2. Social Groups
Social groups or institutions are complex. They are composed of integrated sets of rules or
norms, established for the preservation of what is valued by society. Institutions are basically
characterized by the stability and recurrent patterns of behavior for their members. Every
institution has a function for the good of the members of a society; so do the members to their
institutions.
Sociologists have different perspectives in studying institutions. For Karl Marx (1848),
institutions are influenced or determined by the mode of productions of a society. For Max
Weber (1949), institutions are interdependent, but there is no single social institution that
decides or alters the other institutions. Wheres for Emile Durkheim (1893), institutions are
primarily significant for the promotion of social solidarity.
Generally, social institutions are the social adhesives that bind society together. It is, as what
symbolic interactionists imply, the foundation of a human’s network. This is where interaction
and communication happen, reflecting the culture of each member.
3. Kinship
In the last chapter, you have been introduced to the concept of groups and
network. These groups and networks may or may not influence you in many
ways.
It is only natural for a person to be influenced by the institution where the
members have the same DNA as himself/herself. This is due to the fact that a
person’s relationship with his/her blood relatives is biologically deeper than those
with the people whom he/she only gained while growing up. This kind of
relationship is called kinship.
It is important to note, however, that kinship pertains not only to relationships
based on ties of blood; bonds made through marriage, adoption, and religious
rituals can also be considered as kinship.
4. Consanguineal, or Lineal Kinship
A kin by blood is called a consanguineal relative. One can trace his/her consanguineal kin
through learning of his/her descent.
If one can trace his/her descent through both paternal and maternal ancestors, he/she can learn
of his/her bilateral descent. If only one lineage (either paternal or maternal) is traceable, one can
only draw his/her unilateral descent. Unilateral descent can be subclassified into three more
types:
● Patrilineal descent - which follows the father’s lineage;
● Matrilineal descent - which highlights the influence of the mother’s side;
● Ambilineal descent - which considers either or both the paternal or maternal sides,
depending on the demand of a situation.
5. Affinal Kinship
Affinal kinship may also pertain to the relationships made, not only by the husband and
wife but by their families as well. In a Philippine setting, balae and bayaw are also
examples of affinal kin.
Marriage is a legal foundation of family that exists in all cultures, although there are
some varieties. It is a legal contract between two people committing themselves in a
permanent affinal kinship.
The bond between a husband and wife is what sociologists refer to as
affinal kinship. This type of kinship is caused by marriage.
6. Affinal Kinship
Endogamy and Exogamy
Endogamy is a marriage between members of the same group or category of people. An
example of endogamy is the marriage of a Filipino with a Filipina. On the other hand, exogamy
refers to the marriage of two people coming from different groups or categories. The marriage of
a Filipino and an Australian woman is an example of exogamy.
Monogamy and Polygamy
In most societies, a husband and a wife are both expected to be faithful and must not engage in
another sexual relationship or worse, mariage. This type of marriage where only two people are
involved is called monogamy.
7. Affinal Kinship
However, there are instances when a man or a woman engages in more than one
marriage.
The marriage of a man with two women is called bigamy. If the man marries more
than two women, then he engages in polygamy, These type of manage are widely
accepted in the Muslim culture. Conversely, the marriage of a woman to more than
one man is called polyandry.
Divorce, Annulment, and Legal Separation
Divorce is a court decree that terminates or dissolves a marriage. Divorced
Individuals are given back their single status and may again remarry. In the
Philippines, divorce is not allowed by the legal system in the USA, on the
other hand, legal standards and processes have been loosen up to make
divorce easier to get. Divorced Americans are now given more leeway to find
new partners and engage in another marriage.
8. Affinal Kinship
Even if divorce is not legalized in the Philippines, an unhappily married couple still has an
option to nullify their manage through annulment differs from divorce in the sense that it
nullifies a marriage completely as it has never existed. However, a married couple must
present valid grounds before the court first before they can have their marriage annulled.
These grounds shall include any of the following:
1. bigamy - Either party was already married to another person at the time of the marriage.
2. forced consent - One of the married couple was forced or threatened into marriage.
3. fraud - One of the married couple agreed to the marriage through the lies or
misrepresentation of the other.
4. marriage prohibited by law - incestuous marriage
9. Affinal Kinship
5. mental illness - One or both spouse/s was/were mentally ill or emotionally disturbed
at the time of the marriage.
6. mental incapacity - One or both spouse/s was/were under the influence of alcohol
or drugs at the time of the marriage.
7. inability to consummate marriage - Either spouse was impotent or physically
incapable of having sexual relations during the marriage.
8. underage marriage - Either spouse was a minor at the time of marriage or was too
young to enter a marriage without parental consent or court approval.
Legal separation is the separation of married husband and wife. Unlike a divorced or annulled
couple, legally separated husband and wife cannot remarry. A court can affect a legal
separation on certain grounds, like an attempt on the life, repeated physical violence by one
spouse against another, infidelity, or abandonment. If a husband and wife separated on their
own arrangement without the sanction of the court, this separation is called de facto separation.
10. Fictive, or Collateral Kinship
Personal kinship that is based on neither consanguineal nor affinal ties is called
fictive kinship. A fictive kinship may occur in several instances, such as adoption
or religious ritual.
In adoption, a child needs not to be a legal adoptee of a person to be considered
as a fictive kin. As long as the adopting person acknowledges the child as his/her
adoptee, then the child is a fictive kin.
Fictive kinship also happens in religious rituals, such as baptism. The baptized
child becomes the fictive kin of the godparent, and vice versa. The godparent also
becomes a fictive kin of the kumare/kumpadre, or the parents of the baptized
child.
11. The Family
Every individual has a family.
The family is the first group and network that an individual acquires in his/her lifetime. It is a
universal institution in a society. However, every family is different from the other. A family
varies from one culture to another.
Schaefer (2009) described the family as a set of people connected by blood, marriage or
adoption. The members of a family share a responsibility for the reproduction and protection of
the members of a society.
1. to provide a place to rear children
2. to provide a sense of belonging among its members
3. to create the identity of an individual
4. to transmit culture to the next generations
12. The Family
Another important function of the family is child-rearing. The family is the group that takes care
of the biological, economic, educational, and even the emotional needs of the children. The
family develops or provides the personal identity of the child. The societal values, norms,
traditions, as well as the rich cultural heritage of the society are partially transmitted to the
young people within the family context.
Child-rearing practices are different, depending on the society or the level of economic
progress. For example, in Singapore or in Japan, having a child is expensive because of the
high cost of living, education, and medical services. Add the heavy emotional responsibility,
since most of the parents are dual- career parents: they do not have enough time for their
children. This, you will notice is why the number of children in industrialized economies is
dwindling over the last two or three generations. The challenge now is to legislate or provide a
mechanism to encourage couples to bear children.
13. The Family
However, in this Philippines, this is not the case. For many Filipinos, children are the source of
happiness and the fulfilment of a family.
The Philippine government, being the highest authority of all Philippine societies, has a
responsibility to every Filipino family. According to the 1987 Philippine Constitution, the family is
the basic autonomous social institution that should be protected and strengthened by the State.
14. Types of Families
Every family is a complicated set of people. It is far different from many people's common idea
of a family being composed of a couple and their children.
What many people conceive as the idea of family is the family nucleus. According to the United
Nations (UN), a family nucleus may be one of the following:
1. a married couple without children
2. a married couple with one or more unmarried children
3. a father with one or more unmarried children
4. a mother with one or more unmarried children
Once the child of a couple marries another person or conceives a child of his/her own, the child
forms his/her own family nucleus.
Families are classified into different types, depending on the residence of a family nucleus. If
only one family nucleus lives in a residence. It is classified as a nuclear family.
15. Types of Families
Other socially acceptable nuclear families are a never-married family (unmarried couple with
one or more unmarried children); a separated family (separated couple with children); a same-
sex family ((un)married couple without children); and a same-sex-parent family ((un)married
couple with one or more unmarried, biological/foster children).
Many nuclear families have relatives who live in a different residence. Although the members of
the nuclear family have maintained contacts with these relatives, their interactions are often less
frequent. Sociologists call this group isolated nuclear families.
Another type of family is the extended family. As the name suggests, an extended family is
composed of two or more blood-related family nuclei. The family has a matrifocal structure if
they involve women like female grandparent, female parent, or female children. On the other
hand, patrifocal family structure focuses on men.
An extended family can be subdivided into two more types; a vertically extended family and a
horizontally extended family.
16. Types of Families
A vertically extended family pertains to a family which consists of three generations
grandparent(s), parent(s) and child(ren). On the other hand, a horizontally extended family is
composed of two or more family nuclei, of whom the oldest members belong to the generation
of the parents. A family with uncles, aunts, parents, children, and cousins living in the same
residence is an example of a horizontally extended family.
With time the institution of family has transformed in many ways. The prevalence of separated
couples with children who remarry paved the way to the formation of reconstituted families.
A reconstituted family, also known as blended family, is the constitution of two adults who have
children from previous relationships. Cinderella's family is an example.
17. Family and Household
People often jumble the terms "family" and "household." A family is different from a household,
for the former requires close relation (by blood or by law) among its members. Household, on
the other hand, is a term used by census bureau to refer to the set of individuals, related or
unrelated by blood, who share a common residence.
According to UN, households can be classified into four types: single, nuclear, extended, and
composite.
In a single household, an individual lives in solitude. Being a part of a single household does
not necessarily mean that an individual does not belong in a family. There are many probable
reasons for an individual to be in a single household. He/She may have experienced a death or
separation in his/her family. or he/she may have personally chosen to be a recluse.
The nuclear household, on the other hand, consists of a single family nucleus. A nuclear
family without househelpers is considered as a nuclear household.
18. Family and Household
Extended household as what UN defines, is a household consisting of any of the following:
1. A single family nucleus and other persons related to the nucleus—for example, a father
with child(ren) and other relative(s) or a married couple with other relative(s) only
2. Two or more family nuclei related to each other without any other persons—for example,
two or more married couples with child(ren) only
3. Two or more family nuclei related to each other plus other persons related to at least one
of the nuclei—for example, two or more married couples with other relative(s) only
4. Two or more persons related to each other, none of who constitutes a family nucleus
Based on the last point given, an extended household may apply to roommates sharing a house
of an apartment. In Metro Manila, because of the high cost of space rental, not blood-related
individuals (like students or workers) share a common space and expenses (ie., monthly bills,
groceries, and rental payments) to ease their economic needs.
19. Family and Household
The most complicated type of household is called the composite household consists of any of the
following:
1. A single family nucleus plus other persons, some of whom are related to the nucleus and some
of whom are not, for example, mother with child(ren) and other relatives and non-relatives
2. A single family nucleus plus other persons, none of whom is related to the nucleus-for example,
father with child(ren) and non-relatives
3. Two or more family nuclei related to each other plus other persons. some of whom are related to
at least one of the nuclei and some of whom are not related to any of the nuclei-for example, two
or more couples with other relatives and non-relatives only
4. Two or more family nuclei related to each other plus other persons; none of whom is related to
any of the nuclei—for example, two or more married couples, one or more of which with
child(ren) and non-relatives
5. Two or more family nuclei not related to each other, with or without any other person
6. Two or more persons related to each other but none of whom constitute a family nucleus, plus
other unrelated persons
7. Non-related persons only
20. The Filipino Family in the Context of
Globalization and Modernization
Filipino families are known for their close-knit relationships and strong attachment. Values of
respect, love, and honor for the family are deeply embedded in the Filipino culture. Deviance to
the norms of the family may cause negative outcomes.
With the advent of globalization, family structure and arrangement have now been
reconstructed. In the past decades, there has been an increase in the number of Filipinos
leaving their families to become overseas Filipino workers (OFWS). According to Philippine
Overseas Employment Administration (POEA), almost two million OFWs leave the country
every year since 2011. The number is constantly increasing as time goes by.
21. OFW parents usually leave their children under the foster care of relatives or guardians in the
country. To meet their responsibilities, these OFW parents send remittances and goods to their
families at home. Communication through internet and mobile calls are the means in order to
maintain the communication and emotional ties despite the distance between the members of the
family. However, many children of OFWs still long for the physical presence and attention of their
parents.
The process of modernization and urbanization has also transformed the Filipino family structure.
Because of the thought that the cities have more or better opportunities for employment and
education, young Filipinos tend to migrate or move away from the residence of their families. This
migration creates different outcomes for them.
In the cities, the immigrants gain a wider network with diverse people. They become free from the
strong influence of traditional values in choosing their future. Unlike this, in many provinces, the
older members of the family have a strong influence on the decisions a young Filipino makes—
including his/her partner or life choices. Given the distance between the immigrants and their
families, the former gets to decide for his/her own future—the partner he/she will choose, or if
he/she wants to form a family nucleus of his/her own.
22. Kinship in Politics
Kinship is present in all societies; thus, it is universal. It played significant roles and influenced
the cultural life and economic activities during the early times. The members of a kinship
strongly identified to the behavioral rules of conduct, which created enduring and cooperative
relationships among the group. In early societies, it is possible that interactions happened to two
unrelated individuals as long as they needed to convert the strangers in a metaphorical kin.
Rituals could be done to ceremonially adopt a stranger or non-kin for him/her to be part of the
group.
However, in a modern society, the behavioral codes is called a system of law. The legal system
is the basis of interaction, like economic or political activities for the majority of the people. With
the development of constitution, the interaction and relationships of people are no longer kin-
based. Thus, families and clans in politics are already ignored.
23. Kinship in Politics
From the point of view of modernity, the kin-based or familial-oriented economic and political
organizations are corrupted (since control of resources tend to be based on personal whims and
caprices) or inefficient, considering the complexity of advanced society. The tendency of the
leaders of the clan or kinship group is to favor their immediate family members. But with the
imposition of modern political structure by the colonizers, the clan leaders or respected leaders
of the kinship group (e.g., datu or sultan) were the ones who occupied the local government
position (barangay/barrio and the pueblo). Over time, these clan leaders have galvanized their
power and perpetuated their authority and influence, leading them to be the local elite in the
current times.
24. Political and Leadership Structures
Most wild felines and canines travel, hunt, and survive with a pack. Not only can a group of
fellow ferocious beasts protect themselves from enemies; a pack can also help them find food
easier. Belonging in a pack or a group is a way of survival of many animals.
Every pack has its Alpha, the leader of all in the group. The Alpha is responsible for leading
his/her members in whatever they do for the pack—hunting and protecting.
A leader of a political group is similar to an Alpha. The leader directs the group in the group's
every move, and has the commanding influence or authority among his/her members. Leaders
vary, depending upon the groups where each belongs.
There are different kinds of political groups.
25. Bands
Bands are small groups of self-sufficient hunters. The approximate number of people in a band
is more or less 100 persons, who are associated by kinship. They are composed of blood-
related families standing on the same social ground. This means there is no social or economic
distinction among familles.
A man who has special skills and knowledge in hunting, public speaking, or other valued
abilities is eligible to become a leader. Since there are no clear or written policies as to what
qualifies a man to become a leader, band leaders use informal bases for their power. However,
since the power of the leader is informal. the leader cannot force other people to obey him/her.
Whatever his/her decision. it will still be subject to the approval of the population's majority.
Like all groups, bands often experience conflicts. Some of the reasons for conflicts are limited
supply of food or sexual rivalry for a mate. Since bands are composed of few people, a small
conflict is a concern of the whole community. These conflicts may result in branching out to new
bands called band fissioning.
26. Bands
There is now a higher regard for women in a band, compared with that of the early feudal
societies. In colder regions, women in a band are the ones who supply food for their group.
Although men are engaged in hunting to provide meat, women supply the vegetables. With
equal recognition to women's roles in the group, women are allowed to participate in political
activities by expressing opinions in group gatherings.
Anthropologists assert that all groups of people have lived in bands before the emergence of
great civilizations.
27. Tribes
Tribes are similar to bands in terms of population, but possess social, legal, political, moral, and
religious beliefs. The economy of tribal societies is self-sufficient: the social closeness of the
members allow the subsistent economy to work. One person may occupy different social roles
because there is no functional differentiation.
Tribes have economic equilibrium in connection to their environment because they just extract
resources for their immediate needs and do not produce surplus. Their economic activity is
focused more on reproducing existing practices rather than changing the current situation and
aiming for innovation. American professor Morton Fried (1975), in his book The Nation of the
Tribe, concluded that tribes are generally characterized by fluid boundaries where heterogeneity
and dynamism are present. Since tribal societies have started to exist in an early stage of
human civilization, they are more equal or egalitarian in the areas of politics, economics, or
even religious aspects.
The tribal society is integrated by means of pantribal, or non-kin associations This association
may be referred to as a council of elders (women or men) which is the unifying factor for the
entire tribe.
28. Tribes
The elders are the leaders but they have limited authority. Leadership is always based on age
or seniority. The headmen or leaders acquire the respect from their people through certain skills
(like hunting, for example). If they are able to accumulate such high value food or items in their
group, they are given ceremonial recognition. When a leader or headman has accumulated
resources. he also enhances high political influence by way of providing the needs of the other
members of the tribe (redistribution).
Contacts of tribes with other groups are in the form of peaceful invasions or bloody conquests.
These contacts are known to be the cause of changes in the values, norms, material conditions,
and institutions in a tribe.
With the small scale population, the bond and unity among the members is very strong and
coherent because of their adherence to a values system The interaction of members of the tribe
is only within their group; thus they are characterized as "closed" in terms of their culture and
ideas. Each member has a deep attachment to his/her tribal cultural practices and has strong
ethnic loyalty.
29. Chiefdoms
Chiefdom is a type of political organization that is composed of different tribes or villages which
are in alliance with one another under one political leader or the chief. The chief has political
power to rule over the population which approximately numbers to thousands. The chiefs are
the leaders who make decisions for the society. In some cases, the chief is assisted in his
decision making by a council of elders. However, even though there is a council of elders, there
is still no formal organization that manifests within a chiefdom because the chief is the be-all
and end-all of the political system.
Chiefdom has a social stratification system that is hereditary or based on ascription. Age is also
a crucial factor in determining the social status of the leaders. In the Philippines, an example of
chiefdom is the sultanate.
The chiefs come from lineages determinant of their social status. The commoners generally
occupy the lower echelon of society. The families of the chiefs are the ones who enjoyed more
privileges in society.
30. Chiefdoms
In return for these privileges, the chief has a moral obligation to care for his people, and he has
the function of redistributing economic resources in a ritualized manner. The resource of the
chief for redistribution is collected from the agricultural surplus of the farmers or peasants. This
practice is the start of the legal tax system that people have today.
Since chiefdom is bigger in terms of population and territorial coverage, there are more diverse
groups of people and less commonalities, unlike the tribes and bands. With this social condition,
there is higher probability of the rise of conflicts among the people. In this conflict situation, the
chief serves as mediator between two opposing parties within its chiefdom. One way to
determine the truthfulness of any statement or claim is through trial by ordeal.
Another important function of the chief is protecting his/her territory. The chief is the military
leader who needs to show his/her prowess in warfare by organizing the people to have a strong
military force.
31. States
In the fourth grade, you have been introduced to the concept of a nation and a state, and the
branches of which the latter consists.
A state is a large community of people occupying a definite territory, having a government of
their own, wherein a great number of inhabitants render obedience and enjoy freedom from
external control.
The state develops from earlier large-scale agricultural societies. These early Societies were
generally ruled by chiefs but they have transformed into a new political structure characterized
with more centralized power and authority, and with more populations that have diverse cultural
traditions.
In an ancient state, people were usually ranked based on wealth, power, and prestige. The
social pyramid characterized the social ranking, wherein most of the people occupying the
upper positions were the people in power.
32. States
These upper classes (e.g., datu, king or emperor) were the elites who have inherited their social
position and wealth. The lower class were the commoners who comprised the majority of the
population. They were the slaves, artisans, farmers, among others. Then the middle class was
born from the group of successful businessmen in the society. Another set of middle class
consists of the bureaucrats who were appointed in the government to rule and run the system.
These independent kingdoms or states in ancient civilization compete for scarce or limited
resources like water (for irrigation) or land (for agricultural production). Thus, warfare became a
preoccupation of the different leaders of the kingdoms. The successful kingdoms or states were
able to create bigger communities composed of people with varying languages, religions, and
other aspects of culture.
In the early preindustrial states, there was an overlapping of religion and the state (union of
church and state). For example, during the Spanish-colonized Philippines, the governor general
could influence the Church in making religio related decisions, and vice versa.
33. States
In the monarchical kingdoms in Europe, the king or monarch had absolute power in his kingdom
as law-maker, law-implemented and judge of what was good and evil. Historically speaking, the
early states were not egalitarian societies. In Europe, the different kingdoms invoked the divine
right as a basis of their power and authority to rule.
In the modern times, states are challenged by the multi-faceted problem of social economic, and
political inequalities.
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