblastine
3.Rose-rose water used as tonic.
10. Seeds:
1.Nux Vomica- strychnine, which is a CNS stimulant.
2.Castor seeds- castor oil.
Fruits:
1. Senna pod- Anthracine purgative (used in constipation)
2.Calabar beans- physostigmine - cholinomimetic agent.
11. Roots:
1. Ipecacuanha root Emetine, used to induce vomiting as in
accidental poisoning. It also has amoebicidal properties.
2.Rauwolfia serpentina- reserpine, a hypotensive agent.
Bark:
1.Cinchona bark- quinine and quinidine, antimalarial
2.Atropa belladonna- atropine, anticholinergic.
12. Problems in using Plants :
Identification of plant
Climatic and social conditions of area
Season of collection
Condition of storage
Standardization of active principle
Purity of active ingredient
Maintenance of supply line
13. b) ANIMALS
Modern drugs are generally prepared from animals.
Various organs & tissue of animals are used as source of
drug.
Active principles obtained from animals are proteins, oil
and fats, enzymes and hormones.
e.g. gonadotropins, heparin, insulin, thyroid extract and
enzymes
14. b) ANIMALS
Some animal products are very useful as therapeutic
agents.
Various organs & tissue of animals are used as source of
drug.
Active principles of animal drugs are proteins, oils, fat,
enzymes and hormones.
They can be categorised as:
HORMONES
ENZYMES
ANIMAL EXTRACTS
15. b) ANIMALS
Pancreas ………………………... Insulin
Cod liver ……… Cod liver oil (contains Vit A & D)
Urine of pregnant ……………….. HCG
Sheep thyroid……………………. Thyroxin
Animal Blood……………………. Vaccines
16. b) ANIMALS
Pancreas is a source of Insulin, used in treatment of Diabetes.
Urine of pregnant female animals gives human chorionic
gonadotropin (hCG) used for the treatment of infertility.
Sheep thyroid is a source of thyroxin, used to maintain thyroid
hormones.
Cod liver is used as a source of vitamin A and D.
Anterior pituitary is a source of pituitary gonadotropins, used in
treatment of infertility.
Blood of animals is used in preparation of vaccines.
Stomach tissue contains pepsin and trypsin, which are digestive
juices used in treatment of peptic diseases in the past.
17. b) ANIMALS
HORMONES
Animal products secreted by ductless glands of body & are
released directly into blood
Serves imp functions & their deficiency results in several
diseases
Eg Insulin
Thyroid
Oxytocin
Vasopressein
Epinephrine
18. b) ANIMALS
ENZYMES
Biological catalyst produced by living organism to increase the
rate of rxn.
They are proteinaceous in nature
Mol wt ranges from 13000-48000
Eg Pancreatine
Trypsin
Pepsin
Bile
Fibrinolysin
19. b) ANIMALS
ANIMAL EXTRACTS
Certain extracts are obtained from animals & used in variety
of formulations, pharmaceutical industries & cosmetics.
They are used to impart color, odour, form & texture to any
formulation for eg Cod liver oil, shark liver oil, wool fat,
lanolin etc
Another imp is Carmine which is a colouring matter obtained
from Cochineal insect
20. c) MICRO BIOLOGICAL PRODUCTS
These are produced by microbes which are microscopic
organisms such as bacterias, virus, rickettsias, fungi, lichen,
mosses.
These are sources of immunising products & they impart active
or passive immunity against various infectious diseases
ACTIVE IMMUNITY
Specific immunity developed in response to the introduction of
antigenic substances into the body
PASSIVE IMMUNITY
Developed due to the presence of preformed anti-bodies in body
& is very instant
21. c) MICRO BIOLOGICAL PRODUCTS
Immunity can be developed by incorporation of vaccines /
toxoids
VACCINES
Suspensions of dead microbes which are used to provide
immunity against various diseases by producing anti-bodies
They provide resistance to body & can be classified into 3
groups:
BACTERIAL
VIRAL
RICKETTSIAL
22. c) MICRO BIOLOGICAL PRODUCTS
TOXOIDS
Microbial products used to provide active immunity against various
diseases but for a very short period of time.
By treating them with formaldehyde there toxicity is reduced but their
antigenic property is retained known as fluid toxoid.
Eg Viral vaccine, Rickettsial & Bacterial vaccine.
23. d) MINERALS & EARTH SOURCES
Metals, metalloids, non-metal subs. and their compounds
E.g. iron, calcium, magnesium, aluminium, sodium,
potassium, sulphur, Kaolin, Talc, Diatomite, Bentonite
etc
24. d) MINERALS & EARTH SOURCES
Many drugs are mineral substances & their compounds.
Metals:
◦Iron is used in treatment of iron deficiency anemia.
◦Mercurial salts are used in Syphilis.
◦Zinc is used as zinc supplement. Zinc oxide paste is used in
wounds and in eczema.
◦Gold salts are used in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis.
Non - metallic element:
◦Iodine is antiseptic. Iodine supplements are also used.
25. d) MINERALS & EARTH SOURCES
Miscellaneous Sources:
• Fluorine has antiseptic properties.
• Borax has antiseptic properties as well.
• Selenium as selenium sulphide is used in anti dandruff
shampoos.
• Petroleum is used in preparation of liquid paraffin.
26. e) MARINE
About 70% of earth surface is covered by oceans & seas
giving us very imp medicines.
Categorised as Thickening agent, Suspending agent,
Binding agent and Disintegrating agent.
Classified as Antibiotics, antiviral, antiparasitic,
cardiovascular, anticancer, anticoagulant and
antiinflammatory agents.
27. e) MARINE
Agar from Red algae (Gelidium)
Laminine from Marine Algae (Laminaria angustule).
Laminine is an amino acid compound with hypotensive
effect
Ara C obtained from carribean sponge & used in the
treatment of acute leukaemia
Carrageenan from chondrus crispus alginates & used in
heart diseases.
28. e) MARINE
Penicillium notatum is a fungus which gives penicillin.
Actinobacteria give Streptomycin.
Aminoglycosides such as gentamicin and tobramycin are
obtained from streptomycis and micromonosporas.
29. 2) SEMI-SYNTHETIC
Complex molecules
Expensive and formed from impure natural compound
A naturally occurring substance that has been chemically
altered
They contain both natural & synthetic component
E.g. 6-aminopencillanic acid (fungus), semi-synthetic
human insulin (pork insulin)
30. 2) SEMI-SYNTHETIC
Eg.
i) Semi synthetic drugs from plant sources
Heroine from Morphine, Bromoscopolamine from
scopolamine, Homoatropine from atropine.
ii) Semi synthetic drugs from animal sources:
Animal insulin changed to human insulin 6-
aminopenicillanic acid derivatives
31. 2) SEMI-SYNTHETIC
Many drugs were discovered long ago by trial and error.
Some were good and are still used today like the opium
from the poppy tree, digitalis from the foxglove plant,
etc. Discovery of medicinal plants was largely by chance
and when tribal people looked for food they discovered
various roots, leaves, and barks. The people ate, and, by
trial and error, they learned about healing effects of
these plants. They also learned about toxic effects.
Today, there is a synthetic & semi-synthetic version of
drugs to conserve their sources, for resource
effectiveness, better dosage and control.
32. 2) SEMI-SYNTHETIC
In some cases with complex molecules the synthesis of
drugs may be difficult or expensive or uneconomical and
the one obtained from natural source may be of low
efficacy or may yield impure compounds. In these
situation this methods plays an important role.
In those cases semi-synthetic is the drug of choice.
33. B) SEMI-SYNTHETIC
Prepared in Pharmaceutical laboratory
Chemical structure of drug is altered but basic nucleus
remains the same
Organic or inorganic or combination of organic and
inorganic compounds
E.g. Antipyretics, sulphonamides, antihistamines,
anticonvulsants, anti anxiety etc
34. B) SEMI-SYNTHETIC
Semi synthesis, when used in drug discovery, aims to
retain the sought-after medicinal activity while altering
other molecule characteristics – for instance, those
affecting its adverse events or its oral bioavailability – in
a few chemical steps.
In this regard, semisynthesis stands in contrast with the
approach of total synthesis, where the aim is to arrive at
a target molecule beginning with low-molecular-weight,
inexpensive starting materials – often petrochemicals or
minerals.
35. B) SYNTHETIC
If both nucleus of drug and the chemical structure is
completely altered or modified to form a new form of
drug.
Prepared by chemically modifying substances that are
available from natural source to improve its potency,
efficacy and also reduce side effects
Prepared by several chemical changes in basic drug &
structure is completely changed to improve its efficacy &
to lower down cost of pharmaceutical preparation.
36. B) SYNTHETIC
At present majority of drugs used in clinical practice are
prepared synthetically, such as aspirin, oral
antidiabetics, antihistamines, amphetamine, chloroquine,
chlorpromazine, general and local anaesthetics,
paracetamol, phenytoin, synthetic corticosteroids,
sulphonamides and thiazidediuretics. Most of the
synthetic drugs are prepared synthetically i.e. by
chemical process ( reaction) with the help of the
knowledge of phytochemical investigation.
Alterations are made on the naturally found structure of
the drug to improve its effect and to improve the
finances of pharmaceutical companies
37. B) SYNTHETIC
ADVANTAGES
Chemically pure, Easy & cheap to prepare
Control on quality is excellent
More effective & safe drug can be prepared
Pharmacological activity of drug is the best
Quality can be controlled
Process is quite practical
More potent & safe
Large scale production
38. ORGANIZED DRUGS
ORGANIZED DRUGS
Organised drugs are the drugs having the crude drug
material which represent specific plant parts.
These are obtained from the direct parts of the plants
and containing cellular tissues (rhizomes, barks,
leaves, fruits, entire plants, hairs and fibers).
These are made up of cells or definate structures.
These are solid in nature.
39. ORGANIZED DRUGS
ORGANIZED DRUGS
Botanical or zoological terminology is required to
describe these drugs.
Microscopic characters are the most important
criterea for the identification of these drugs.
40. ORGANIZED DRUGS
Organized drugs consist of the cellular organization in the
form of anatomical features. These are mostly the crude drugs
from plant sources.
Almost all of the morphological plant parts or the entire plant
itself can be called as an organized drugs. A long list can be
made of such crude drugs. To mention few of them, like,
Cinchona bark, Sandalwood, Quassia wood, Senna, Digitalis
leaves, Nux vomica seeds, Rauwolfia roots and many other
examples of above-mentioned groups or crude drugs
exemplified by some other morphological organs can be
quoted as the example of organized crude drugs.
41. ORGANIZED DRUGS
Microscopical and anatomical studies are preeminent for such
crude drugs.
These can be used directly in medicine or can be used by
modifying or by extracting the active ingredient from it. The
simple medicines prepared from these drugs are herbal teas,
extracts, tinctures, etc., and it may be extensively processed for
the isolation and purification of pure therapeutically active
constituent which is ultimately responsible for the action of the
drug.
47. UNORGANIZED DRUGS
Unorganised drugs are a diverse groups of solid and liquid
materials which does not having the plant parts obtained from
natural sources. These are prepared from plants by some
intermediate physical processes such as incision, drying or
extraction with a solvent followed by purification and not
containing any cellular plant tissues.
They contain solid or liquid material obtained from natural
sources adopting extraction procedure.
These can be solid, semisolid or liquid in nature. Eg (aloe
juice, opium latex, agarm gambir, gelatin, tragacanth, benzoin,
honey, beeswax, lemon graass oil, etc.)
48. UNORGANIZED DRUGS
Unorganised drugs are materials having a structure that is
fairly uniform throughout and are not composed of cells/ no
cellular structure.
To describe these drugs physical properties such as solubility
in various solvents, density, optical rotation, refractive index
are determined.
Chemical test & physical standards such as color, odor,
fracture, solubilities in common organic solvents are
confirmatory tests.
49. UNORGANIZED DRUGS
The unorganized drugs do not have the morphological or
anatomical organization as such.
These are the products which come directly in the market but
their ultimate source remains the plants, animals or minerals.
Microscopical studies are not required for such crude drugs.
50. UNORGANIZED DRUGS
These includes products like plant exudates as gums,
oleogums, oleogumresins, plant lattices like that of opium,
aloetic juices like aloes or dried extracts of black and pale
catechu, agar, alginic acid, etc., are products coming under this
group. Other products like essential oils, fixed oils, fats and
waxes obtained from vegetable or animal sources, although
hydro-distilled or extracted from plant, become the direct
commodity for use.
Unorganized crude drugs may be miscellaneous mineral
products like shilajit.
These products may be solid, semisolid or liquid and the
physical, chemical and analytical standards may be applied for
testing their quality and purity.
51. CLASSIFICATION
These can be classified under headings based on their origin &
nature giving well characterised groups
RESINS
They are the solid or semi solid hydrocarbon secretions of
plant. Consist primarily of secondary metabolites, have no role
in physiology of plant.
52. NATURAL RESINS
Product which comes from a Plant e.g. galbanum,
myrrh, asafoetida.
SYNTHETIC RESINS
They required pigments to be grinded, which
provides excellent transparency and pigment wetting.
53. GLYCO RESINS:
GLYCO RESINS Glycosidal combinations of resins which upon
hydrolysis yield sugar and complex resin acids E.g.: Jalap, Ipomoea
OLEO RESINS:
OLEO RESINS Mixtures of volatile oil and resinous substances
E.g.: Turpentine
OLEO-GUM RESINS:
OLEO-GUM RESINS Mixtures of volatile oil, gum and resinous
substances E.g.: Myrrh
BALSAMS:
BALSAMS Resins in combination with benzoic or cinnamic acid
E.g.: Benzoin
54. MUCILAGE
A gelatinous substance of various plants that contain
protein & polysaccharide & is similar to plant gums.
Aloe- Vera
Cactus
55. GUMS
Obtained from trees and shrubs, and are the abnormal
products
Solubility: insoluble in alcohol and soluble in water
General character:
Amorphous
Examples: gum ghatti, acacia
Chemically: consists of Ca, K, Mg
56. LATEX
The latex is a sticky, milky colloid drawn off by making
incisions into the bark and collecting the fluid in vessels
in a process called "tapping“.
Latex is a thick, creamy white, milky emulsion, although
sometimes it may be a thin, clear, yellow or orange,
aqueous suspension.
It has many uses; from clothing to paint, ,rubber, is
used in the manufacturing of natural latex mattresses,
beauty application pads, and cushioning.
57. DRIED JUICES
These juices are obtained from fresh fruit and fleshy
leaves.
They may be used directly as teas or in other extracted
form for their natural chemical constituents.
Used as agents in the synthesis of drugs.
58. EXTRACTS
To obtain from a substance by chemical or mechanical
action as by pressure , distillation or evaporation.
Purpose or use of extract :- Plant extracts have been
shown health promoting properties. Example:- The
water insoluble residues of some fruits n vegetables such
as oranges , carrots , yellow red pepper & tomatoes
were extracted with n-hexane , dichloromethane,
acetone etc by means of carbohydrate as source of food.
59. Summary of unorganized drugs
Unorganized drugs may be classified under headings based
upon their origin and nature, giving well characterized groups,
such as:
Dried latex
Opium, Papain
Dried Juice
Aloe, Kino
Dried extract
Agar, Alginate, Black catechu, Pale catechu, pectin
