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•
Responsibilities and Reasons: We need to consider privacy issues when creating surveillance policies.
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of bedrooms or washrooms.
• Crime, Cost and Benefits: Public surveillance camera systems can be a cost-effective way to deter,
document, and reduce crimes
• Document and Publicise Policies. The law enforcing agencies must formulate on how surveillance
cameras can be used and what are the disciplinary consequences for misuse. Likewise, officers should
be thoroughly trained on these policies and held accountable for abiding by them.
• Forecasting and Post-Event Investigations:The usefulness of surveillance technology in preventing and
solving crimes depends on the resources put into it. The most effective systems are those which are
monitored by trained staff, have enough cameras to detect crimes in progress, and integrate the
technology into all manner of law enforcement activities. Use of correct video-analytics can actually
raise alarms about crimes or accidents before they take place. Correct management software will help
in tagging, archiving and retrieving the authentic data for post-event investigation.
• Mix of Man and Machine: People should be out on the streets and work-places trying to prevent crime
or losses. CCTV cameras are just a less effective alternative to having police walk the streets or security
personnel on patrolling and physical surveillance. As with any technology, the use of cameras is by no
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in an investigation and aids in securing witness cooperation. The video footage serves as a complement
to – but not a replacement for – eyewitness evidence in the courtroom.

• Dark Fighter Technology Cameras Thesecameras can pick up colored images in very low-light conditions. Dark fighter technology can be used in the day and night
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• PTZ Pan Tilt & Zoom CameraPTZ – Pan/tilt/zoom – cameras allow the camera to be moved left or right (panning), up and down (tilting) and even allow the lens to
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• DiscreetCCTV These types of cameras allow for discreet placement which means you can capturegood footageof theft and criminal damage. DiscreetCCTV
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Fire Alarm for your Valuable Assests
• .TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS FOR FIRE ALARM SYSTEM GENERAL DESCRIPTION a) Provide Fire Detection and Alarm System in accordance with
NFPA 72 (Latest edition) and requirements of the Contract Documents. Provide a complete operable and intelligent analog addressable Fire
Alarm and Detection System with associated communication and notification systems. The system shall include interfaces for foreign systems,
as described herein and in accordance with the Contract Documents, and all applicable Codes, Standards and local Regulations, and be
approved by Fire Services. b) All Plant furnished shall be new and the latest state-of-the-art, products of a single Manufacturer engaged in the
manufacturing of analog fire detection devices for at least 5 years. c) All software licenses shall be supplied as part of the contract. Renewable
& subscription license are not acceptable. d) The system shall be supplied, installed, tested, and approved by the local Authority Having
Jurisdiction, and turned over to the Contractor in an operational condition. e) The subcontractor shall contract with a single supplier for the
fire alarm Plant, engineering, programming, inspection and tests, and shall provide a “UL Listing Certificate” for the complete system. f)
Drawings: The Drawings shall serve to indicate the general arrangement of the various Plant and their generic functional interconnections.
However, layout of Plant, accessories, specialties, conduit system and wiring, are diagrammatic and do not necessarily indicate every required
device, fitting, etc., required for the complete installation. SCOPE: A new intelligent reporting, microprocessor controlled fire detection system
shall be installed in accordance to the project specifications and drawings. Basic Performance: Alarm, trouble and supervisory signals from all
intelligent reporting devices shall be encoded on NFPA Style 6 (Class A) Signaling Line Circuits (SLC). Initiation Device Circuits (IDC) shall be
wired Class A (NFPA Style D) as part of an addressable device connected by the SLC Circuit. Notification Appliance Circuits (NAC) shall be wired
Class A (NFPA Style Z) as part of an addressable device connected by the SLC Circuit. On Style 6 or 7 (Class A) configurations a single ground
fault or open circuit on the system Signaling Line Circuit shall not cause system malfunction, loss of operating
E‐tender for Construction of Integrated Check Post at Nepalgupower or the ability to report an alarm. Alarm signals arriving at the FACP shall
not be lost following a primary power failure (or outage) until the alarm signal is processed and recorded. NAC speaker circuits shall be
arranged such that there is a minimum of one speaker circuit per floor of the building or smoke zone whichever is greater. Audio amplifiers and
tone generating equipment shall be electrically supervised for normal and abnormal conditions. NAC speaker circuits and control equipment
shall be arranged such that loss of any one (1) speaker circuit will not cause the loss of any other speaker circuit in the system. Two-way
telephone communication circuits shall be supervised for open and short circuit conditions.

Lightning Disaster Threat(Static Electricity)

Lightning Protection for Oil ,Gas and Other Hazard

26 Report Ministryof PetroleumIndia ESE LightningProtection

ESE Type Lightning Protection Latest Documents
• The completed lightning protection system shall be inspected to the Installation Requirements for ESE
Lightning Protection Systems US 17-102 Submit Risk Assessment per NF C 17-102 annex A; or UTE 17-
108; or equivalent risk assessment yielding a protection level
• Each ESE air terminal shall be provided with two (2) paths to ground from the base plate of the mast,
with the exception of an elevated mast that may have a single conductor run for a maximum of 16 feet
before two (2)down conductors are implemented.
• Copper conductors shall be 37 strand copper wire with a minimum net weight of 410 lbs. per 1,000
ft.Tinned copper strip of equivalent capacity/weight may be substituted.
• No bend of conductor shall form a final included angle of less than 90 degrees nor shall have a radius of
less than 8 inches. Exceptions are thru roof and thru wall connections
• The ground system shall have no more than 10 ohms of resistance
• All grounded systems shall be bonded together via main size conductor to achieve equal potential of all
grounded systems. All such connections shall be accomplished via exothermic welding where possible.
• Surge Protection( From Over Voltages, Lightning)
• Use SPD for all in-comer Power
• Provide surge protection on all 4-20 mA inputs to all analog devices.
• Provide surge protection on all Digital inputs to all Digital devices.
The surge protection device shall protect field instrumentation from
impulses up to 500V or 10,000A induced by lighting strikes or heavy electrical equipment.

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EEI~C Energy & Environmental Research Center
15 North 23rd Street, Stop 9018• Grand Forks, ND 582029018• P. 701.777.5000• F. 701.777.5181
www.undeerc.org
October 18, 2019
Ms. Karlene Fine
Executive Director
North Dakota Industrial Commission
State Capitol, 14th Floor
600 East Boulevard Avenue, Department 405
Bismarck, ND 585050840
Dear Ms. Fine:
Subject: EERC Final Report Entitled “Lightning Protection Scoping Study”
Contract No. G000004; EERC Fund 24324
Attached please find the subject University of North Dakota (UND) Energy &
Environmental Research Center (EERC) final report.
If you have any questions or comments, please contact me by phone at (701) 7775293 or
by email at bstevens@undeerc.org.
Sincerely,
Bradley G. Stevens
Senior Research Engineer
Civil Engineering
BGS/kal
Attachment
c/att: Brent Brannan, NDIC
UNIVERSITY OT
LN)NORT[1 DAKOTA.

LIGHTNING PROTECTION SCOPING STUDY
Final Report
(for the period of August 28, 2019, through October 31, 2019)
Prepared for:
Karlene Fine
North Dakota Industrial Commission
State Capitol, 10th Floor
600 East Boulevard Avenue
Bismarck, ND 58505-0310
Contract No. G-00-004
Prepared by:
Bradley G. Stevens
Meghan A. Taunton
Parker R. Aube
Kevin C. Connors
Chad A. Wocken
John A. Harju
Energy & Environmental Research Center
University of North Dakota
15 North 23rd Street, Stop 9018
Grand Forks, ND 58202-9018
2019-EERC-10-20 October 2019

EERC DISCLAIMER
LEGAL NOTICE This research report was prepared by the Energy & Environmental
Research Center (EERC), an agency of the University of North Dakota, as an account of work
sponsored by North Dakota Industrial Commission. Because of the research nature of the work
performed, neither the EERC nor any of its employees makes any warranty, express or implied, or
assumes any legal liability or responsibility for the accuracy, completeness, or usefulness of any
information, apparatus, product, or process disclosed or represents that its use would not infringe
privately owned rights. Reference herein to any specific commercial product, process, or service
by trade name, trademark, manufacturer, or otherwise does not necessarily constitute or imply its
endorsement or recommendation by the EERC.
NDIC DISCLAIMER
This report was prepared by the Energy & Environmental Research Center (EERC) pursuant
to an agreement partially funded by the Industrial Commission of North Dakota, and neither the
EERC nor any of its subcontractors nor the North Dakota Industrial Commission nor any person
acting on behalf of either:
(A) Makes any warranty or representation, express or implied, with respect to the
accuracy, completeness, or usefulness of the information contained in this report or
that the use of any information, apparatus, method, or process disclosed in this report
may not infringe privately owned rights; or
(B) Assumes any liabilities with respect to the use of, or for damages resulting from the
use of, any information, apparatus, method, or process disclosed in this report.
Reference herein to any specific commercial product, process, or service by trade name,
trademark, manufacturer, or otherwise does not necessarily constitute or imply its endorsement,
recommendation, or favoring by the North Dakota Industrial Commission. The views and opinions
of authors expressed herein do not necessarily state or reflect those of the North Dakota Industrial
Commission

i
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF FIGURES .......................................................................................................................iii
LIST OF TABLES.........................................................................................................................iii
DEFINITION OF TERMS ............................................................................................................ iv
1.0 INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................. 1
1.1 Purpose of Scoping Study............................................................................................ 1
1.2 Personal Communication............................................................................................. 1
1.3 Lightning Statistics in the Williston Basin.................................................................. 1
2.0 SCIENCE OF LIGHTNING AND STATIC ELECTRICITY.............................................. 3
2.1 Charged Particles and Their Properties ....................................................................... 3
2.2 Charging Mechanisms ................................................................................................. 3
2.3 Lightning...................................................................................................................... 4
2.4 Static Electricity........................................................................................................... 6
3.0 FACILITY OPERATIONS................................................................................................... 6
3.1 Saltwater Disposal ....................................................................................................... 6
3.2 Oil Production.............................................................................................................. 7
4.0 SUMMARY OF APPLICABLE LIGHTNING PROTECTION STANDARDS................. 7
4.1 National Fire Protection Association........................................................................... 8
4.1.1 NFPA 780 – Standard for the Installation of Lightning Protection
Systems............................................................................................................ 8
4.1.2 NFPA 77 – Recommended Practice on Static Electricity ............................... 8
4.2 American Petroleum Institute...................................................................................... 9
4.2.1 API 2003 – Recommended Practice for Protection Against Ignitions
Arising Out of Static, Lightning, and Stray Currents...................................... 9
4.2.2 API RP 545 – Recommended Practice for Lightning Protection of
Aboveground Storage Tanks for Flammable or Combustible Liquids............ 9
4.3 International Electrotechnical Commission................................................................. 9
4.3.1 IEC 62305 – International Standard for Lightning Protection ........................ 9
5.0 PRINCIPLES OF LIGHTNING PROTECTION ............................................................... 10
5.1 Current Diversion ...................................................................................................... 10
5.2 Surge Protection......................................................................................................... 10
6.0 STORAGE TANKS ............................................................................................................ 10
7.0 LIGHTNING PROTECTION SYSTEMS.......................................................................... 11
7.1 Components of Traditional Lightning Protection Systems ....................................... 11
7.1.1 Air Terminals................................................................................................. 11
Continued . . .

ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued)
7.1.2 Down-Conductors.......................................................................................... 12
7.1.3 Grounding Electrode...................................................................................... 13
7.1.4 Bonding.......................................................................................................... 13
7.2 Nontraditional Types of Lightning Protection Systems ............................................ 13
7.2.1 CTSs .............................................................................................................. 13
7.2.2 ESE Systems.................................................................................................. 14
7.2.3 Other Nontraditional Lightning Protection.................................................... 15
7.2.4 In-Tank Static Dissipaters.............................................................................. 15
7.2.5 Electromagnetic Shielding............................................................................. 16
8.0 REVIEW OF REGULATORY AND INSURANCE REQUIREMENTS FOR
LIGHTNING PROTECTION............................................................................................. 16
8.1 Regulatory Discussion............................................................................................... 16
8.2 Insurance Discussion ................................................................................................. 17
9.0 KEY FINDINGS................................................................................................................. 17
10.0 NEXT STEPS...................................................................................................................... 18
10.1 State-Specific Activities ............................................................................................ 18
10.2 Research Activities .................................................................................................... 18
11.0 REFERENCES.................................................................................................................... 19

iii
LIST OF FIGURES
1 Lightning strike/spill locations by year................................................................................. 2
2 Propagation of a lightning stroke .......................................................................................... 5
3 Example of traditional air terminals.................................................................................... 12
4 Example of CTS air terminal .............................................................................................. 13
5 Examples of ESE air terminals............................................................................................ 14
6 CMCE-55 ............................................................................................................................ 15
7 Example of in-tank static dissipater .................................................................................... 15
8 Example of EM shielding system........................................................................................ 16
LIST OF TABLES
1 Summary of Lightning Strike Data ....................................................................................... 3

iv
DEFINITION OF TERMS
Air terminal: A lightning strike termination device installed as part of a lightning protection
system designed to intentionally attract lightning. Also called a lightning rod or Franklin rod.
Bonding: An electrical connection between components of a lightning protection system. Also
describes the act of electrically connecting a lightning protection system with other conductive
elements on-site, such as building piping and wiring.
Charge polarization: Charge polarization occurs when the charge distribution in an object
becomes separated, so that the net charge on the object is still the same but the positive and
negative charges are congregated in opposite directions from each other. This causes the charge
density of certain areas of the object to change.
Current transfer system (CTS): A broad term used to describe several devices including
dissipation array systems, spine ball ionizers, and spine ball terminals. CTS is intended to prevent
a lightning strike from occurring within a protected zone. In theory, the CTS “collects” the induced
charge created by a thunderstorm and transfers the charge into the surrounding air.
Down-conductor: A component of the lightning protection system intended to carry the lightning
current from the air terminal to the grounding electrode.
Early streamer emission (ESE) system: ESE systems are similar to conventional lightning
protection systems except that they employ air terminals that, according to their proponents, launch
an upward-connecting leader to meet the descending-stepped leader at an earlier time than would
a conventional air terminal having similar geometry and installed at the same height.
Grounding electrode: A component of the lightning protection system extending into the earth.
May be in the form of a ground rod, ground plate, ground grid, or some combination of conductors
in the earth.
Grounding: The practice of electrically connecting devices, structures, or vessels to the earth.
Lightning protection system: A system designed to protect structures from damage as a result of
lightning strikes. Main components include air terminals, down conductors, and grounding
electrodes.
Static: The buildup of electrical charge on a structure or vessel or in a fluid. Static can accumulate
from fluids moving in pipes, filling and pumping down tanks, or dust blowing across a surface, to
name a few.
Static dissipation: The act of “bleeding off” static that has accumulated. Accomplished by
connecting structure, device, vessel, or fluid to a grounding electrode.

v
Step leader: The initial propagation of multiple lightning leaders from the base of a thunderstorm
cloud toward the earth.
Up-streamer: The charged ionic channel that emanates upward from the earth to meet the step
leaders coming down from the cloud.

1
LIGHTNING PROTECTION SCOPING STUDY
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The North Dakota Industrial Commission (NDIC), in an effort to better understand lightning
and its impacts on oil and gas facilities, funded the Energy & Environmental Research Center
(EERC) to compile relevant information and report it to NDIC in the form of a scoping study.
This report defines the science of lightning strikes and static potential, identifies and defines
grounding and bonding standards associated with lightning protection, reviews available lightning
protection technology, and provides information about spill incidents attributed to lightning strikes
from operators, regulators, and subject matter experts.
1.1 Purpose of Scoping Study
The purpose of the scoping study was to develop an understanding of the cause of lightning
strikes at saltwater disposal (SWD) and oil production facilities in the Williston Basin through
information gathered from facility operators, lightning protection companies, regulators, and
subject matter experts.
1.2 Personal Communication
The EERC communicated with many individuals who had either firsthand information about
lightning strike incidents, were subject matter experts on lightning and static phenomena, or were
offering a component or service related to lighting protection. These personal communications
significantly contributed to the content of this report.
Specifically, information was gathered from individuals from the following groups:
• Oil production and SWD facility operators
• Lightning protection equipment vendors
• Fiberglass and steel tank manufacturers
• North Dakota state regulators
• Insurance companies
• Lightning and static science subject matter experts
1.3 Lightning Statistics in the Williston Basin
A review of the North Dakota Department of Mineral Resources (NDDMR) database
indicated that from 2014 to 2019, the number of oil production and SWD wells increased from
10,732 to 15,073 and from 448 to 465, respectively. Although the exact number was not
determined, it is certain that this increase in wells has resulted in an increase in associated facilities
(specifically tank batteries).

2
Spill report information from lightning-related facility failures was provided by NDDMR.
The data were generated from spill reports between 2014 and 2019 that reported lightning as the
root cause. Data indicate that over this 6-year period, 55 lightning-caused spills were reported at
oil production facilities (28), SWD facilities (23), and central tank batteries (4). Figure 1 shows
the location of the 55 lightning strike-related spills by year, and Table 1 summarizes the
information by year and type of facility. A published study looked at 242 tank accidents over a
40-year period and found that lightning was the most frequent cause of accident (33%), followed
by maintenance (13%) and operational error (12%) (Chang and Lin, 2006).
It should be noted that only lightning strikes that resulted in a spill report are discussed in
this report. It is plausible that lightning strikes at facilities or structures that did not result in a spill
would not have been reported; therefore, no public data would be available.
Figure 1. Lightning strike/spill locations by year (central tank battery strikes not included).

3
Table 1. Summary of Lightning Strike Data (2014–2019)
Year Oil Production Saltwater Disposal
Central Tank
Battery Total
2014 2 5 1 8
2015 3 5 0 8
2016 12 4 1 17
2017 2 2 2 6
2018 5 2 0 7
2019 4 5 0 9
Total 28 23 4 55
Average 4.7 3.8 0.7 9.2
2.0 SCIENCE OF LIGHTNING AND STATIC ELECTRICITY
2.1 Charged Particles and Their Properties
All matter is composed of atoms that have two essential components: a center mass called
the nucleus and orbiting electrons. The nucleus contains positively charged protons and uncharged
neutrons, while the electrons are mobile and possess a negative charge. An atom becomes charged
when there is an unequal number of electrons and protons. A molecule or atom that is charged is
also called an ion. An atom with an excess number of electrons is a negative ion, and an atom with
a deficiency of electrons is a positive ion. The atom can achieve a neutral state by accepting or
rejecting electrons to achieve an equal number of electrons and protons. Generally, opposite
charges attract each other and similar charges repel each other. The forces of charges on each other
is modeled as an electric field. Electron transfer can occur for many reasons, predominantly when
two oppositely charged particles are trying to achieve a net charge neutrality (National Fire
Protection Association, 2018).
2.2 Charging Mechanisms
Two main factors that influence the force an electric field applies to a particle are the distance
between the two particles and the magnitude of the charge of each particle. The force increases as
the distance between charged particles decreases and decreases when the distance between the
particles increases. The energy in a system is the work done when the particles move toward or
away or the potential energy to keep the particles separated by a specific distance.
The electric field of a charged object can affect the distribution of charges in a conductive
material when they are brought closer to each other. The negative charges in the conductive
material move either away or toward the charged object, depending on whether the charged object
is positively or negatively charged. This process is called induction. If the conductive material
makes contact with ground or another object, then the excess electrons flow to the ground or the
object. Upon breaking the contact between the charged object and the conductive material, the
charge distribution on the conductive material changes (National Fire Protection Association,
2018).

4
Friction (triboelectric charging) is a common way for objects to become charged. When
multiple objects are in contact with one another, there is a transfer of free electrons among the
objects. However, depending on the resistivity of the materials the electrons may not be able to
associate with equal amounts of positive charges. If the objects are then removed from each other,
there will be an unequal distribution of charges among the different objects. This effect can happen
on any type of material, including fluids.
Charge polarization occurs when the charge distribution in an object becomes separated so
that the net charge on the object is still the same but the positive and negative charges are
congregated in opposite directions from each other. This causes the charge density of certain areas
of the object to change. An object’s charge distribution is affected by several factors, one being
the geometry of the object. Sharp corners and narrow points (i.e., corners of buildings and points
of lightning rods) tend to have higher charge densities, due to like charges in the object repelling
each other in limited space.
2.3 Lightning
Lightning is an electric phenomenon in which charges accumulated in the cloud will be
discharged into neighboring clouds or to the ground. There are many factors that influence the
accumulation of charges in the clouds. During a thunderstorm, the positive and negative charges
in the cloud become separated by the turbulent winds that carry ice and water particles. These
particles vary in size and mass, which causes charge separation in clouds. During the turbulent
movement of wind, these water particles collide with each other, resulting in a triboelectric effect
among those particles. As a result, the electrons are stripped off the particles, and these electrons
gather at the lower section of the cloud, whereas the protons move up.
Because of electromagnetism, the charge that develops in the lower portion of a cloud (most
often negative) induces an opposite or positive charge on Earth’s crust. As the storm moves over
Earth’s surface, the area of the induced charge changes, causing a small current to flow on Earth’s
surface. The phenomenon of lightning occurs when atmospheric conditions permit the transfer of
charges among ionized atmospheric particles to the ground. This transfer momentarily neutralizes
the electric field by the attachment point of the lightning stroke.
Lightning can be of different forms and can transfer different kinds of charges. The most
common kind of lightning strike is cloud-to-ground, where negatively charged leaders are
produced and travel through the air in a path that has the least amount of resistance to the ground.
Before the leader reaches Earth’s surface an upward streamer is commonly produced, which will
protrude from Earth’s surface and connect with the downward leader from the cloud.
The lightning bolt that propagates from a cloud is made up of multiple step leaders. Each
leader has a very strong electric field, which can produce a corona discharge (American Petroleum
Institute, 2003). The corona discharge occurs when there is a high voltage between a sharp, pointed
object and a neutral reference point (National Fire Protection Association, 2018). It is capable of
breaking down gases and ionizing nearby particles, ultimately aiding a leader step to creating a
path for the next leader step. As the step leader gets closer to ground, the electric field on Earth’s
surface below the step leader rises rapidly. The induced electric field, in some circumstances, can

5
become large enough to discharge an upward streamer in the direction of the step leader. When
the upward streamer connects to the step leader, a massive electrical current is produced.
Ultimately, the current between the cloud and the ground collapses the electric field on the ground
and momentarily neutralizes the areas near the point of attachment. Figure 2 shows the propagation
steps of a lightning strike.
The ground current near the attachment point increases tremendously compared to the slow-
moving current induced by the moving charged storm. The current during and after a lightning
stroke spreads along all the paths available to disperse the charges evenly. However, the amount
of current on a path is dependent on the impedance of that path in proportion to the impedance of
the other paths (American Petroleum Institute, 2009).
Figure 2. Propagation of a lightning stroke (source: Lutgens and Tarbuck, 2000).

6
2.4 Static Electricity
Static electricity can accumulate through charging mechanisms, which were previously
discussed in the Section 2.2 Charging Mechanisms. Charge retention is an object’s ability to keep
its accumulated charge from dissipating to other parts of its environment. The atmospheric
conditions (humidity) surrounding charged objects have a major effect on their ability to drain
their charge over time. Other factors that affect an object’s charge retention include the
conductivity of the material and the materials it is in contact with, as well as temperature,
atmospheric pressure, and the object’s shape (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers,
1993).
Conductive materials (conductors) allow charges to easily move through the material and
transfer to other materials. Nonconductors (insulators) have the opposite effect on charges. The
humidity of the relative environment of an object will significantly affect the object’s charge
retention depending on whether the object’s material is a conductor or an insulator. Higher
humidity will increase conductivity, i.e., decreasing the charge retention, of a conductor. However,
insulators will be less affected by these environmental conditions, making them able to hold onto
their charge until another variable is introduced into the system.
An electrostatic discharge (ESD) occurs when two electrically charged objects come in
contact, which allows for the transfer of charges between these objects under certain atmospheric
and geometric conditions. This may cause an illuminated arc between the air gap of the two objects.
The arc will contain a portion of the total amount of energy stored in the charged system (Institute
of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, 1993).
3.0 FACILITY OPERATIONS
Understanding the operational function of both SWD and oil production facilities is
important since normal operating conditions have the potential to influence static buildup and/or
the likelihood of lightning strikes. In general, the movement of fluid within a tank during filling
and emptying operations can induce a static charge on the vessel. This static charge can dissipate
with time to ground through dedicated grounding systems or the tank and piping. If not dissipated,
this static charge can produce an electrical potential that can lead to a spark and subsequent ignition
of flammable vapors or contribute to a lightning strike, as lightning seeks the lowest resistance
path to ground. A summary of typical tank-loading operations and measures used to minimize
static discharge is provided below.
3.1 Saltwater Disposal
Saltwater, also called produced water or brine, is a natural part of oil and gas production and
SWD facilities are a required component of infrastructure to dispose of this fluid. Fluid will arrive
on-site by pipeline or truck.

7
Underground gathering pipelines for saltwater are generally constructed of nonmetallic pipe
and connected directly to a storage tank. The saltwater travels from the oil and gas operator’s
production facility directly to the SWD facility, which may be several miles away.
Trucks arrive on-site and a retractable grounding device or wire is attached to the unloading
pod or dedicated ground rod. The truck is hooked up to the tank battery with a flexible hose to a
metal quick coupling inside the pod. Once this is complete, the truck begins unloading fluid,
passing through a filter pod, and ultimately ending in a fiberglass storage tank prior to injection.
Prior to unhooking the flexible hose, a vacuum must be applied to the hose to remove any fluid
left inside. The final step is to remove the retractable grounding wire from the pod prior to leaving
the site.
The tanks used at SWD facilities are typically constructed of fiberglass, although some
operators have chosen to utilize epoxy-lined steel tanks for a variety of reasons. Fiberglass tanks
are preferred because of their resistance to the corrosivity of the produced water.
3.2 Oil Production
Oil production facilities serve a different purpose. A mixture of oil, water, and gas is pumped
from the well to one or more vessels designed to separate the three components. The gas is
transported via pipeline to a gas-processing facility. The oil is typically stored on-site in steel tanks
and/or transported through a steel flowline/pipeline via a lease automatic custody transfer (LACT)
system. As with SWD facilities, the produced water is typically stored on-site in fiberglass tanks
and/or transported through a nonmetallic gathering pipeline or tanker truck to a SWD facility.
When truck transport is required, trucks arrive on-site and attach a retractable grounding
device or wire to the unloading pod or dedicated ground rod. A flexible hose is used to connect
the tanker truck to a metal quick coupling inside the loading pod of the storage tank battery. Once
this is complete, the truck begins loading fluid (oil or produced water). Prior to unhooking the
flexible hose, a vacuum must be applied to the hose to remove any fluid left inside. The final step
is to remove the retractable grounding wire from the loading pod prior to leaving the site. The
truck transports the fluid to either a SWD or an oil-unloading facility.
4.0 SUMMARY OF APPLICABLE LIGHTNING PROTECTION STANDARDS
Several organizations have published standards and guidance related to lightning protection
systems and static electricity. In the United States, the National Fire Protection Association
(NFPA) (2017) is most frequently identified as the governing agency for lightning protection
systems. The American Petroleum Institute (API) has also published guidance documents related
to lightning protection in the oil and gas industry. The most widely recognized international
standard for protection against lighting is International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC)
Standard 62305. A brief summary of these standards and guidance documents is provided here.

8
4.1 National Fire Protection Association
4.1.1 NFPA 780 – Standard for the Installation of Lightning Protection Systems
NFPA 780 is an industry-recognized standard practice for design and installation of
traditional lightning protection systems. This standard is the best-known source of information
regarding lightning protection system design, providing the philosophy behind traditional
lightning protection systems. However, it specifically states that it does not cover installation
requirements for nontraditional lightning protection systems such as early streamer emission (ESE)
and current transfer systems (CTS). NFPA 780 was developed to safeguard persons and property
from fire risks and related hazards arising from exposure to lightning.
NFPA 780 specifies lightning protection system installation requirements for structures
containing flammable vapors, flammable gases, or liquids that can give off flammable vapors. The
standard states, in part, “a primary means to reduce ignition of flammable vapors shall be to
minimize the presence of those vapors in places that are vulnerable to a source of ignition such as
heating, arcing, or corona discharge caused by one of the following: 1) a direct strike, 2) lightning
electromagnetic pulse (LEMP), or 3) secondary arcing” (National Fire Protection Association,
2017).
NFPA 780, Annex N, specifically addresses nonmetallic tanks containing flammable vapors,
flammable gases, or liquids that can give off flammable vapors. Annex N states, “The protection
of nonmetallic tanks that might contain flammable vapors, flammable gases, or liquids that can
give off flammable vapors requires measures above and beyond protection of other structures
discussed in this standard. It is recommended that nonmetallic tanks not be used in applications
where flammable vapors might be present. The recommendations in this annex are provided to
identify methods that can be used to mitigate, but not eliminate, lightning-related damage”
(National Fire Protection Association, 2017).
4.1.2 NFPA 77 – Recommended Practice on Static Electricity
NFPA 77 is a recommended practice to identify, assess, and control static electricity for the
purpose of preventing fires and explosions. NFPA 77 addresses the potential hazards that arise
when static electricity is generated, accumulates, and discharges. This standard specifically
addresses storage tanks with flammable and combustible liquids and their vapors. NFPA 77 states,
“Liquid flowing into a tank can carry a static electric charge that will accumulate in the tank. This
charge can be detected as a potential above the surface of the liquid in the tank. The maximum
surface potential attained depends not only on the charge density of the incoming liquid but also
on the dimensions of the tank” (National Fire Protection Association, 2018). This standard
provides guidance on precautions to be taken related to storage tanks with flammable and
combustible liquids. The standard also offers techniques for controlling the hazards of static
electricity.

9
4.2 American Petroleum Institute
4.2.1 API 2003 – Recommended Practice for Protection Against Ignitions
Arising Out of Static, Lightning, and Stray Currents
API Recommended Practice (RP) 2003 is a recommended practice for the petroleum
industry to prevent hydrocarbon ignition from static electricity, lightning, and stray currents. RP
2003 offers the current state of knowledge and technology regrading oil and gas industry
applications for protection against ignitions arising out of static, lightning, and stray currents. The
principles discussed in this recommended practice are applicable to other operations where
ignitable liquids and gases are handled. Their use should lead to improved safety practices and
evaluations of existing installations and procedures.
RP 2003 specifically addresses fiberglass tanks stating, “It is not recommended to store
flammable liquids in nonconductive (e.g., plastic, fiberglass) aboveground tanks” (American
Petroleum Institute, 2003). The recommended practice further describes concerns relating to
electrostatic accumulation, “When nonconductive tanks are used for hydrocarbon storage or
storage of materials that may be contaminated with flammable products, significant electrostatic
concerns are introduced” (American Petroleum Institute, 2003). The recommended practice
provides guidance to ensure the safe dissipation of charges and how to prevent discharges.
4.2.2 API RP 545 – Recommended Practice for Lightning Protection of
Aboveground Storage Tanks for Flammable or Combustible Liquids
API RP 545 provides guidance and information on lightning protection for tanks. This
recommended practice replaces the requirements of API RP 2003 regarding lightning protection
for preventing fires in storage tanks with flammable or combustible contents. This standard applies
to new tanks and may also be applied to existing tanks.
This recommended practice is a first edition published in October 2009. API RP 545 is
intended for manufacturers of welded steel oil storage tanks of various sizes and capacities. The
standard addresses protections for fixed-roof metallic tanks and tanks with either internal or
external floating roofs. This recommended practice includes information related to lightning
principles and the effects of a direct or indirect lightning stroke on a tank containing flammable
and combustible liquids. In addition, it also provides guidance on lightning protection,
maintenance, and inspection of aboveground oil storage tanks.
4.3 International Electrotechnical Commission
4.3.1 IEC 62305 – International Standard for Lightning Protection
IEC 62305 is an international standard for lightning protection systems. This standard
consists of four main parts: general principles, risk management, physical damage to structures
and life hazard, and electrical and electronic systems within structures. This standard comprises a
methodology for assessing risk and guidance based on lightning protection levels to address the
risks identified. IEC 62305 describes four levels of a lightning protection system based on the

10
characteristics of an anticipated lightning stroke. Each level has four corresponding classes that
are defined and make up specific construction rules. The lightning protection levels are assigned
values which, in turn, are used to determine the construction requirements for the lightning
protection system.
5.0 PRINCIPLES OF LIGHTNING PROTECTION
The purpose of lightning protection is to provide a pathway for lightning-induced electrical
current or electromagnetic field to pass through a facility without damaging equipment, creating
arcs or spark, and thereby preventing damage. Systems are designed to protect facilities against
lightning striking the facility itself (direct lightning strike) and from indirect strikes in which
current can travel through conductors such as pipes or cables (electrical, communication) into a
facility. Adequate lighting protection systems include current diversion and surge protection.
While these two factors are related, they are often treated separately in codes and standards (Uman,
2008).
5.1 Current Diversion
Current diversion is the rerouting of the lightning current away from the protected structure
and into the earth (Uman, 2008). A current diversion system is composed of three electrically
connected components; air terminals, down-conductors, and grounding electrodes.
5.2 Surge Protection
Surge protection is a necessary component of a complete lightning protection system and is
designed to protect electrical, communications, and antenna systems from:
• The voltages induced in those electrical and electronic systems due to the flow of
lightning current in the lightning protection system and the electromagnetic effects of
lightning in close proximity to the protection system.
• The lightning-induced voltages on the structure via incoming power feeders and
data/communication lines, given that these utility lines may have relatively large voltages
induced on them by direct or nearby strikes.
Recommendations for surge protection are outlined in NFPA 780 and IEC 62305 and vary
depending on the specifics of the facility (Brandon, 2018).
6.0 STORAGE TANKS
Storage tanks containing low conductive liquids can accumulate static charge through any
type of flow of the liquid within them. The motion of the liquid causes a triboelectric effect among
the inner surface of the tank and the liquid itself. In addition, a static charge can accumulate on a
tank from wind blowing dust or other particles across the outside of the tank. The static charge

11
accumulation between the tank and contents of the tank can cause an ignition hazard, depending
on the minimum ignition energy (MIE) of the contents of the tank. The potential electrical energy
can decay over time when the charge transfer occurs through a path of resistance. The rate at which
the energy is dissipated is affected by many factors, including the conductivity of the materials,
geometry of the objects’ shapes, and atmospheric conditions. A massive electric field such as a
thunderstorm can induce and affect the charge distribution of a tank, causing a spark across air
gaps as the charge densities change between the tank and its contents.
Tanks are also at risk of direct and indirect lightning strikes. For direct lighting strikes, the
height and resistive properties of a tank material make a preferable path to ground during a
thunderstorm rather than a flat area that is farther away from the approaching leader step. The
leader step will make contact on the tank at locations of least resistance and greatest potential,
primarily the highest points of the tank. Tank designs vary but the most common contact points
are handrails, gas/pressure vents, and other equipment on top of the tank, from which the current
will spread across all paths to ground. If there are any air gaps along a path, there is a possibility
that current will arc across the gap, depending on the potential and resistance of that path. The arcs
between air gaps may ignite a tank’s contents, depending on the energy of the arc and the MIE of
the contents of the tank.
As discussed above, the current of a lightning stroke spreads proportionally along all its
paths of dispersion. If a tank is within a path of current from an indirect stroke, then the current
can possibly arc over any air gaps on the tank. However, the energy of an arc over an air gap from
an indirect lightning stroke is most often considerably less than the energy from a direct lightning
stroke (American Petroleum Institute, 2009).
7.0 LIGHTNING PROTECTION SYSTEMS
For the purposes of this report, lightning protection systems are categorized in two ways:
traditional and nontraditional. Traditional systems are designed to perform as current diversion
systems by using air terminals, down-conductors, and grounding electrodes and include
consideration for adequate bonding and surge protection. Nontraditional systems describe all other
systems, including CTSs and ESE systems. Nontraditional lightning protection systems are based
on either preventing lightning from striking or improving the effectiveness of directing lightning
to ground without causing damage.
7.1 Components of Traditional Lightning Protection Systems
7.1.1 Air Terminals
Air terminals (also known as Franklin rods), are vertical rods or catenary and meshed wires
(or other conductor, as described in NFPA 780 and IEC 62305) connected together on top of or
above a structure to intercept the descending lightning stepped leader (Uman, 2008). Benjamin
Franklin first described the concept in the year 1753. The traditional Franklin rod is a sharp-pointed
rod but is often used to describe any vertical lightning rod (Uman, 2008). While the guiding
principles were clear and elucidated by Franklin, the details regarding the optimal geometry of

12
lightning rods (i.e., length, diameter, curvature of tip) and the overall design of lightning protection
systems have been widely debated throughout the industry and international scientific community.
The placement of the air terminals on and around the structures create zones of protection to protect
the structure from direct and indirect lightning strikes. Calculation methods used to determine the
zone of protection are included in both NFPA 780 and IEC 62305 (Brandon, 2018).
A conventional air terminal lightning protection system, as described by API RP 2003,
consists of installing a suitable number of air terminals (also called lightning rods), conducting
masts or overhead shield wires above the structures or areas to be protected. These devices are
bonded to the grounding system. The air terminals, masts, or shield wires are designed to collect
incoming lightning strikes by generating upward streamers. Installation requirements and specific
information about the protected zone can be found in NFPA 780. Conventional air terminal
lightning protection systems do not protect against indirect lightning currents or induced voltages.
These effects are addressed by proper bonding and the application of surge protection devices
(American Petroleum Institute 2003, Appendix C). Figure 3 shows a typical air terminal in a
traditional lightning protection system.
Figure 3. Example of traditional air terminals.
7.1.2 Down-Conductors
Down-conductors are designed to carry the lightning current downward safely into the earth
termination system while also limiting the risk of flashover to other electrically conductive
elements (Brandon, 2018). The down-conductors are connected to the air terminals and placed
along the perimeter of a structure. Both NFPA and IEC standards require a minimum of at least
two down-conductors for each structure, but the requirement for the spacing between conductors
varies between standards. NFPA 780 states the average distance between conductors should not
exceed 30 meters while IEC 62305 specifies the conductors be arranged in such a way as to reduce

13
the probability of damage due to lightning current flowing in the lightning protection system
(Brandon, 2018).
7.1.3 Grounding Electrode (earth termination system)
The earth termination system serves to properly bond and ground the electrically conductive
current generated from the lightning surge into the down-conductors away from the structure and
into the earth (Brandon, 2018). The design of the earth termination system may comprise a bonded
system of earth electrodes or a ring conductor encircling the structure being protected. Both
designs are specified in NFPA 780 and IEC 62305 standards. The NFPA 780 earth termination
system is dimensioned and designed per applicable clauses, while the earth electrode and ring
conductor designs, as described in IEC 62305-3, are based on the class of lightning protection
system (Brandon, 2018).
7.1.4 Bonding
Bonding is a term used to describe the interconnecting of the components of the lightning
protection system to other conductive components to preclude voltage differences. If present, this
may include bonding the lightning protection system to internal conductive components of
buildings such as water, sewer, and gas piping, resulting in all localized grounding having the same
potential. Appropriate bonding helps to reduce differences in electrical potential and the likelihood
of flashover or sparking as current seeks the lowest resistance path to ground.
7.2 Nontraditional Types of Lightning Protection Systems
Nontraditional lightning protection systems are commercially available and typically have
propriety configurations and/or components. These nontraditional technologies generally fall into
two categories: CTSs and ESE systems.
7.2.1 CTSs
API RP 2003 describes this type of lightning protection as
a charge transfer, ionizing, or streamer-delaying lightning
protection system. CTS consists of installing a suitable number
of ionizers or ionizing air terminals above the structures or areas
to be protected (Figure 4). These devices are then bonded to the
grounding system. The ionizers and ionizing air terminals are
designed to 1) establish a conductive path for the step leader and
2) suppress or delay the formation of upward streamers.
Installation requirements and specific information about the
protected zone are available from the systems’ manufacturers.
The charge transfer, ionizing, or streamer-delaying systems may
have some benefit in reducing indirect lightning currents or
induced voltages. However, proper bonding and surge
protection devices should still be provided (American
Petroleum Institute, 2003, Appendix C).
Figure 4. Example of CTS air
terminal (source: Lightning
Eliminators).

14
7.2.2 ESE Systems
ESE systems are similar to conventional lightning protection systems except that they
employ air terminals that, according to their proponents, launch an upward-connecting leader to
meet the descending-stepped leader at an earlier time than would a conventional air terminal
having similar geometry and installed at the same height. This earlier-initiated upward-connecting
leader is claimed to be capable of extending significantly longer distances and, as a result, provides
a significantly larger zone of protection than the upward-connecting leader from a conventional
air terminal of the same height (Uman, 2008; Uman and Rakov, 2002).
An ESE air terminal lightning protection system consists of a suitable number of ESE air
terminals installed above the structures or areas to be protected. These devices are bonded to the
grounding system similarly to traditional lightning protection systems. ESE air terminals are
designed to generate upward streamers that launch sooner than conventional lightning rods, thus
providing a more attractive point of termination. Installation requirements and specific information
about the protected zone are available from the systems’ manufacturers. ESE air terminal lightning
protection systems do not protect against indirect lightning currents or induced voltages. These
effects are addressed by proper bonding and the application of surge protection devices (American
Petroleum Institute, 2003). Figure 5 depicts several examples of ESE air terminals.
Figure 5. Examples of ESE air terminals (modified image from Rizk, 2019).

15
7.2.3 Other Nontraditional Lightning Protection
Certain devices on the market do not necessarily fit the previous two classes of nontraditional
lightning protection. Although there may be others, our research found one EMP Solutions’
CMCE-55, and it is based on the principle of balancing positive and negative ions and sending
them to ground before a cloud to ground strike has a chance to form. The claim is that this results
in a large protected area where lightning will not strike (EMP Solutions, 2019). Figure 6 shows
the EMP Solutions device.
7.2.4 In-Tank Static Dissipaters
In-tank static dissipation devices are used to divert static charge buildup occurring inside
nonmetal or steel crude oil and saltwater storage tanks. Static charges can accumulate and remain
in the tank until they are able to move through an electric current or electrical discharge. The
internal tank dissipation technology utilizes a low-conductivity material grounded to the tank or
some other component of the grounding network. As static electricity builds inside the tank, the
low-conductivity material allows a pathway for the static charges to slowly and safely exit the tank
without a sudden electrical discharge that has the potential to ignite vapors and combustible liquids
stored in the tank. Figure 7 shows an example of an in-tank static dissipater.
Figure 6. CMCE-55. (source: EMP
Solutions).
Figure 7. Example of in-tank static dissipater
(source: Lightning Master Corporation).

16
7.2.5 Electromagnetic Shielding
Electromagnetic (EM) shielding is designed to “shield” nonconductive tanks (i.e., fiberglass)
from electromagnetic waves resulting from indirect lightning strikes or by distributing current
from a direct lightning strike around the tank. The manufacturer cites research it has performed
that shows the elimination of sparking of metallic components in fiberglass tanks when
electromagnetic waves penetrate the tank (Rizk, 2019). Figure 8 shows an example of a
commercially available EM shielding system.
Figure 8. Example of EM shielding system (source: Rizk, 2019).
8.0 REVIEW OF REGULATORY AND INSURANCE REQUIREMENTS FOR
LIGHTNING PROTECTION
8.1 Regulatory Discussion
A review was performed to understand the regulatory environment surrounding lightning
and static protection for upstream oil and gas facilities, including SWD facilities. The EERC found
that there are no North Dakota State or federal regulations that require lightning protection to be
installed on upstream oil- and gas-related facilities. Nationwide, there is little to no regulation that
specifically requires lightning protection systems on these types of facilities, and no requirements
were found explicitly requiring lightning protection at SWD well facilities.
When comparing other states with similar oil and gas production activity to North Dakota,
most states do not have specific rules for lightning protection. Colorado and Ohio require the
operator to address lightning hazards, but the rules are specific to oil and gas facilities in urban
areas. Colorado’s rules apply to large multiwell (eight or more new wells) oil and gas production

17
facilities with storage capacity greater than 4000 barrels per day in an area with 22 building units
or one high-occupancy building unit within a 1000-ft radius of the proposed location (i.e., urban
mitigation areas). Ohio requires each oil storage tank located in urbanized areas to have a
functioning lightning arrestor. Ohio defines an urbanized area as a municipal corporation or a
township that has an unincorporated population of more than 5000 people. The Pennsylvania
Department of Environmental Protection Tanks Program provides a guidance document for oil
and gas operators that highlights frequently used storage tank standards and practices for
constructing, inspecting, and maintaining tanks on oil and gas facilities. This guidance document
is not a requirement. The guidance includes reference to API RP 2003 Protection Against Ignitions
Arising Out of Static, Lightning, and Stray Currents.
The regulatory review found that most oil- and gas-producing states including North Dakota
have specific sections in their administrative rules that address safety regulations for upstream oil-
and gas-related facilities. These safety regulations almost always include addressing wellsite fire
hazards, although the focus is typically on the location of heating equipment to the wellhead or oil
tanks and the removal of combustible materials such as debris, not weather-related events. These
requirements that appear to be standard among oil- and gas-producing states are in place to limit
the potential of a fire occurring at an oil and gas production facility.
8.2 Insurance Discussion
The EERC identified no information indicating that insurance companies are requiring
facility operators to install lightning protection. As stated by Mr. Pat Nickodemus of Empire
Company (Personal communication, October 2019), a large majority of oil and gas companies
typically self-insure first-party property losses at oil production and SWD facilities where a
lightning-caused fire might occur.
Based on these facts, the EERC has concluded that decisions on whether to install lightning
protection and what standards to follow if lightning protection is installed are dictated by
individual corporate policies.
9.0 KEY FINDINGS
Lightning is a natural phenomenon, and the factors influencing lightning strikes may not be
fully understood, especially relating to oil and gas facilities. Accordingly, there is a lack of peer-
reviewed research literature (Ewing et al., 2005).
Although not required, when lightning protection equipment is installed, it appears that this
is done based on corporate policy. NFPA 780 is the most appropriate standard to follow.
Lightning protection experts suggest systems be installed and properly maintained by a
qualified contractor using only Underwriters Laboratory-listed materials rated for lightning service
(Underwriters Laboratory, 2016).

18
Incidents of lightning strikes resulting in spills do not appear to be increasing with the
growing number of oil- and gas-related facilities. It is important to note that publicly available data
are only available for lightning strikes that resulted in a spill. Lightning may strike an oil and gas
facility, and if the current travels to ground, no damage to the facility may be observed.
Lightning occurs in order to equalize differences in electrical charge (potential) between a
storm and the earth. Tall objects and objects with an electrical or static charge are more likely to
be struck as lightning seeks the easiest path to ground. Both fiberglass and steel tanks can
accumulate a static charge as a result of operations or environmental conditions making them
susceptible to a lightning strike. Although NFPA 780 recommends fiberglass tanks not be used in
applications where flammable vapors might be present, the EERC found no peer-reviewed
scientific data specifically citing tank material as the only factor influencing failure due to lightning
strikes. Although lightning is the primary focus of the scoping study, the role of static charge
cannot be overlooked as a potential contributor.
Lightning protection technologies fall in to two general categories: traditional and
nontraditional. Both categories utilize many similar components including electrical conductive
cables and grounding systems. Only traditional lightning protection systems are recognized by
NFPA, and none are able to claim 100% effectiveness at eliminating failure due to lightning strike.
Most state regulations for oil and gas facilities do not require lightning protection. Only
Colorado and Ohio require operators to address lightning hazards, but only where facilities are
located in urbanized areas. In addition, no information was discovered that would indicate that
insurance provisions would require lightning protection.
The EERC identified no information indicating that insurance companies are requiring
facility operators to install lightning protection, and in most cases, companies self-insure for first-
party property losses.
10.0 NEXT STEPS
10.1 State-Specific Activities
To date, root cause assessments for these incidents have been determined by first- or second-
hand accounts. Compilation and review of information from prior lightning strikes and spills could
help clarify the root cause of failures and aid in identifying corrective strategies.
Going forward, it may be prudent for NDDMR to gather and critically examine information
related to future incidents to further support this root cause analysis.
10.2 Research Activities
The EERC’s investigation revealed a lack of independent research specifically focused on
lighting strikes and lightning protection devices at oil production and SWD facilities. The EERC,
in collaboration with experts and laboratories dedicated to lightning research, recommend

19
performing computational modeling, simulations studies, and/or pilot-scale testing to improve the
understanding of the following issues:
1. The role tank material plays on the likelihood of a lightning strike and/or tank failure.
2. The role operating conditions, contained fluid properties, and electrostatic potential play
on the likelihood of a lightning strike.
3. The understanding of the failure mechanism(s) from a direct or indirect lightning strike
(i.e., electrical, thermal, mechanical).
11.0 REFERENCES
American Petroleum Institute. RP 2003, Recommended Practice for Protection Against Ignitions
Arising Out of Static, Lightning, and Stray Currents, 2003.
American Petroleum Institute. RP 545, Recommended Practice for Lightning Protection of
Aboveground Storage Tanks for Flammable or Combustible Liquids, 2009.
Brandon, G.T. Adoption of EIC 62305 as the Basis for One Major U.S. Electric Utility’s Lightning
Protection Standard. Presented at the 25th International Lightning Detection Conference and
7th International Lightning Meteorology Conference, March 12–15, 2018.
Ewing, P.D.; Kisner, R.A.; Korsah, K.; Moore, M.R.; Wilgen, J.B.; Wood, R.T. Technical Basis
for Regulatory Guidance on Lightning Protection in Nuclear Power Plants; Report for Division
of Engineering, Technology, Office of Nuclear Regulatory Research, U.S. Nuclear Regulatory
Commission; NUREG/CR-6866, ORNL/TM-2001/140; Oak Ridge National Laboratory: Oak
Ridge, TN, 2005.
Chang, J.I.; Lin, C.-C. A Study of Storage Tank Accidents. Journal of Loss Prevention in the
Process Industries 2006, 19, 51–59.
EMP Solutions. www.preventlightning.com (accessed October 9, 2019).
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers. IEEE Guide on Electrostatic Discharge (ESD):
Characterization of the ESD Environment, C62.47-1992, 1993.
Lutgens, F.K.; Tarbuck, E.J. The Atmosphere: An Introduction to Meteorology, 8th Edition;
Prentice Hall, 2000.
National Fire Protection Association. NFPA 77, Recommended Practice on Static Electricity
Recommended Revisions, 2018.
National Fire Protection Association. NFPA 780, Standard for the Installation of Lightning
Protection Systems, 2017.
Rakov, V.A. Lightning Discharge and Fundamentals of Lightning Protection. Journal of Lightning
Research 2012, 4 (Suppl 1: M2), 3–11.

20
Rizk, A. (Lightning Electrotechnologies). Lightning Protection of Fiberglass Tanks. Presented to
the Energy & Environmental Research Center, Grand Forks, ND, Oct 2, 2019.
Uman, M.A. The Art and Science of Lightning Protection; 2008.
Uman, M.A. and Rakov, A Critical Review of Nonconventional Approaches to Lightning
Protection, American Meteorological Society, 2002.
Underwriters Laboratory. UL 96A, Standard for Installation Requirements for Lightning
Protection Systems, 2016.

PETROLEUM AND NATURAL GAS REGULATORY BOARD
NOTIFICATION
New Delhi, the ________
G.S.R.____. In exercise of the powers conferred by section 61 of the Petroleum and Natural Gas
Regulatory Act, 2006 (19 of 2006), the Petroleum and Natural Gas Regulatory Board hereby makes the
following Regulations, namely: -
1. Short title and commencement.
(1) These regulations may be called the Petroleum and Natural Gas Regulatory Board (Technical
Standards and Specifications including Safety Standards for Refineries and Gas Processing
Plants) Regulations, 2020.
(2) They shall come into force on the date of their publication in the Official Gazette.
2. Definitions.
(1) In these regulations, unless the context otherwise requires:
(a) “Act” means the Petroleum and Natural Gas Regulatory Board Act, 2006;
(b) “Board” means the Petroleum and Natural Gas Regulatory Board established under sub-section
(1) of section 3 of the Act;
(c) “Block” means facilities operated / used in integrated way and surrounded by roads. For example,
process unit, boiler house, group of tanks located in a dyke, group of pressurized storage tanks,
loading gantries, flare etc.
(d) “C4 and Lighter ends” means hydrocarbons or a mixture of Hydrocarbons containing four or less
than four carbon atoms. Examples are Butane, Propane, Propylene etc. LPG, a mixture of
propane and butane also fall under the same category.
(e) “Compressed Gas” means any permanent gas, liquefiable gas, or cryogenic liquid under pressure
or gas mixture which in a closed pressure vessel exercise a pressure exceeding one atmosphere
(gauge) at the maximum working temperature and includes Hydrogen Fluoride. In case of vessel
without insulation or refrigeration, the maximum working temperature shall be considered as 55
0C;
(f) “Control of Work” process means a documented system to control hazardous work. It covers job
planning, risk assessment , scheduling , isolation management and a formal PTW (Permit to
Work) system.
a. “Cold Work” means an activity which does not produce sufficient heat to ignite a flammable
air -hydrocarbon mixture or a flammable substance.
b. “Permit” means a formal and detailed agreed document that contains location, time,
equipment to be worked on, hazard identification, mitigation / precaution measure(s) used
and the names of those authorizing the work and performing the work.
c. “Hot Work” means an activity that can produce a spark or flame or other source of ignition
having sufficient energy to cause ignition, where the potential for flammable vapors, gases,
or dust exists.
d. “Approver” means designated Plant/ Area in-charge is to approve an activity based on the
risk involved in executing the activity. Higher the risk , higher would be the approval level
required for authorization.
e. “Issuer” means designated person authorized to issue work permit.
f. “Receiver” means designated person authorized to receive work permit.
Note: Where open flame jobs are involved, additional precautions/controls on top of those for
regular Hot Work must be in place

(g) “Critical temperature” means the temperature above which gas cannot be liquefied by the
application of pressure alone;
(h) “Crude Oil Gathering Station” means crude oil gathering station / Group gathering station is a
production installation used for gathering, treating or storing crude oil and includes central tank
farm, oil collecting station, gas compressor station and well head installation.
(i) “Design” includes drawings, calculations, specifications, codes and all other details necessary for
complete description of the pressure vessel and its construction;
(j) “Design pressure” means the pressure used in the design of equipment, a container, or a vessel
for the purpose of determining the minimum permissible thickness or physical characteristics of
its different parts. Where applicable, static head shall be included in the design pressure to
determine the thickness of any specific part;
(k) “Dyke” means a structure used to establish an impounding area;
(l) “Emergency Shutdown System” (ESD) means a system that safely and effectively stops whole
plant or an individual unit during abnormal situation or in emergency;
(m) “Facility” means this refers to any building, structure, installation, equipment, pipeline, or other
physical feature used in petroleum refining, storage, transportation and distribution.
(n) “Failsafe” means a design feature that provides for the maintenance of safe operating conditions
in the event of a malfunction of control devices or an interruption of an energy source;
(o) “Flammability range” means the difference between the minimum and maximum percentage by
volume of the gas in mixture with air that forms a flammable mixture at atmospheric pressure and
ambient temperature;
(p) “Flash Point” means the lowest temperature at which the liquid yields vapour in sufficient
concentration to form an ignitable mixture with air and gives a momentary flash on application of
a small pilot flame under specified conditions of test as per IS: 1448 (Part-I).
(q) “Fired Equipment” means any equipment in which the combustion of fuels takes place and
includes among others, fired boilers, fired heaters, internal combustion engines, certain integral
heated vaporisers, the primary heat source for remote heated vaporisers, gas-fired oil foggers,
fired regeneration heaters and flared vent stacks;
(r) “Fire station” means a building housing facilities of parking fire tenders and keeping other ready
to use fire-fighting equipment for meeting plant emergencies, fire control room with required
communication facilities/mimic panel.
(s) “Fire Water pump house” means a building housing fire water pumps, jockey pumps,
communication and alarm system, instrumentation and the required operating & supporting
personnel.
(t) “Gas free” means the concentration of flammable or toxic gases or both if it is within the safe
limits specified for persons to enter and carry out hot work in such vessels;
(u) “Gas Processing Plant” means gas processing plant is a facility where natural gas is received
and processed to separate gas, LPG, condensate etc.
(v) “General Classification of Petroleum Products” means petroleum products are classified
according to their closed cup FLASH POINTS as given below:
— Class-A Petroleum: Liquids which have flash point below 23oC.
— Class-B Petroleum: Liquids which have flash point of 23 oC and above but below 65 oC.
— Class-C Petroleum: Liquids which have flash point of 65 oC and above but below 93 oC.
— Excluded Petroleum: Liquids which have flash point of 93 oC and above.
Liquefied gases including LPG do not fall under this classification but form separate category.
Note: In the following cases, above classification does not apply and special precautions should
be taken as required:
(i) Where ambient temperatures or the handling temperatures are higher than the flash point of
the product.
(ii) Where product handled is artificially heated to a temperature above its flash point.
(w) “Hazardous fluid” means LNG or liquid or gas that is flammable or toxic or corrosive;
(x) “Hazardous Area” means an area will be deemed to be hazardous where;

(i) Petroleum having flash point below 65 deg.C or any flammable gas or vapor in a
concentration capable of ignition is likely to be present.
(ii) Petroleum or any flammable liquid having flash point above 65 deg.C is likely to be refined,
blended or stored at above its flash point.
For classification and extent of hazardous area, refer "The Petroleum Rules - 2002".
(y) “Ignition source” means any item or substance capable of an energy release of type and
magnitude sufficient to ignite any flammable mixture of gases or vapours that could occur at the
site;
(z) “Impounding area” means an area that may be defined through the use of dykes or the
topography at the site for the purpose of containing any accidental spill of LNG or flammable
refrigerants;
(aa)“LPG Facilities” means LPG facility is one where liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) is stored,
received / dispatched by rail / road / pipeline and / or filled in cylinders.
(bb) “Lube Oil Installations” means the facilities for receipt, storage and blending of base oils &
additives into finished Lube products. It includes lube-blending plants, grease manufacturing
plants.
(cc) “May” means provisions that are optional.
(dd) “Maximum Allowable Working Pressure” means the maximum gauge pressure permissible at the
top of equipment, a container or a pressure vessel while operating at design temperature;
(ee) “NDT” means Non-Destructive Testing methods like Dye Penetration Inspection, Wet
Fluorescent Magnetic Particle Inspection, Ultrasonic thickness checks, Ultrasonic Flaw
Detection, Radiography, Hardness Test and other relevant Inspection procedures carried out to
detect the defects in the welds and parent metal of the pressure vessel;
(ff) “Petroleum Refinery” means a plant where crude oil is received and processed into intermediates
and finished products.
(gg) “Pressure vessel” means any closed metal container of whatever shape, intended for the storage
and transport of any compressed gas which is subjected to internal pressure (>= 15 psi) and
whose water capacity exceeds one thousand liters and includes inter connecting parts and
components thereof upto the first point of connection to the connected piping and fittings;
(hh) “Process Unit” means a unit having integrated sequence of operation, physical and chemical,
and may involve preparation, separation, purification, or change in state, energy content or
composition.
(ii) “Protection for exposure” means fire protection for structures on property adjacent to liquid
storage.
(jj) “Refinery” means a group of one or more units or facilities i.e. unloading or loading, storage,
processing, associated systems like utilities, blow down, flare system, fire water storage and fire
water network, control room and administration service buildings like workshop, fire station,
laboratory, canteen etc.;
(kk) “Safety relief device” means an automatic pressure relieving device actuated by the pressure
upstream of the valve and characterized by fully opened pop action intended to prevent the
rupture of a pressure vessel under certain conditions of exposure;
(ll) “Service building” means a building housing facility for inspection / maintenance / other
supporting services which are directly required for operation of the plant e.g. warehouse,
workshop etc.
(mm) “Shall” indicates a mandatory requirement;
(nn) “Should” indicates a recommendation or that which is advised but not mandatory;
(oo) “Source of ignition” means naked lights, fires, exposed incandescent materials, electric welding
arcs, lamps, other than those specially approved for use in flammable atmosphere, or a spark or
flame produced by any means;
(pp) “Vessel” means a pressure vessel used for more than 1000 liters water capacity for storage or
transportation of LPG, gases etc.

(qq) “Tank height” means the height from tank bottom to top kerb angle for cone roof tanks. For floating
roof tanks, it is the height from tank bottom to top of tank shell.
(rr) “Tank vehicle loading / unloading” means a facility for loading/ unloading of petroleum product to
/ from tank wagon or tank truck.
(ss) “Water capacity” means capacity in litres of the pressure vessel when completely filled with water
at 150 C;
(2) Words and expressions used and not defined in these regulations, but defined in the Act or in the
rules or regulations made there under, shall have the meanings respectively assigned to them in
the Act or in the rules or regulations, as the case may be;
3. Application.
Definitions of design, material selection, installation, commissioning, testing, corrosion control,
operation, maintenance & safety of equipment and piping system components of Refineries and Gas
Processing Plant shall be in accordance with the requirements of these regulations. The mandatory
requirements of this regulation are not applicable to the common facilities constructed outside the
ISBL (Inside Battery limit) of entity where no processing of hydrocarbon is carried out. e.g. Main
Administrative Building, Material Stores, Raw water facility, Engineering workshops, Security watch
towers.
4. Scope.
(1) Requirements of these regulations shall apply to all Refineries and Gas Processing Plants,
(2) These regulations lay down minimum requirements of layout within the plant boundary for
unloading or loading, storage, processing, transfer and handling of hydrocarbons/ other
hazardous substances / chemicals in Refineries and Gas Processing Plants.
(3) These regulations also cover engineering considerations in design, installation, operation,
maintenance, inspection including fire protection and safety systems.
(4) The Liquefied Natural Gas facilities are covered in PNGRB (Technical Standards and
Specifications including Safety Standards for LNG facilities) Regulations, 2018.
(5) These regulations shall not be applied to onshore/ offshore upstream facilities.
5. Objective.
These standards are intended to ensure uniform application of design principles in layout and to guide
in selection and application of materials and components, equipment and systems and uniform
operation and maintenance of the Refineries and Gas Processing Plants and shall primarily focus on
safety aspects of the employees, public and facilities associated with Refineries and Gas Processing
Plants.
6. The standard.
Technical standards and specifications including safety standards (hereinafter referred to as
standards) for Refineries and Gas Processing Plants shall be as specified in Schedule - 1 which
cover design and layout, electrical systems, process system, maintenance, inspection, competency
assessment, fire prevention, leak detection, firefighting system and safety management system.
7. Compliance to these regulations.
(1) The Board shall monitor the compliance to these regulations either directly or through an
accredited third party as per separate regulations on third party conformity assessment.
(2) The Board of the entity shall appoint one of its directors, within ninety days of these regulations
coming into force, to be responsible for ensuring compliance to these regulations.
(3) Any entity intending to set up Refineries and Gas Processing Plants shall make available its
detailed plan including design consideration conforming to these regulations to PESO for their
approval prior to seeking registration with the Board.
(4) If an entity has laid, built, constructed, under construction or expanded the Refineries and Gas
Processing Plants based on some other standard or is not meeting the requirements specified in
these regulations, the entity shall carry out a detailed Quantitative Risk Analysis (RA; HAZOP &
HAZID) of its infrastructure. The entity shall thereafter take approval from its Board for non-
conformities and mitigation measures. The entity’s Board approval along with the compliance
report, mitigation measures and implementation schedule shall be submitted to the Board within
six months from the date of notification of these regulations.

8. Default and Consequences.
(1) There shall be a system for ensuring compliance to the provision of these regulations through
conduct of technical and safety audits during the construction, pre-commissioning and operation
phase.
(2) In case of any deviation or shortfall including any of the following defaults, the entity shall be
given time limit for rectification of such deviation, shortfall, default and in case of non-compliance,
the entity shall be liable for any penal action under the provisions of the Act or termination of
operation or termination of authorization.
9. Requirements under other statutes.
(1) It shall be necessary to comply with all statutory rules, regulations and Acts in force as applicable
and requisite approvals shall be obtained from the relevant competent authorities for Refineries
and Gas Processing Plants.
10. Miscellaneous.
(1) If any dispute arises with regard to the interpretation of any of the provisions of these Regulations,
the decision of the Board shall be final.
(2) The Board may at any time effect appropriate modifications in these regulations.
(3) The Board may issue guidelines consistent with the Act to meet the objective of these regulations
as deemed fit.

Draft PNGRB (Technical Standards and Specifications including Safety Standards for Refineries
and Gas Processing Plant) – To be finalized after completion of all chapters
Schedule-1: Site selection & Layout
Schedule-2: Design of Equipment, and storage facilities
Schedule-3: Operations (Commissioning, Pre-commissioning, SOP)
Schedule-4: Asset Integrity Management System (AIMS)
Schedule-5: Electrical Systems
Schedule-6: Inspection
Schedule-7: Fire & Gas Detection and Protection Facilities
Schedule-8: Competence Assessment and Assurance
Schedule-9: Safety Audits
Schedule-10: Road Safety
Schedule-11: Occupational Health and Industrial Hygiene Monitoring
Schedule-12: Control of Work
Schedule-13: Safety Management System (SMS)

Schedule-1
1.0 Site selection & Layout:
1.1. Introduction:
(i) Hydrocarbon processing and handling plants are inherently hazardous. Today's trend of large and
complex plants presents substantial risk potential. At times plants are modified to operate at higher
capacities or efficiencies necessitating larger storage requirements than contemplated earlier. For
these reasons, initial site analysis for the proposed new construction or addition should be done
carefully while considering the space allocation to the various facilities.
(ii) The hydrocarbon industry over the years learnt lessons from fires, explosions, toxic releases etc.
throughout the world and has been up-dating plant safety norms including inter-distances between
facilities and their relative locations. The minimum distances recommended many years ago need
review in the context of today's environment in the industry.
1.2. Plant Layout Philosophy:
Following philosophy should be adopted in layout of an installation;
(a) Block layout should be adopted as far as possible. Plant layout arrangement should follow the
general route of raw material to process unit(s) with tankages interposed as required followed by
storage & dispatch facilities. The entire area should be sub-divided into blocks.
(b) All process units and dyked enclosures of storage tanks shall be planned in separate blocks with
roads all around for access and safety.
(c) Primary traffic roads in the installation should be outside hazardous areas. Roads separating the
blocks shall act as firebreaks.
(d) Pedestrian pathways should be provided / marked alongside the primary traffic roads.
(e) Alternative access shall be provided for each facility so that it can be approached by emergency
responders.
at road junctions shall be designed to facilitate movement of the largest fire-fighting vehicle in
the event of emergency.
(f) Rail spur shall be located close to the periphery of the plant to minimize road/pipe crossings and
blockage of roads during shunting.
(g) Layout of the facilities should be made to minimize truck traffic ingress in the plant.
(h) Two road approaches from the highway / major road should be provided, one for employees and
other for product / material movement. Both these approaches should be available for receipt of
assistance in emergency.
(i) Presence of ignition source shall always be contemplated beyond the boundary wall of the
installation.
(j) Orientation of flares, furnaces & heaters, dusty operations (e.g. Sulphur handling etc.) and cooling
towers should be decided based on prevailing wind direction to avoid travel of hydrocarbon vapour
over sources of ignition.
(k) Erection methods shall be studied for all types of equipment / structures. Towers, reactors, fired
equipment etc. should be located in such an area so to facilitate erection.
(l) Maintenance requirements for each type of equipment shall be identified and considered.
(m) For construction activities, area should be earmarked.
(n) Future expansion should be assessed, and space provision be made accordingly.
(o) Location of emergency control center and alternate control center shall be identified and should be
close to OHC, Fire control room and Security control center.
1.3. Layout of Blocks / Facilities
To prepare a layout, information should be collected on the following aspects, as applicable;

(a) Process units, utility requirements, storage tanks, LPG storage vessels and other pressurized
storage vessels
(b) Product receipt / dispatch and mode of transport (rail, road and pipeline)
(c) Warehouses, storage areas for solid products such as petroleum coke, petroleum wax, sulfur,
bitumen / asphalt etc. and other open storage areas like scrap yards and dumping ground
(d) Chemical / Toxic chemicals storage, hazardous waste storage / disposal.
(e) Flares
(f) Service buildings, fire station and fire training ground
(g) Site topography including elevation, slope, and drainage
(h) Meteorological data,
(i) Bathymetric data (high tide level, surge wave height etc.), highest flood level in the area, water table,
natural streams/ canal for installations in coastal areas.
(j) Seismic data, Approach roads to main plant areas
(k) Aviation considerations
(l) Risk to and from adjacent facilities
(m) Environmental considerations
(n) Statutory obligations
1.3.1. General consideration for the layout of blocks / facilities, while locating the various facilities / blocks,
the following should be considered:
(a) Layout of Blocks / facilities should be in sequential order of process flow.
(b) Process unit(s), tank farm, loading gantry, solid storage, utilities, Effluent Treatment Plant (ETP),
Emergency DG sets and approach roads should be located on high ground to avoid flooding.
(c) In case process units are operated in an integrated way and shutdowns are taken simultaneously,
then it may be considered as a single block. Control room should be located in a non-hazardous area
upwind of process plants / hydrocarbon storage and handling facilities. It shall not be located on a
lower level than surrounding plants and tank farms. There shall be no structure that would fall on the
control room in case of a blast.
(d) Utility block(s) should preferably be located adjacent to unit blocks.
(e) Power generation facilities which also supply steam for process requirement should be located near
the process unit block. When external power grid is interconnected with plant power generation
facilities, either the power plant should be located at the side of the boundary wall or the external
power transmission lines should be taken underground upto interconnection grid.
(f) Overhead power transmission lines shall not pass over the installation including the parking areas.
Horizontal clearance shall be in line with the Indian Electricity Rules.
(g) High Tension (HT) sub-station(s) should be located close to major load centers.
(h) Low Tension (LT) sub-station should be located at load centers in such a way that the distance
between distribution transformer and farthest motor is minimum.
(i) Cooling Towers should be located downwind of process equipment and substation so that fog
developed will not cause corrosion or obstruct vision or short-circuiting.
(j) Storage tanks should be grouped according to product classification. In undulating areas, storage
tanks should be located at lower elevations
(k) Truck loading / unloading facilities should be located close to product movement gate and should be
oriented to provide one-way traffic pattern for entrance and exit.
Rail loading facilities should be located along the periphery of the installation.
(l) Sulphur recovery unit and Sulphur loading area should be located close to product movement gate
and away from process units, hazardous and populated areas.
Equipment drawing air (e.g. air compressors, air blower, FD fan etc.) should be located away from
Sulfur recovery unit / Sulfur handling facility.

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