Archeology Of Intangible Heritage

IN M E M O R I A M
Alan Dundes (1934–2005), Helena Gentil Vaz da Silva (1939–2002)

Contents
Acknowledgments.......................................................................................ix
Introduction....................................................................................................1
I. Physiology
1. Sexual Horns..............................................................................................7
2. Metaphors of Conception......................................................................33
3. Feminine Primacy ...................................................................................51
II. Metaphysics
4. Lunar Births .............................................................................................63
5. Cosmic Cycles..........................................................................................89
III. Transpositions
6. The Madonna and the Cuckoo...........................................................111
7. Jesus Christ in Light of Folklore ........................................................135
Epilogue ......................................................................................................163
Works Cited................................................................................................171
Index ............................................................................................................185

Acknowledgments
he research for this book was mostly conducted at the University
of California, Berkeley, thanks to a Visiting Professorship I held in
2001/2002 by invitation of the late Professor Alan Dundes, and also to
travel grants provided in 2003 and 2005 by the Luso-American Devel-
opment Foundation (Lisbon) and the Portuguese Studies Program
(Berkeley). In Berkeley, Raquel Barreto, Stanley Brandes, Julia Kempe,
and José Luiz Passos granted me amity and occasional shelter. In Lis-
bon, three steadfast friends whom I scarcely need name anymore of-
fered me wise advice. Thomas R. Trautmann, the former Editor of
Comparative Studies in Society and History, has been heartening and
helpful beyond his call of duty. And, last but not least, the publication
of this book owes much to Carolyn Dundes and Phyllis Korper. To all
I am deeply obliged.
Chapters one and six have been previously published in Compara-
tive Studies in Society and History as, respectively, “Sexual Horns: The
Anatomy and Metaphysics of Cuckoldry in European Folklore” (vol.
48, no. 2 [2006]: 396–418), and “The Madonna and the Cuckoo: An
Exploration in European Symbolic Conceptions” (vol. 46, no. 2 [2004]:
273–99). Both are reprinted by permission of the publisher. All rights
reserved.
The publication of this book has been sponsored in part by the Ins-
tituto de Estudos de Literatura Tradicional (Lisbon).
T

Introduction
arcel Proust liked to recall that the numbing tyranny of habit
prevents us from fully perceiving our surroundings. It takes his
namesake, Marcel, an unaccustomed night ride on a night train to—
rendered temporarily free from habit—see the sunrise on the face of a
peasant maiden with the marveled eyes of one making a precious dis-
covery. For the rest of us, too, a break in routine may propitiate per-
ceiving matters afresh, and then, there is no telling the number of fa-
miliar things the mind’s eye could see under the colors of unexpected
dawns.1
Say that one fine day you wonder whether the notion that the dead
are supposed to leave this world with feet first relates to the fact that
babies are normally born headfirst, and what the implications of such
axial reversal might be. Or suppose that, finding yourself in the deli-
cate position of having to explain to a child where babies come from,
you ask yourself why—why, after all—storks should purportedly
bring newborns from some watery place. Or yet, having decided to
take Shakespeare for summer reading, you notice that the recurrent
theme of cuckoldry brings embedded the cuckoo, somehow related to
the theme of horns. While at it, you might wonder why cheated hus-
bands should happen to be called after the he-goat (cabrón), and
whether this relates to the longstanding trend of calling children
“kids.”
Or imagine that you go to an art museum and notice how the Vir-
gin Mary has dressed in red and blue for centuries, before she devel-
oped a taste for white. While wondering about this predilection for
red (that for celestial blue seems easier to understand), you might re-
late it to the recurrent association of the Virgin with rosaries, roses,
and other flowers in enclosed gardens. This would make sense once
you recalled that the popular expression “defloration” supposes that
virgins possess flowers; you might even recollect that Marcel Proust
refers to young ladies as “maidens in flowers,” jeunes filles en fleurs.
Elated, you would summon to mind the longstanding link between
women and flowers. But by then, having stopped in wonder before a
crucifix where blooming roses figure the wounds of Christ, you
would have to ask yourself how this fits with your previous deduc-
tions. And you might foresee a long road to travel in exhuming an-
cient meanings now enshrouded in forgetfulness.
M

2 Archeology of Intangible Heritage
This handful of examples will do to illustrate one basic point of
this book. At every turn in our daily lives (provided that the numbing
grip of habit on perception is not too tight), tiny faults in the smooth
skin of the conceptual order of things suggest the possibility of insight
into aspects of worldview fallen into oblivion. The very resilience of
those traces of traditional thought (as when our children are “kids,”
or the first sexual experience entails “defloration”) intimates that we
often make use of imagery we do not necessarily understand—as
though we came to be out of touch with a conceptual heritage that
still influences our perception, albeit in unconscious ways. This book
proposes an archeology of such intangible heritage.
The phrase “archeology of intangible heritage” looks, of course,
like a contradiction in terms. Archeology is not about insubstantial
things; intangible heritage must thrive in the present if one is to per-
ceive it at all. But my usage of “intangible heritage” does not refer to
oral traditions per se; neither does it designate the immediacy of, say,
cultural life in a marketplace. Rather, it refers to the conceptual di-
mension of concrete data. This work rests on the assumption that ac-
tual customs and so-called beliefs, traditional narratives and art, and
folklore data in general are signifiers—pointers to a conceptual fabric
that confers sense. Hence, discussions to follow draw on ancient
sources, as well as on modern ethnography and folklore, in order to
examine the tacit coherence of underlying representations. It is in this
sense that I maintain that exploration of inconsistencies in the smooth
skin of “reality” restitutes to awareness dimensions of worldview
fallen into oblivion—if not into nonexistence. By and large, then, one
could say this book aims to dispel the fog of modern oblivion con-
cerning ideational patterns that still matter but have slipped out of
consciousness.
The first part of the book, Physiology, lays out the groundwork. It
starts with a tentative examination of the obscure (if enduring) notion
of transmissible sexual horns, which yields a first approach to a per-
vasive folk model of sexual exchanges and fertility (chap. 1). Explora-
tion of this model in the light of a metaphor of procreation first men-
tioned by Aristotle further elucidates a physiology of fungible fluids
rife with gender implications, the cosmic underpinnings of which are
briefly examined (chap. 2). Then a tacit principle of feminine pri-
macy—physiologically enacted, and yet metaphysically motivated—
comes under scrutiny (chap. 3). Altogether, these opening chapters
introduce the reader to aspects of a pervasive cyclic mindset hinging
on the tenet that all life comes out of death.

Introduction 3
The second part of the book, Metaphysics, explores this other-
world-oriented postulate and also clarifies the cosmological frame-
work of physiological notions examined in the first section. First,
scrutiny of the lunar symbolism of birth as well as of Plato’s famous
myth of alternating time (in Statesman 268–74) elucidates representa-
tions of the beyond as a regenerating locus of reversed time (chap. 4).
Then this trend of intertextual readings of ancient sources and mod-
ern folklore is extended towards mapping perennial ideas on the fate
of the dead (chap. 5).
The third part of the book, Transpositions, explores renditions of
previously examined themes in the idioms of Christendom and thus
gauges the resilience of the intangible heritage appraised. In order to
evoke the mental landscapes that Christian thought consolidated
throughout centuries of relentless symbolic elaboration, the two final
chapters unfold through folklore and ethnography, the Christian
scriptures, apocryphal traditions, and Renaissance art.
Taken as a whole, this book argues that to grasp the tacit logic of
much that we see and hear in daily life involves probing hidden
realms of meaning. Its intent, in a nutshell, is to impart to readers the
sort of break in intellectual routine that might propitiate looking anew
at familiar things.
Notes
1. Marcel Proust, À la recherche du temps perdu (Paris: Quarto/Gallimard, 1999), 521–
22.

1. Sexual Horns
his chapter explores cultural assumptions implied in the long-
standing idea that a wronged husband somehow gets to be
horned. Here is how John Brand, the famous English 19th-century
antiquarian, defines the scope of this problem:
The consideration of the vulgar saying, that a husband wears horns, or is a cor-
nute, when his wife proves false to him; as also that of the meaning of the
term cuckold, which has for many years been the popular indication of the
same kind of infamy, which also it has been usual slyly to hint at by throw-
ing out the little and forefinger when we point at those whom we tacitly call
cuckolds.1
It is amazing how widespread this imagery is, considering its opacity.
Think of it: why should horns and cuckoos be the attributes of the
unhappy husband?
A Shakespearean Theme
Brand rightly records his perplexity that the word cuckold, “gen-
erally derived from cuculus, a cuckoo, has happened to be given to the
injured husband, for it seems more properly to belong to the adul-
terer, the cuckoo being well known to be a bird that deposits its eggs
in other birds’ nests.” He notes that the same applies to the saying
that the cheated husband wears horns, for
It is well known that the word horn in the Sacred Writings denotes fortitude
and vigour of mind; and that in the classics, personal courage…is intimated
by horns. Whence then are we to deduce a very ancient custom…of saying
that the unhappy husbands of false women wear horns, or are cornutes?2
In the same vein, Julian Pitt-Rivers, working in the context of con-
temporary Spanish culture, acknowledges the “curious inversion”
through which the “word cabrón (a he-goat), the symbol of male sexu-
ality in many contexts,” refers “not to him whose manifestation of
that quality is the cause of the trouble but to him whose implied lack
of manliness had allowed the other to replace him.” To answer this
question, Pitt-Rivers proposes that received horns represent the ritual
defilement, or “state of desecration,” of the husband unable to defend
the “sanctity” of his wife’s virtue. In this perspective, the cheated
husband’s horns are both the devil’s symbol, rife with anti-social con-
T

2. Metaphors of Conception
rom what point a view might a child be deemed analogous to a
cheese? While the question seems silly, it addresses the intriguing
discovery (by anthropologist Sandra Ott) that twentieth-century
Basque shepherds represented sexual conception by an ancient
cheese-making analogy. This analogy had been known to Aristotle
and to Biblical writers (see Job 10:10), and it has been used throughout
centuries by authors ranging from Pliny the Elder to Hildegard of
Bingen. All the while, it was presumably current among the folk,
for—more than six hundred years before Ott reported her discov-
ery—officers of the Holy Inquisition had noted in the same Pyrenean
region the belief that a certain herb endowed with anti-rennet proper-
ties is, “hence, contraceptive.” Uses of the cheese analogy are not
merely a rhetorical matter, either, for Ott reported lack of common
ground between herself and her Pyrenean hosts in discussions bear-
ing on ovulation. Such remarkable dépaysement suggests cultural con-
sensus is not to be taken for granted—even with contemporary fellow
Europeans, even concerning prosaic themes. And, since Ott was in the
process of grasping an ancient model of procreation, the issue arises
of what its underlying axioms might be.1
Nicole Belmont points out that the long-lived success of the cheese
analogy owes to its concrete representation of the forming of shapely
matter out of unformed substance. (Hence, French fromage comes
from formage, which goes back to Latin forma, “shape.”) Interestingly,
this makes the cheese analogy of conception appropriate to also rep-
resent demiurgic creation. For instance, Carlo Ginzburg reports that a
miller in 16th-century Friuli maintained before astonished inquisitors
that the world came out of primordial chaos much as a cheese comes
out of curdled milk. Moreover, Aristotle’s use of the cheese analogy
articulates physiology and cosmology. Let us heed the old master’s
lesson.2
Aristotelian Conceptions
In Generation of Animals, Aristotle resorts to the cheese metaphor
of conception while discussing the essence of menstrual blood and
semen. He maintains that semen is concocted blood—therefore, de-
finable as “the ultimate gain drawn from the nutriment”—whereas
menstrual fluid is “semen not in a pure state but in need of working
F

3. Feminine Primacy
he notion that men will (if only symbolically) partake of women’s
fecund stuff for added vitality provides food for thought. Anthro-
pologists have long ago realized that institutionalized attempts by
men figuratively to fulfill female functions, as famously performed in
Melanesian societies (among others), reveal that men’s social author-
ity involves symbolical appropriation of feminine power. One step
ahead, this discussion suggests that masculine social domination
compensates for the perceived vulnerability of males according to a
trans-cultural construct of fungible body fluids. In terms of this repre-
sentation, dainty masculinity is an elaboration of primal femaleness,
which is both the bedrock of maleness and a perennial threat to it. A
number of southern-European mores become intelligible in this light.
Machismo, Female Primacy
José Cutileiro, working in Portugal, mentions that full manly
status hinges on facing up to marriage and its considerable risks,
which boil down to keeping tight control over feminine “vice.”
Brandes explains the kindred Andalusian male view: “all women are
seductresses, possessed of insatiable, lustful appetites,” and “it is the
husband’s prime responsibility to control the conduct of his wife and
daughters.” This manly task is dangerous, adds Pitt-Rivers, insofar as
wives have the “power” to “ruin” their men. This may be understood
in two basic senses. First, Brandes points out that wives, if unre-
stricted, would sap the husbands’ vital strength to satisfy their vora-
cious sexual appetite. Second, any feminine sexual misbehavior
would compromise her male protector’s moral standing. The two di-
mensions of male “ruin” by means of women amount to Brandes’ as-
sessment that men “feel severely threatened and powerless when con-
fronted by women. They consider women potentially dangerous.”1
Juliet du Boulay provides a clue as to the nature of this innate
power of womanhood in her statement that the Greek wife performs a
twofold role, “both physical and metaphysical, for it is she who
makes the house a sanctuary for the living and a memorial for the
dead, while she herself is the matrix from which succeeding genera-
tions spring.” In other words, it is in motherhood that women show
their “powerful” dimension, the obverse of which is the implied rep-
resentation of “men as helpless, dependent on women, inadequate,
T

4. Lunar Births
he quest for the cultural logic underlying apparently fortuitous
data often recalls puzzle solving insofar as one has to patiently fit
pieces together, then figure out whether and how the emerging con-
figuration accommodates further stray pieces, and so on. For exam-
ple, one might note that the axiom that the dead are to leave this
world with feet first mirrors the fact that newborns normally come
headfirst. Then, in light of such symmetry between newborns and
corpses, one could recall the resilient custom of bathing babies as they
reach this world and of washing the dead as they leave it. And this
inverted parallelism summons to mind the pervasive notion that
newborns resemble old people, whom, in turn, supposedly revert to
infancy—as Shakespeare puts it, “old fools are babes again” (King
Lear 1.3.20).
Taken together, such data appear to hint the pervasive notion that
the dead and newborns converge in an endless cycle; that, in other
words, old people revert to being babies insofar as newborns are re-
cycled elders. Once this cyclic frame of mind is acknowledged, one is
bound to notice the fact that it is always women who wash newborns
and corpses. And you might remark that such exclusive feminine
dominion over cyclic passages between this world and the other-
world befits the notion that women themselves cycle along with the
moon. This, in turn, draws attention to the perennial link between la-
dies and flowers, which (as we are to see presently) are constant
metaphors for cyclic blood—hence, yet another link to lunar revolu-
tions.
The following discussion follows this analogical trail backwards,
as it were, starting with flowers and cyclic blood in order to grasp the
pervasive lunar symbolism linking together newborns and the dead.
Spiny Flowers
The theme of Little Red Riding Hood (ATU 333) depicts a girl, con-
stantly associated with red and flowers, who infamously chances to
be deflowered and devoured by a wolf she joins in bed. The flowery
leitmotiv runs across literary as well as oral versions of this well-
known tale. Thus, Perrault’s Le Petit Chaperon rouge portrays a red-
hooded girl who makes nosegays “out of little flowers she found,”
and an Alpine variant maps the name Chaperon rouge to the idea that
T

5. Cosmic Cycles
nterestingly, the examined notion that ancestors reincarnate in their
descendants clarifies a number of obscure pieces of folklore. Take,
for instance, the Alsatian maxim that a death within the family paves
the way for a new birth, or the Norman adage that each birth entails
the short-term death of an elder in the same family. Considered to-
gether, these statements imply correlation between births and deaths
in a given family, which brings home the principle that—as Jacques
Gélis puts it in his anthropological study of births in early modern
France—“newborns bring back to life the soul of ancestors.” In his
study, Gélis pinpoints a three-generation pattern whereby reproduc-
ing adults recycle, as it were, their ancestors in their children. And he
notes that this cyclic pattern supposes a fixed amount of souls dy-
namically distributed between this world and the otherworld, so that
all exchanges among the two realms happen in terms of “life for life,
soul for soul.”1
Such economy of limited souls underlies the widespread, cross-
cultural phenomenon that social anthropologist A. R. Radcliffe-Brown
called “the merging of alternate generations,” which hinges on the
notion that “one generation is replaced in course of time by the gen-
eration of their grandchildren.” In his words, this pattern supposes
the belief “that in some sense the grandparent is ‘reincarnated’ in a
grandchild”; hence, Radcliffe-Brown points out that in East-African
societies age sets are “arranged in cycles,” so that a son’s son will
likely belong to the same one as his father’s father. Similarly, the pan-
European custom of bestowing the personal names of grandparents
on grandchildren suggests coalescence between alternate generations;
and the custom of naming newborns after recently deceased kin—so
as to, as they used to say in Florence, “remake” the dead in the new-
born—suggests recycling of souls within the lineage.2
This chapter intends to convey a sense of the actual paths of the
dead in cyclic cosmos. If we consider Plato’s statement that the Demi-
urge created “souls equal in number to the stars and assigned each
soul to a star” (Timaeus 41d–42c), along with manifold folk statements
expressing the notion that stars in the sky correspond to souls (and
shooting stars presage some change in the condition of souls), we
glimpse the notion that cycles of soul have a cosmic span. Of course,
folk statements on the otherworld are seldom clear-cut (for they come
I

6. The Madonna and the Cuckoo
he pretext for this discussion is an intriguing discrepancy I found
in the northern Portuguese sanctuary of Senhora da Abadia, Our
Lady of the Abbey. The main statue of this old Marian sanctuary,
probably dating from the early fourteenth century, is a depiction of
the “Madonna and Child” theme. The standing Virgin dresses in a red
tunic bearing floral motifs, partly covered by a blue mantle. In her
right hand, the Madonna used to hold a flower stem that has long
since been broken; in her left arm, she holds her baby. The child Jesus,
conspicuously blond, in turn, uses his left hand seemingly to feed a
golden bird resting on his lap.
As if to emphasize the importance of this bird motif, another
statue standing on a lateral altar, dating from the nineteenth century,
offers the corresponding image of St. Joseph holding Jesus in his left
arm, the child in turn holding in his left hand a golden bird that he
feeds on greenery with his other hand. Given the well-known role of
the Holy Spirit, often represented as a dove, in the begetting of Jesus,
the identification of the birds in both statues might seem obvious. But
even though the bird on the main altar might be a dove, the bird on
the lateral statue definitely does not look like one. This discrepancy,
avowedly a subjective impression of strangeness, has provided the
pretext for the following exploration.
Birds
It is important to stress that I have not been able to clear the mys-
tery by asking. So far, all informants who seem to care about the iden-
tity of the birds have told me they must be doves, since “the scrip-
tures” mention such a bird. And although not one informant has dis-
agreed with my remark that the feathered biped on the lateral statue
does not look like a dove, some locals have suggested that this must
be the artist’s fault. Given, however, that nothing else in the statue in
question is faulty or undetermined, the consensual fact that the artist
fashioned a bird that does not look like a dove suggests the intention
of depicting something else altogether. While I cannot be sure that my
informants were actually withholding information concerning the
birds’ identity, I did get this impression after talking to two knowl-
edgeable men at the sanctuary. Could it be, I have then asked myself,
that the mysterious bird has become for some reason unpalatable;
T

7. Jesus Christ in Light of Folklore
he point that the cultural construct one calls “reality” is semiotic
in essence, and that even tiny faults in the conceptual order of
things can disclose general aspects of worldview, admits a wide range
of illustrations. Leo Steinberg’s depiction of his fateful visit to an art
museum is among the most revealing examples I might think of:
Many years ago, wandering with a medical friend through the Walters Art
Gallery, Baltimore, I noticed for the first time the Christ Child’s erection in a
Renaissance painting. Half incredulous, I asked my companion: “Is this
child’s penis erect?” The good doctor allowed an indulgent smile and mut-
tered, as he quickly turned his back on the picture, “It happens.” But why,
asked the pest in me, why is it happening to the Christ Child? I must have
asked it inaudibly, for there came no reply.1
This sudden realization of incongruity is one fine illustration of the
sort of fault in the seamless order of things that could reveal hitherto
ignored mental landscapes. Memorably, the experience has led Stein-
berg to bring out of oblivion the theological meanings attached to the
display of the Christ’s genitals in a trend of Renaissance art. Let us
abide with this art historian and learn what sorts of meanings might
have been attached to this surprising trend.
Gendering Jesus
According to Steinberg, display of the Christ’s genitals in Renais-
sance art was an attempt by artists to grapple with contemporary in-
carnational theology—hinging on the assumption that the supreme
feat of God was thorough humanation—in terms of Renaissance natu-
ralism, which required artists to chart bodies in full. Attempts to de-
pict complete incarnation in accordance with naturalism would have
caused the male member to become “a theological datum, participant
in God’s anthropophany.” Hence, the revealed penis in Renaissance
art would have symbolized the “most astonishing of all things,” to
talk like Thomas Aquinas (CG 4.27.1): the notion that “the true
God…has become true man.”2
Specifically, Steinberg shows in fascinating detail that symbolic
depictions of the fleshiest part of the Incarnate’s flesh made use of
two running homologies: between mortification of the penis (as in
circumcision) and the Savior’s passion on the one hand, and between
T

Epilogue
n looking back after the main task is finished, the benefit of hind-
sight suggests that all chapters in this book (diverse as they are)
deal with mental landscapes hinging on cyclical assumptions. This
realization offers food for thought insofar as cyclical worldview is
more than a topic—it is a frame of mind endowed with specific prop-
erties. Dundes has pointed out that modern Western culture tends to
value facing a theme “squarely,” by means of “straightforward” ar-
guments (while mistrusting “circular reasoning” and “going around
in circles”), and he noted that emphasis on thinking “logically, that is,
lineally,” causes “repeated failure” in understanding the outlook of
traditional cultures. In the next few pages I venture some tentative
thoughts on why cyclical mindsets prove problematic to the contem-
porary beholder, and why they are pervasive.1
One basic trait of cyclic Weltanschauung is aptly conveyed in the
expression of “limited good,” which George Foster coined to express
the assumption (ubiquitous in pre-modern societies) that all valued
things in life exist in finite quantity, so that overall “good”—health,
wealth, fertility, and so on—can only be divided, not augmented.
Crucially (but this Foster failed to realize), such closed systems hinge
on supposed interaction between visible and invisible aspects of real-
ity. Overall limited good implies tradeoff between this world and the
otherworld, which has implications in the way causality itself is de-
fined. Socrates explains this point by means of the notion that “the
living have come from the dead no less than the dead from the liv-
ing,” which entails imagining a “process of generation between the
two sets of opposites, going round in a set of cycle.” This supposes
that there is only so much soul in the universe—a view that entails
acknowledging death is a necessary prerequisite to life, for “if living
things came from other living things, and the living things died, what
possible means could prevent their number from being exhausted by
death?” One corollary of this stance is “a necessary law that every-
thing which has an opposite is generated from that opposite and from
no other source” (Plato, Phaedo 70–72).2
It is plain, then, that cyclic models contravene linear logic and its
law of noncontradiction. Whereas a lineal point of view places new-
borns and old people at the farthest reaches of the life span, a cyclical
perspective brings opposites into one another. Consequently, any
O

Works Cited
Adams, J. N. The Latin Sexual Vocabulary. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press,
1982.
Albert-Llorca, Marlène. L’ordre des choses: Les récits d’origine des animaux et des plantes
en Europe. Le regard de l’ethnologue 2. Paris: Éditions du Comité des travaux his-
toriques et scientifiques, 1991.
———. Les Vierges miraculeuses: Légendes et rituels. Paris: Gallimard, 2002.
Albert, Jean-Pierre. “Le vin sans ivresse. Remarques sur la liturgie eucharistique.” In
Le ferment divin, edited by Dominique Fournier and Salvatore D’Onofrio. Paris:
Éditions de la Maison des sciences de l’homme, 1991. 77–91.
Alford, Violet. Pyrenean Festivals, Calendar Customs, Music and Magic, Drama and
Dance. London: Chatto and Windus, 1937.
Almeida, Carlos Alberto Ferreira de. “Senhora da Abadia.” Separata da Revista de Et-
nografia 4 (n.d.).
Almeida, Miguel Vale de. The Hegemonic Male: Masculinity in a Portuguese Town. New
Directions in Anthropology 4. Providence: Berghahn Books, 1996.
Aquin, Thomas de. Somme contre les gentils. Translated by Denis Moreau. Vol. 4, La
Révélation. GF 1048. Paris: Flammarion, 1999.
Aquinas, St. Thomas. Aquinas’s Shorter Summa (Compendium theologiae). Translated by
Cyril Vollert. Previously published as Light of Faith: The Compendium of Theology.
Manchester, NH: Sophia Institute Press, 1993. Reprint, Manchester, NH: Sophia
Institute Press, 2002.
Aristotle. The Complete Works. Edited by Jonathan Barnes. 2 vols. Bollingen Series 71,
72. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1995.
Basile, Giambattista. The Pentamerone of Giambattista Basile. Edited by N. M. Penzer.
Translated by Benedetto Croce and N. M. Penzer. 2 vols. London: John Lane,
1932.
Baxandall, Michael. Painting and Experience in Fifteenth-Century Italy. 2nd ed. Oxford:
Oxford University Press, 1988.
Belmont, Nicole. “La coiffe et le serpent.” In Échanges et communications: Mélanges of-
ferts à Claude Lévi-Strauss à l’occasion de son 60ème
anniversaire, edited by Jean Pouil-
lon and Pierre Maranda. Vol. 2. The Hague and Paris: Mouton, 1970. 1223–28.
———. “L’enfant et le fromage.” L’Homme 28, no. 1 (1988): 13–28.
———. Les signes de la naissance: Étude des représentations symboliques associées aux nais-
sances singulières. Imago Mundi. Brionne: Monfort, 1971.
Bennett, W. H. “Eve.” In Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics, edited by James Hastings.
Vol. 5. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1951. 607–08.
Berger, A- L. “Obliquity and Precession for the Last 5000 000 Years.” Journal of As-
tronomy and Astrophysics 51 (1976): 127–35. http://articles.adsabs.harvard. edu/
cgi-bin/nph-journal_query?volume=51&plate_select=NO&page=127&plate=&co
ver=&journal=A%2BA.
Bettelheim, Bruno. Symbolic Wounds: Puberty Rites and the Envious Male. New revised
ed. New York: Collier Books, 1962.
La Bible: Traduction œcuménique. 3rd ed. Paris and Pierrefitte: Les Éditions du Cerf/
Société Biblique Française, 1989.

Bloch, Maurice. “Death, Women and Power.” In Death and the Regeneration of Life, ed-
ited by Maurice Bloch and Jonathan Parry. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 1982. 211–30.
———. Prey into Hunter: The Politics of Religious Experience. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1992.
Blok, Anton. “Rams and Billy-Goats: A Key to the Mediterranean Code of Honour.”
Man 16, no. 3 (1981): 427–40.
du Boulay, Juliet. Portrait of a Greek Mountain Village. 1974. Reprint, Oxford: Claren-
don Press, 1979.
Bourdieu, Pierre. Le sens pratique. Paris: Minuit, 1980.
Braga, Joaquim Teófilo. Contos Tradicionais do Povo Português. 3rd ed. Vol. 1. Portugal
de Perto 14. Lisboa: Dom Quixote, 1987. (Orig. publ. 1883.)
———. O Povo Português nos Seus Costumes, Crenças e Tradições. Vol. 2. Portugal de
Perto 11. Lisboa: Dom Quixote, 1986. (Orig. publ. 1885.)
Brand, John and Henry Ellis. Observations of the Popular Antiquities of Great Britain:
Chiefly Illustrating the Origin of Our Vulgar Customs, Ceremonies, and Superstitions.
New ed. 3 vols. London: Bohn, 1849.
Brandes, Stanley H. “Animal Metaphors and Social Control in Tzintzuntzan.” Ethnol-
ogy: An International Journal of Cultural and Social Anthropology 23, no. 3 (1984):
207–15.
———. Metaphors of Masculinity: Sex and Status in Andalusian Folklore. Publications of
the American Folklore Society, New Series, 1. Philadelphia: University of Penn-
sylvania Press, 1980.
Briffault, Robert. The Mothers. Abridged ed. London: Allen & Unwin, 1959. Reprint,
New York: Atheneum, 1977.
Bringéus, Nils-Arvid. “Food and Folk-Beliefs: On Boiling Blood Sausage.” In Gastron-
omy: The Anthropology of Food and Food Habits, edited by Margaret L. Arnott. Paris
and The Hague: Mouton, 1975. 251–73.
Buckley, Thomas. “Menstruation and the Power of Yurok Women.” In Blood Magic:
The Anthropology of Menstruation, edited by Thomas Buckley and Alma Gottlieb.
Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988. 187–209.
Burkert, Walter. Greek Religion. Translated by John Raffan. Paperback ed. Oxford:
Blackwell, 1987.
Bynum, Caroline Walker. Fragmentation and Redemption: Essays on Gender and the Hu-
man Body in Medieval Religion. New York: Zone, 1992.
———. Jesus as Mother: Studies in the Spirituality of the High Middle Ages. Berkeley:
University of California Press, 1982.
Calame-Griaule, Geneviève. Ethnologie et langage: La parole chez les Dogon. 2nd ed.
Paris: Institut d’Ethnologie, 1987.
Cardigos, Isabel. In and Out of Enchantment: Blood Symbolism and Gender in Portuguese
Fairytales. FF communications 260. Helsinki: Academia Scientiarum Fennica,
1996.
Cardini, Franco. “Hoc est sanguis meus: Le vin dans l’Occident médiéval.” In Le ferment
divin, edited by Dominique Fournier and Salvatore D’Onofrio. Paris: Éditions de
la Maison des sciences de l’homme, 1991. 101–07.
Carroll, Michael P. Madonnas That Maim: Popular Catholicism in Italy since the Fifteenth
Century. Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992.

Works Cited 173
Cartry, Michel. “Le suaire du chef.” In Sous le masque de l'animal. Essais sur le sacrifice
en Afrique noire, edited by Michel Cartry. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France,
1987. 131–231.
Cátedra Tomás, María. “Notas sobre la envidia: Los ojos malos entre los Vaqueiros de
Alzada.” In Temas de antropología española, edited by Carmelo Lisón Tolosana.
Madrid: Akal, 1976. 9–48.
———. This World, Other Worlds: Sickness, Suicide, Death, and the Afterlife Among the
Vaqueiros de Alzada of Spain. Translated by William A. Christian, Jr. Chicago: Uni-
versity of Chicago Press, 1992.
Cato, Marcus Porcius and Marcus Terentius Varro. On Agriculture. Edited by
Harrison Boyd Ash. Translated by William Davis Hooper. Loeb Classical Library
283. Cambridge, MA, and London: Harvard University Press / Heinemann,
1935.
Charuty, Giordana. “Le vœu de vivre: Corps morcelés, corps sans âme dans les pélé-
rinages portugais.” Terrain 18 (1992): 46–60.
Chassany, Jean-Philippe. Dictionnaire de météorologie populaire. Rev. ed. Paris: Maison-
neuve et Larose, 1989.
Chaves, Luís. “São Miguel na Terra Portuguesa e na Alma dos Portugueses.” Separata
da Revista de Guimarães 66 (1956).
Cicero. The Nature of the Gods. Translated by Horace C. P. McGregor. Harmond-
sworth: Penguin Books, 1972.
Cock, A. de. “Le corps humain.” Revue des Traditions Populaires 10 (1895): 239–49.
Coelho, Francisco Adolfo. Obra Etnográfica. Vol. 1, Festas, Costumes e Outros Mate-
riais para uma Etnologia de Portugal. Portugal de Perto 28. Lisboa: Dom Quixo-
te, 1993.
Colledge, Edmund and James Walsh, eds. Julian of Norwich: Showings. New York:
Paulist Press, 1978.
Columella, Lucius Junius Moderatus. On Agriculture. Edited by Edward H. Heffner.
Translated by E. S. Forster. Revised ed. Vol. 3, Books 10–12. Loeb Classical Library
408. 1955. Reprint, Cambridge, MA, and London: Harvard University Press /
Heinemann, 1968.
Cross, James E. Two Old English Apocrypha and Their Manuscript Source: The Gospel of
Nichodemus and The Avenging of the Saviour. Cambridge Studies in Anglo-Saxon
England 19. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996.
Cumont, Franz. Astrology and Religion among the Greeks and Romans. 1912. Reprint,
Whitefish, MT: Kessinger Publishing, n.d.
Cunha, Arlindo Ribeiro da. Senhora da Abadia: Monografia Histórica-Descritiva. 2nd ed.
Braga: Confraria de Nossa Senhora da Abadia, 1977.
Cutileiro, José. Ricos e Pobres no Alentejo: Uma Sociedade Rural Portuguesa. Lisboa:
Livraria Sá da Costa, 1977.
Dante. The Divine Comedy. Translated by C. H. Sisson. Oxford: Oxford University
Press, 1993.
Darmon, Pierre. Le mythe de la procréation à l˚âge baroque. Paris: Pauvert, 1977.
Delaney, Carol. “The Meaning of Paternity and the Virgin Birth Debate.” Man 21, no.
3 (1986): 494–513.
———. “Mortal Flow: Menstruation in Turkish Village Society.” In Blood Magic: The
Anthropology of Menstruation, edited by Thomas Buckley and Alma Gottlieb. Ber-
keley: University of California Press, 1988. 75–93.

———. The Seed and the Soil: Gender and Cosmology in Turkish Village Society. Compara-
tive Studies on Muslim Societies 11. Berkeley: University of California Press,
1991.
Delarue, Paul. Le conte populaire français: Catalogue raisonné des versions de France et des
pays de langue française d’outre-mer. 2nd ed. Vol. 1. Paris: Maisonneuve et Larose,
1985.
Delpech, François. “Légendes généalogiques et mythologie porcine: Aspects du dos-
sier ibérique.” In Mythologies du porc, edited by Philippe Walter. Grenoble: J. Mil-
lon, 1999. 239–83.
Deslandres, Yvonne and Monique de Fontanes. “Histoire des modes de la coiffure.”
In Histoire des mœurs, edited by Jean Poirier. Vol. 1.1, Les coordonées de l'homme et
la culture matérielle. Paris: Gallimard, 1990. 723–73.
Dimmitt, Cornelia and J. A. B. van Buitenan, eds. Classical Hindu Mythology: A Reader
in the Sanskrit Pur!"as. Translated by Cornelia Dimmitt and J. A. B. van Buitenan.
Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1978.
Dinzelbacher, Peter. “Harrowing of Hell.” In Medieval Folklore: A Guide to Myths, Leg-
ends, Tales, Beliefs, and Customs, edited by Carl Lindahl, John McNamara and John
Lindow. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002. 192–93.
Doniger, Wendy. Hindu Myths: A Sourcebook. The Penguin Books Classics. Harmond-
sworth: Penguin Books, 1975.
Dontenville, Henri. Mythologie française. 2nd ed. Petite bibliothèque Payot 332. Paris:
Payot / Rivages, 1973.
Dumézil, Georges. Fêtes romaines d’été et d’automne suivi de Dix questions romaines. 2nd
ed. Paris: Gallimard, 1986.
———. Mythe et épopée. 4th ed. Vol. 2, Types épiques indo–européens: Un héros, un sorcier,
un roi. Bibliothèque des Sciences humaines. Paris: Gallimard, 1986.
———. La religion romaine archaïque avec un appendice sur La religion des Étrusques. 2nd
ed. Paris: Payot, 1974.
Dumond, Louis. La Tarasque: Essai de description d’un fait local d’un point de vue ethno-
graphique. New ed. Paris: Gallimard, 1987.
Dundes, Alan. Bloody Mary in the Mirror: Essays in Psychoanalytic Folkloristics. Jackson:
University Press of Mississippi, 2002.
———. “The Hero Pattern and the Life of Jesus.” In In Quest of the Hero. Princeton, NJ:
Princeton University Press, 1990. 179–223.
———. “As the Crow Flies: A Straightforward Study of Lineal Worldview in Ameri-
can Folk Speech.” In What Goes Around Comes Around: The Circulation of Proverbs
in Contemporary Life, edited by Kimberly J. Lau, Peter Tokofsky and Stephen D.
Winick. Logan, UT: Utah State University Press, 2004. 171–87.
Dundes, Alan and Marcelo M. Suárez-Orozco. “The Piropo and the Dual Image of
Women in the Spanish-Speaking World.” In Parsing through Customs: Essays by a
Freudian Folklorist. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press, 1987. 118–44.
Dupeux, Cécile. “La lactation de Saint Bernard de Clairvaux.” In L’image et la produc-
tion du sacré, edited by Françoise Dunand, Jean-Michel Spieser and Jean Wirth.
Paris: Méridiens / Klincksieck, 1991. 165–93.
Duvernoy, Jean, ed. Le registre d'inquisition de Jacques Fournier. Paris, La Haye, and
New York: Mouton / École des Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales, 1978.

Works Cited 175
Eliade, Mircea. Shamanism: Archaic Techniques of Ecstasy. Translated by Willard R.
Trask. Revised and enlarged ed. Bollingen Series 76. Princeton, NJ: Princeton
———. Traité d’histoire des religions. Paris: Payot, 1949.
Elliott, J. K. “Joseph, Saint.” In Medieval Folklore: A Guide to Myths, Legends, Tales, Be-
liefs, and Customs, edited by Carl Lindahl, John McNamara and John Lindow. Ox-
ford: Oxford University Press, 2002. 232–33.
Elworthy, Frederick Thomas. The Evil Eye: An Account of This Ancient and Widespread
Superstition. 1895. Reprint, New York: Bell, 1989.
Espinosa, Aurélio M. Cuentos Populares Españoles Recogidos de la Tradicion Oral de Espa-
ña. 2nd ed. Vol. 2, Notas Comparativas. Madrid: Consejo Nacional de Investigacio-
nes Científicas, 1947.
———. Cuentos Populares Españoles Recogidos de la Tradicion Oral de España. 2nd ed.
Vol. 3, Notas Comparativas. Madrid: Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científi-
cas, 1947.
Fabre-Vassas, Claudine. “L’enfant, le four et le cochon.” Le monde alpin et rhodanien 1–
4 (1982): 155–78.
———. The Singular Beast: Jews, Christians, and the Pig. Translated by Carol Volk.
European Perspectives. New York: Columbia University Press, 1997.
du Fail, Noël. Propos rustiques. Edited by Gabriel-André Pérouse and Roger Dubuis.
Textes littéraires français 445. Genève: Droz, 1994. (Orig. publ. 1549.)
Feilberg, H. F. “The Corpse-Door: A Danish Survival.” Folk-Lore 18 (1907): 364–75.
Ferro, Paulo. Real Santuário de Nossa Senhora da Abadia na 2ª Metade do Século XVII.
Amares: Confraria de Nossa Senhora da Abadia, 1998.
Fine, Agnès. “Transmission des prénoms et parenté en Pays de Sault, 1740–1940.” In
Le prénom: Mode et histoire, edited by Jaques Dupâquier, Alain Bideau and Marie-
Elizabeth Ducreux. Paris: Éditions de l'École des hautes études en sciences so-
ciales, 1984. 109–25.
Flamel, Nicolas. Œuvres. Paris: Le Courrier du Livre, 1989.
Foster, George M. “Peasant Society and the Image of Limited Good.” In Peasant Soci-
ety: A Reader, edited by Jack Potter, May N. Diaz and George M. Foster. Boston:
Little, Brown, and Company, 1967. 300–23.
Frazer, James George. The Fasti of Ovid. 4 vols. London: Macmillan, 1929. Reprint,
Hildesheim and New York: Georg Olms Verlag, 1973.
———. The Golden Bough: A Study in Magic and Religion. Abridged ed. London: Mac-
millan, 1922. Reprint, London: Papermac, 1987.
———. The Golden Bough: A Study in Magic and Religion. 3rd ed. 12 vols. London:
Macmillan, 1911–15.
———. Le rameau d’or. Translated by Pierre Sayn. Vol. 3, Esprits des blés et des bois. Le
bouc émissaire. Paris: Bouquins / Laffont, 1983.
Freud, Sigmund. Art and Literature: Jensen’s ‘Gradiva’, Leonardo da Vinci and Other
Works. Edited by Albert Dickson. The Penguin Freud Library 14. Harmond-
sworth: Pelican Books, 1985. Reprint, Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1990.
———. Introductory Lectures on Psycho-Analysis. Translated by James Strachey. New
York and London: W.W. Norton & Company, 1989.
———. “Medusa’s Head.” In Collected Papers, edited and translated by James Stra-
chey. Vol. 5. The International Psycho-Analytical Library 37. New York: Basic
Books, 1959. 105–07.

———. New Introductory Lectures on Psychoanalysis. Edited and translated by James
Strachey. The Penguin Books Freud Library 2. Harmondsworth: Pelican Books,
1973. Reprint, Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1991.
———. On Metapsychology: The Theory of Psychoanalysis. Edited by Angela Richards.
The Penguin Freud Library 11. Harmondsworth: Pelican Books, 1984. Reprint,
Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1991.
———. On Sexuality: Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality and Other Works. Edited by
Angela Richards. The Penguin Freud Library 7. Harmondsworth: Pelican Books,
1977. Reprint, Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1991.
Frey, Nancy Louise. Pilgrim Stories: On and Off the Road to Santiago. Berkeley: Univer-
sity of California Press, 1998.
Gaignebet, Claude. A plus hault sens: L’ésotérisme charnel et spirituel de Rabelais. 2nd ed.
Paris: Maisonneuve et Larose, 1986.
———. “Le sang-dragon au Jardin des Délices.” Ethnologie française 20, no. 4 (1990):
278–390.
———. “Véronique ou l’image vraie.” Bulletin de la Société de Mythologie Française 139
(1985): 3–27.
Gaignebet, Claude and Marie-Claude Florentin. Le Carnaval: Essais de mythologie popu-
laire. Le Regard de l’Histoire. Paris: Payot, 1974.
Gaignebet, Claude and Jean-Dominique Lajoux. Art profane et religion populaire au
Moyen Age. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1985.
Gallini, Clara. La danse de l’Argia: Fête et guérison en Sardaigne. Edited by Michel Valen-
si. Translated by Giordana Charuty. Paris: Verdier, 1988.
Gélis, Jacques. “L’accouchement au XVIIIe
siècle: Pratiques traditionnelles et contrôle
médical.” Ethnologie française 6, no. 3–4 (1976): 325–40.
———. L’arbre et le fruit: La naissance dans l’Occident moderne XVIe
–XIXe
siècle. Paris:
Fayard, 1984.
Gélis, Jacques, Mireille Laget and Marie-France Morel. Entrer dans la vie: Naissances et
enfances dans la France traditionnelle. Archives 72. Paris: Gallimard / Julliard, 1978.
van Gennep, Arnold. Manuel de folklore français contemporain. Vol. 1.1, Naissance, bap-
tême, enfance, adolescence, fiançailles. 1943. Reprint, Paris: Picard, 1982.
———. Manuel de folklore français contemporain. Vol. 1.2, Mariage, funérailles. 1946. Re-
print, Paris: Picard, 1980.
———. Manuel de folklore français contemporain. Vol. 1.3, Carnaval, Carême, Pâques. Pa-
ris: Picard, 1979.
———. Manuel de folklore français contemporain. Vol. 1.4, Cycle de mai, cycle de saint–Jean
et saint–Pierre. Paris: Picard, 1949.
Gillison, Gillian. Between Culture and Fantasy: A New Guinea Highlands Mythology. Chi-
cago: University of Chicago Press, 1993.
———. “Cannibals Among Women in the Eastern Highlands of Papua New Guinea.”
In The Ethnography of Cannibalism, edited by Paula Brown and Donald Tuzin.
Washington, D.C.: Society for Psychological Anthropology, 1983. 33–50.
———. “Symbolic Homosexuality and Cultural Theory: The Unconscious Meaning of
Sister Exchange Among the Gimi of Highland New Guinea.” In Anthropology and
Psychoanalysis: An Encounter Through Culture, edited by Suzette Heald and Ariane
Deluz. London and New York: Routledge, 1994. 210–24.
Gilmore, David D. “Mother-Son Intimacy and the Dual View of Woman in Andalu-
sia: Analysis Through Oral Poetry.” Ethos 14, no. 3 (1986): 227–51.

Works Cited 177
Gimbutas, Marija. The Language of the Goddess. London: Thames, 1989.
Ginzburg, Carlo. Les batailles nocturnes: Sorcellerie et rituels agraires en Frioul, XVIe
et
XVIIe
siècles. Translated by Giordana Charuty. Paris: Flammarion, 1984. (Orig.
publ. 1966.)
———. The Cheese and the Worms: The Cosmos of a Sixteenth-Century Miller. Translated
by John Tedeschi. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992.
———. Ecstasies: Deciphering the Witches’ Sabbath. New York: Pantheon Books, 1991.
Godelier, Maurice. La production des grands hommes: Pouvoir et domination masculine
chez les Baruya de Nouvelle-Guinée. 2nd ed. Champs 540. Paris: Flammarion, 1996.
González Terriza, Alejandro A. “Verónica, la Virgen del Espejo y las Tijeras.” Estudos
de Literatura Oral 7–8 (2002): 131–60.
Gottlieb, Alma. “Menstrual Cosmology Among the Beng of Ivory Coast.” In Blood
Magic: The Anthropology of Menstruation, edited by Thomas Buckley and Alma
Gottlieb. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988. 55–74.
———. Under the Kapok Tree: Identity and Difference in Beng Thought. Chicago and
London: The University of Chicago Press, 1997.
Gounelle, Rémi and Zbigniew Izydorczyk, eds. L’Évangile de Nicodème. Apocryphes 9.
Bruxelles: Brepols, 1997.
Grahn, Judy. Blood, Bread, and Roses: How Menstruation Created the World. Boston: Bea-
con Press, 1993.
Griaule, Marcel and Germaine Dieterlen. “The Dogon.” In African Worlds: Studies in
the Cosmological Ideas and Social Values of African Peoples, edited by Daryll Forde.
2nd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press for the International African Institute,
1954. Reprint, Hamburg and Oxford: LIT Verlag / James Currey with the Inter-
national African Institute, 1999. 83–110.
Grimm, Brüder. Kinder- und Hausmärchen: Jubiläumsausgabe mit den Originalanmerkun-
gen der Brüder Grimm. Edited by Heinz Rölleke. 3 vols. 1982. Reprint, Stuttgart:
Reclam, 1989.
Grimm, Jacob. Teutonic Mythology. Translated by James Steven Stallybrass. Vol. 2.
London: George Bell and Sons, 1883.
Grimm, Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm. The Complete Grimm’s Fairy Tales. Edited by James
Stern. Translated by Margaret Hunt. New York: Pantheon, 1980.
Groddeck, Georg. Le livre du ça. Translated by L. Jumel. Tel 3. Paris: Gallimard, 1973.
Guénon, René. L’ésotérisme de Dante. Paris: Gallimard, 1957.
———. Symboles fondamentaux de la science sacrée. Paris: Gallimard, 1962.
Gura, Aleksandr V. Simvolika zhivotnykh v slavianskoi narodnoi traditsii. Moscow: In-
drik, 1997.
Hamayon, Roberte. La chasse à l’âme: Esquisse d’une théorie du chamanisme sibérien. Nan-
terre: Société d’ethnologie, 1990.
Harf-Lancner, Laurence. Les fées au Moyen Âge: Morgane et Mélusine, la naissance des
fées. Nouvelle bibliothèque du Moyen Âge. Genève: Slatkine, 1984.
Hartland, Edwin Sidney. The Legend of Perseus: A Study of Tradition in Story, Custom
and Belief. Vol. 1, The Supernatural Birth. Grimm Library 2. London: Nutt, 1894.
Hélias, Pierre Jakez. Le cheval d’orgueil: Mémoires d’un Breton du pays bigouden. Terre
Humaine/Poche 3000. Paris: Plon, 1975.
Hell, Bertrand. “La force de la bière. Approche d’une récurrence symbolique dans les
systèmes de représentations de l’Europe nord-occidentale.” In Le ferment divin,

edited by Dominique Fournier and Salvatore D’Onofrio. Paris: Éditions de la
Maison des sciences de l’homme, 1991. 109–23.
Herdt, Gilbert H. “Fetish and Fantasy in Sambia Initiation.” In The Rituals of Manhood:
Male Initiation in Papua New Guinea, edited by Gilbert H. Herdt. Berkeley: Univer-
sity of California Press, 1982. 44–98.
———. Guardians of the Flutes: Idioms of Masculinity. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1981.
———. Sambia Sexual Culture: Essays from the Field. Chicago: University of Chicago
Press, 1999.
———. “Semen Transactions in Sambia Culture.” In Ritualized Homosexuality in Mela-
nesia, edited by Gilbert H. Herdt. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993.
167–210.
Héritier-Augé, Françoise. “Etude comparée des sociétés africaines.” Annuaire du Col-
lège de France 86 (1985–1986): 527–42.
———. “Semen and Blood: Some Ancient Theories Concerning Their Genesis and
Relationship.” In Fragments for a History of the Body, edited by Michel Feher. Tran-
slated by Tina Jolas. Vol. 3. New York: Zone Books, 1990. 159–75.
Héritier, Françoise. Masculin/féminin: La pensée de la différence. Paris: Odile Jacob, 1996.
———. Masculin/féminin II: Dissoudre la hiérarchie. Paris: Odile Jacob, 2002.
———. Two Sisters and Their Mother: The Anthropology of Incest. Translated by Jeanine
Herman. New York: Zone Books, 1999.
Hesiod. Theogony. Works and Days. Translated by M. L. West. Oxford and New York:
Oxford University Press, 1988.
Holbek, Bengt. Interpretation of Fairy Tales: Danish Folklore in a European Perspective. FF
Communications 239. 1987. Reprint, Helsinki: Academia Scientiarum Fennica,
1998.
Homer. The Iliad. Translated by Robert Fagles. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1998.
———. The Odyssey. Translated by Samuel Butler. London and New York: Longmans
Green and Co., 1900.
———. The Odyssey. Translated by Robert Fagles. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books,
1996.
———. The Odyssey: The Story of Odysseus. Translated by W. H. D. Rouse. New York:
Signet Classic, 1999.
Homère. Iliade, Odyssée. Translated by Robert Flacelière and Victor Bérard. Bibliothè-
que de la Pléiade 115. Paris: Gallimard, 1965.
Ivanov, Viatcheslav and Vladimir Toporov. “Le mythe indo-européen du dieu de
l’orage poursuivant le serpent: Reconstruction du schéma.” In Échanges et com-
munications: Mélanges offerts à Claude Lévi-Strauss à l'occasion de son 60ème
anniver-
saire, edited by Jean Pouillon and Pierre Maranda. Translated by A. Karvovski.
Vol. 2. The Hague and Paris: Mouton, 1970. 1181–206.
Jakobson, Roman and Marc Szeftel. “The Vseslav Epos.” In Russian Epic Studies, ed-
ited by Roman Jakobson and E. J. Simmons. Vol. 42. Philadelphia: American
Folklore Society, 1949. 13–86.
Joines, Karen Randolph. “The Bronze Serpent in the Israelite Cult.” Journal of Biblical
Literature 87, no. 3 (1968): 245–56.
Joisten, Charles. Contes populaires du Dauphiné. Vol. 1, Contes merveilleux. Contes reli-
gieux. Histoires d'ogres et de diables dupés. Documents d'ethnologie régionale 1.
Grenoble: Publications du Musée dauphinois, 1971.

Works Cited 179
Jones, Ernest. Essays in Applied Psycho-Analysis. Vol. 2, Essays in Folklore, Anthropology
and Religion. New York: International Universities Press, 1964.
———. “The Symbolic Significance of Salt in Folklore and Superstition.” In Salt and
the Alchemical Soul: Three Essays, edited by Stanton Marlan. Woodstock, CT, and
New York: Spring Publications, 1995. 47–100.
Jones, Malcolm. The Secret Middle Ages: Discovering the Real Medieval World. Phoenix
Mill Thrupp, GL: Sutton, 2002.
Joubert, Laurent. Popular Errors. Translated by Gregory David de Rocher. Tuscaloosa,
AL, and London: The University of Alabama Press, 1989.
Jubainville, Henri d’Arbois de. Le cycle mythologique irlandais et la mythologie celtique.
Paris: Ernest Thorin, 1884.
Kierkegaard, Sören. Fear and Trembling. Repetition. Edited by Howard V. Hong and
Edna H. Hong. Translated by Howard V. Hong. Kierkegaard’s Writings 6.
Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1983.
Klapisch-Zuber, Christiane. “Le nom ‘refait’: La transmission des prénoms à Florence
(XIVe
–XVIe
siècles).” L’Homme 20, no. 4 (1980): 77–104.
Knight, Chris. Blood Relations: Menstruation and the Origins of Culture. Paperback ed.
New Haven: Yale University Press, 1995.
Kosinski, Jerzi. The Painted Bird. New York: Grove Press, 1976.
Kragh, Helge. Cosmology and Controversy: The Historical Development of Two Theories of
the Universe. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1999.
Krappe, Alexander H. “Antipodes.” Modern Language Notes 59, no. 7 (1944): 441–47.
———. La genèse des mythes. Bibliothèque scientifique. Paris: Payot, 1952.
Ladurie, Emmanuel Le Roy. Montaillou, village occitan de 1294 à 1324. Bibliothèque des
Histoires. Paris: Gallimard, 1975.
Lang, Andrew, ed. The Blue Fairy Book. London: Longman's, Green and Co., 1889. Re-
print, New York: Dover, 1965.
Laqueur, Thomas. Making Sex: Body and Gender from the Greeks to Freud. Paperback ed.
Cambridge, MA, and London: Harvard University Press, 1992.
Lawrence, Denise L. “Menstrual Politics: Women and Pigs in Rural Portugal.” In
Blood Magic: The Anthropology of Menstruation, edited by Thomas Buckley and
Alma Gottlieb. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988. 117–36.
Le Goff, Jacques. L’imaginaire médiéval. Bibliothèque des Histoires. Paris: Gallimard,
1985.
Leach, Edmund R. “Anthropological Aspects of Language: Animal Categories and
Verbal Abuse.” In Reader in Comparative Religion: An Anthropological Approach, ed-
ited by William A. Lessa and Evon Z. Vogt. 3rd ed. New York: Harper & Row,
1972. 206–20.
———. “Magical Hair.” The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain
and Ireland 88, no. 2 (1958): 147–64.
Lebrun, François. “Parents et enfants.” In Histoire de la famille, edited by André Bur-
guière, Christiane Klapisch-Zuber, Martine Segalen and Françoise Zonabend.
Vol. 3, Le choc des modernités. Paris: Armand Colin, 1986. 188–202.
Lévi-Strauss, Claude. “The Deduction of the Crane.” In Structural Analysis of Oral
Tradition, edited by Pierre Maranda and Elli Köngäs Maranda. Philadelphia:
University of Pennsylvania Press, 1971. 3–21.
———. Histoire de Lynx. Paris: Plon, 1991.
———. Mythologiques. Vol. 1, Le cru et le cuit. Paris: Plon, 1964.

———. Mythologiques. Vol. 2, Du miel aux cendres. Paris: Plon, 1966.
———. “Pensée scientifique et pensée mythique.” In Claude Lévi-Strauss, edited by
Michel Izard. Paris: L’Herne, 2004. 40–42.
———. Le regard éloigné. Paris: Plon, 1983.
———. Les structures élémentaires de la parenté. 2nd ed. Paris, La Haye: Mouton, 1967.
Lienhardt, Godfrey. Divinity and Experience: The Religion of the Dinka. 1961. Reprint,
Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1990.
Macrobius, Ambrosius Aurelius Theodosius. Commentary on the Dream of Scipio.
Translated by William Harris Stahl. Records of Western Civilization. New York:
Columbia University Press, 1990.
Malinowski, Bronislaw. Magic, Science and Religion, and Other Essays. 1974. Reprint,
London: Souvenir Press, 1982.
Manilius, Marcus. The Five Books of Manilius. Translated by Thomas Creech. London:
Tonson, 1697. Reprint, Whitefish, MT: Kessinger Publishing, n.d.
de Martino, Ernesto. Œuvres. Translated by Claude Poncet. Vol. 3, La terre du remords.
Paris: Sanofi-Synthélabo, 1999.
Mattéi, Jean-François. Platon et le mirroir du mythe: De l’âge d’or à l’Atlantide. 2nd ed.
Quadrige 391. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 2002.
Méchin, Colette. “Les règles de la bonne mort en Europe occidentale.” L'Homme 21,
no. 4 (1991): 51–67.
Mencej, Mirjam. “Water and Death in Slavic Folk Beliefs.” In Symposia: Journal for
Studies in Ethnology and Anthropology, edited by Mihai Fifor. Craiova: Centre for
Studies in Folklife and Traditional Culture of Dolj County, 2004. 183–97.
Menéndez Pidal, Ramón. La leyenda de los Infantes de Lara. 3rd ed. Obras completas 1.
Madrid: Espasa-Calpe, 1971.
Milton, John. Paradise Lost and Paradise Recovered. Edited by Christopher Ricks. The
Signet Classic Poetry Series. New York: Penguin Books Putnam, 2001.
Monmouth, Geoffrey of. Life of Merlin. Translated by Basil Clarke. Cardiff: University
of Wales Press, 1973.
Monmouth, Geoffroy de. Histoire des rois de Bretagne. Translated by Laurence Mathey-
Maille. Paris: Les Belles Lettres, 1992.
The New Testament. Translated by Richmond Lattimore. New York: North Point Press,
1996.
O’Neill, Brian Juan. “Repensando Trabalhos Colectivos Lúdicos: A Matança do Porco
em Alto Trás-os-Montes.” In Estudos em Homenagem a Ernesto Veiga de Oliveira,
edited by Fernando Oliveira Baptista, Joaquim Pais de Brito, Maria Luisa Braga
and Benjamim Pereira. Lisboa: Instituto Nacional de Investigação Científica,
1989. 471–520.
Obeyesekere, Gananath. Medusa’s Hair: An Essay on Personal Symbols and Religious
Experience. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 1981.
Onians, Richard Broxton. The Origins of European Thought about the Body, the Mind, the
Soul, the World, Time, and Fate. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1951.
Reprint, New York: Arno Press, 1973.
D’Onofrio, Salvatore. “Autour de la règle.” In En substances: Textes pour Françoise Hé-
ritier, edited by Jean-Luc Jamard, Emmanuel Terray and Margarita Xanthakou.
Paris: Fayard, 2000. 253–68.
Oppitz, Michael. “Sur les traces du grand ours.” In Claude Lévi-Strauss, edited by
Michel Izard. Paris: L’Herne, 2004. 60–67.

Works Cited 181
Ott, Sandra. “Aristotle among the Basques: The ‘Cheese Analogy’ of Conception.”
Man 14, no. 4 (1979): 699–711.
———. The Circle of Mountains: A Basque Shepherding Community. Oxford: Clarendon
Press, 1981.
Paré, Ambroise. On Monsters and Marvels. Translated by Janis L. Pallister. Chicago:
The University of Chicago Press, 1983.
Pedroso, Zófimo Consiglieri, Contos Populares Portugueses. 2nd ed. Lisboa: Vega, 1984.
(Orig. publ. 1910.)
———. Contribuições para uma Mitologia Popular Portuguesa. Edited by João Leal. Por-
tugal de Perto 16. Lisboa: Dom Quixote, 1988.
———. “Contribuições para uma Mythologia Popular Portugueza no. IV: Supersti-
ções Populares (varia).” O Positivismo 3 (1881): 1–21.
Penzer, N. M. “Poison-Damsels.” In Poison-Damsels and Other Essays in Folklore and
Anthropology. London: Sawyer, 1952. 3–71.
Pérouas, Louis et al. Léonard, Marie, Jean et les autres: Les prénoms en Limousin depuis un
millénaire. Paris: Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, 1984.
Perrault, Charles. Contes de ma mère l'Oye. Folio Junior. Paris: Gallimard, 1977.
Philippi, Donald L., trans. Kojiki. 1968. Reprint, Tokyo: University of Tokyo Press,
1992.
Pina-Cabral, João de. “Tamed Violence: Genital Symbolism in Portuguese Popular
Culture.” Man n. s. 28, no. 1 (1993): 101–20.
Pitt-Rivers, Julian. Antropologia del honor o politica de los sexos. Translated by Carlos
Manzano. Estudios y Ensaios 52. Barcelona: Editorial Crítica, 1979.
———. “Honour and Social Status.” In Honour and Shame: The Values of Mediterranean
Society, edited by J. G. Peristiany. London: Weinfeld and Nicolson, 1965. 19–78.
———. The People of the Sierra. 2nd ed. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press,
1971.
———. “La revanche du rituel dans l'Europe contemporaine.” Les Temps Modernes 42,
no. mars (1987): 50–74.
———. “Le sacrifice du taureau.” Le temps de la réflexion 4 (1983): 281–97.
———. “Sainte Véronique, patronne des arènes.” Gradhiva 16 (1994): 85–92.
———. “Taurolatrías: La Santa Verónica y el Toro de la Vega.” In Sacrificio y tauroma-
quia en España y America, edited by Pedro Romero de Solís. Sevilla: Real Maes-
tranza de Caballería de Sevilla / Universidad de Sevilla, 1995. 181–201.
Plato, The Collected Dialogues, Including the Letters. Edited by Edith Hamilton and
Huntington Cairns. Bollingen Series 71. 1961. Reprint, Princeton, NJ: Princeton
Pliny. Natural History. Translated by H. Rackham. Vol. 5, Books XVII–XIX. Loeb Clas-
sical Library 371. Cambridge, MA, and London: Harvard University Press /
Heinemann, 1950.
———. Natural History. Translated by W. H. S. Jones. Vol. 8, Books XXVIII–XXXII.
Loeb Classical Library 418. Cambridge, MA, and London: Harvard University
Press, 1963.
Plutarch. Lives. Translated by Bernardotte Perrin. Vol. 1, Theseus and Romulus. Lycur-
gus and Numa. Solon and Publicola. The Loeb Classical Library 46. Cambridge,
MA, and London: Harvard University Press / Heinemann, 1914.

———. Moralia. Translated by Frank Cole Babbitt. Vol. 4. The Loeb Classical Library
244. Cambridge, MA, and London: Harvard University Press / Heinemann,
1936.
Pócs, Éva. Between the Living and the Dead: A Perspective on Witches and Seers in the
Early Modern Age. Translated by Szilvia Rédey. Budapest and Ithaca, NY: Central
European University Press, 1999.
Porter, Eliot and Ellen Auerbach. Mexican Churches. San Francisco, CA: Chronicle
Books, 1999.
Praneuf, Michel. L’ours et les hommes dans les traditions européennes. Paris: Imago, 1989.
Propp, Vladimir. Les racines historiques du conte merveilleux. Translated by Lise Gruel-
Apert. Bibliothèque des Sciences Humaines. Paris: Gallimard, 1983. (Orig. publ.
1946.)
Proust, Marcel. À la recherche du temps perdu. Paris: Quarto/Gallimard, 1999.
Quéré, France, ed. Évangiles apocryphes. Paris: Points/Seuil, 1983.
Rabelais, François. Les cinq livres: Gargantua. Pantagruel. Le tiers livre. Le quart livre. Le
cinquième livre. Edited by Jean Céard, Gérard Defaux and Michel Simonin. Paris:
Le Livre de Poche, 1994.
———. Gargantua and Pantagruel. Translated by J. M. Cohen. Penguin Books Classics.
Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1955.
Radcliffe-Brown, A. R. “Introduction.” In African Systems of Kinship and Marriage, ed-
ited by A. R. Radcliffe-Brown and Daryll Forde. London and New York: KPI /
International African Institute, 1987. 1–85. (Orig. publ. 1950.)
———. Structure and Function in Primitive Society. 1952. Reprint, London: Routledge
and Kegan Paul, 1979.
Rank, Otto. The Trauma of Birth. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner and Co., 1929.
Reprint, Mineola, NY: Dover, 1993.
Reingold, Edward M. and Nachum Dershowitz. Calendrical Calculations: The Millen-
nium Edition. 2001. Reprint, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002.
Renard, Marcel. “Aspects anciens de Janus et de Junon.” Revue belge de Philologie et
d’Histoire 31, no. 1 (1953): 5–21.
———. “Iuno Couella.” Annuaire de l’Institut de Philologie et d’Histoire Orientales et
Slaves 12 (1952): 401–08.
———. “Le nom de Junon.” Phoibos 5 (1950–51): 141–43.
Rey-Henningsen, Marisa. The Tales of the Ploughwoman. FF Communications 259. Hel-
sinki: Academia Scientiarum Fennica, 1996.
———. The World of the Ploughwoman. FF Communications 254. Helsinki: Academia
Scientiarum Fennica, 1994.
Rydberg, Viktor. Teutonic Mythology: Gods and Goddesses of the Northland. Edited by
James W. Buel. Translated by Rasmus Björn Anderson. Imperial autograph edi-
tion. 3 vols. Norrona Anglo-Saxon Classics 3–5. London and New York: Norrœna
Society, 1907.
Sagan, Carl. Broca’s Brain: Reflections on the Romance of Science. New York: Random
House, 1979.
Saintyves, Pierre. L’astrologie populaire étudiée spécialement dans les doctrines et les tradi-
tions relatives à l’influence de la lune: Essai sur la méthode dans l’étude du Folklore des
opinions et des croyances. Paris: Nourry, 1937.

Works Cited 183
———. “Little Red Riding Hood or the Little May Queen.” In Little Red Riding Hood:
A Casebook, edited by Alan Dundes. Translated by Catherine Rouslin. Madison,
WI: University of Wisconsin Press, 1989. 71–88.
de Santillana, Giorgio and Hertha von Dechend. Hamlet’s Mill: An Essay on Myth and
the Frame of Time. Boston: Godine, 1977.
Sauneron, Serge. “Le germe dans les os.” Bulletin de l'Institut français d'archéologie ori-
entale 60 (1960): 19–27.
Schmitt, Jean-Claude. Le corps des images: Essais sur la culture visuelle au Moyen Âge.
Paris: Gallimard, 2002.
Schneemelcher, Wilhelm, ed. New Testament Apocrypha. Translated by Robert
McLachlan Wilson. Revised ed. Vol. 1, Gospels and Related Writings. Louisville,
KT: Westminster/John Knox Press, 1991.
Schulenburg, W. Wendische Volkssagen und Gebräuche aus dem Spreewald. Leipzig:
Brockhaus, 1880.
Sébillot, Paul. Le folklore de France. 2nd ed. Vol. 1, Le ciel, la nuit et les esprits de l'air.
Paris: Imago, 1982.
———. Le folklore de France. 2nd ed. Vol. 2, La terre et le monde souterrain. Paris: Imago,
1983.
———. Le folklore de France. 2nd ed. Vol. 5, La faune. Paris: Imago, 1984.
Sevilla, San Isidoro de. Etimologías. Edited by Manuel António Marcos Casquero and
Jose Oroz Reta. 2nd ed. Vol. 2, Libros Xl–XX. Madrid: Biblioteca de Autores Cris-
tianos, 1994.
Shakespeare, William. The Complete Works. Edited by Peter Alexander. Glasgow:
HarperCollins, 1994.
Silva, Francisco Vaz da. “Bloody Mary in the Mirror: Essays in Psychoanalytic Folk-
loristics (review).” Journal of American Folklore 117, no. 464 (2004): 216–17.
———. “Folklore into Theory: Freud and Lévi-Strauss on Incest and Marriage.” Jour-
nal of Folklore Research 44, no. 1 (2007): 1–19.
———. Metamorphosis: The Dynamics of Symbolism in European Fairy Tales. Interna-
tional Folkloristics 1. New York: Peter Lang, 2002.
Singh, Simon. Big Bang: The Origin of the Universe. New York: Fourth Estate, 2004.
“Sperm Made from Human Bone Marrow.” BBC News. Health. (Friday, 13 April
2007). http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/6547675.stm.
St. Augustine. Sermons for Christmas and Epiphany. Translated by Thomas Comerford
Lawler. Ancient Christian Writers 15. Westminster, MD, and London: The New-
man Press / Longmans, Green, and Co., 1952.
Steinberg, Leo. The Sexuality of Christ in Renaissance Art and in Modern Oblivion. 2nd
ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996.
Stewart, J. A. The Myths of Plato. Edited by G. R. Levy. 1960. Reprint, London: Barnes
& Noble, 1970.
Taboada, Jesús. “La matanza del cerdo en Galicia.” Revista de Dialectologia y Tradi-
ciones Populares 25, no. 1–2 (1969): 89–105.
Tanakh, The Holy Scriptures: The New JPS Translation According to the Traditional Hebrew
Text. Philadelphia, New York, Jerusalem: The Jewish Publication Society, 1988.
Tenèze, Marie-Louise. Le Conte populaire français: Catalogue raisonné des versions de
France et des pays de langue française d’outre-mer. Vol. 3. Paris: Maisonneuve et
Larose, 1976.

Testart, Alain. Des mythes et des croyances: Esquisse d'une théorie générale. Paris: Maison
des Sciences de l’Homme, 1991.
Tilbury, Gervais de. Le livre des merveilles: Divertissement pour un Empereur (troisième
partie). Translated by Annie Duchesne. Paris: Les Belles Lettres, 1992.
Trexler, Richard C. “Gendering Jesus Crucified.” In Iconography at the Crossroads, ed-
ited by Brendan Cassidy. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1993. 107–20.
———. “Habiller et déshabiller les images: Esquisse d’une analyse.” In L’image et la
production du sacré, edited by Françoise Dunand, Jean-Michel Spieser and Jean
Wirth. Translated by Jean Wirth. Paris: Méridiens / Klincksieck, 1991. 195–231.
The Upani#ads. Translated by F. Max Müller. 2 vols. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879,
1884. Reprint, New York: Dover, 1962.
Uther, Hans-Jörg. The Types of International Folktales: A Classification and Bibliography,
Based on the System of Antti Aarne and Stith Thompson. Vol. 1, Animal Tales, Tales of
Magic, Religious Tales, and Realistic Tales. FF Communications 284. Helsinki: Aca-
demia Scientiarum Fennica, 2004.
Vasconcelos, José Leite de. Etnografia Portuguesa: Tentame de Sistematização. Edited by
Manuel Viegas Guerreiro. Vol. 5. 1967. Reprint, Lisboa: Imprensa Nacional–Casa
da Moeda, 1982.
———. Etnografia Portuguesa: Tentame de Sistematização. Edited by Manuel Viegas
Guerreiro. Vol. 7. Lisboa: Imprensa Nacional–Casa da Moeda, 1980.
———. Tradições Populares de Portugal. Edited by Manuel Viegas Guerreiro. 2nd ed.
Lisboa: Imprensa Nacional–Casa da Moeda, 1986.
Veiga de Oliveira, Ernesto. Festividades Cíclicas em Portugal. Portugal de Perto 6. Lis-
boa: Dom Quixote, 1984.
Verdier, Yvonne. Façons de dire, façons de faire: La laveuse, la couturière, la cuisinière. Bib-
liothèque des Sciences humaines. Paris: Gallimard, 1979.
Vicente, Gil. As Obras de Gil Vicente. Vol. 1. Lisboa: Imprensa Nacional–Casa da Mo-
eda, 2002.
Virey, Julien-Joseph. De la femme, sous ses rapports physiologiques, morals et littéraires.
Paris: Crochard, 1823.
Virgil. The Aeneid. Translated by David West. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1991.
———. Eclogues. Georgics. Aeneid I–VI. Translated by H. R. Fairclough. Revised ed.
The Loeb Classical Library 63. Cambridge, MA, and London: Harvard University
Press / Heinemann, 1935.
Voragine, Jacques de. La légende dorée. Edited by Alain Boureau. Translated by Alain
Boureau, Monique Goullet and Laurence Moulinier. Bibliothèque de la Pléiade
504. Paris: Gallimard, 2004.
Vulpesco, Michel. Les coutumes roumaines périodiques: Etudes descriptives et comparées.
Paris: Larose, 1927.
Yoyotte, Jean. “Les os et la semence masculine: À propos d'une théorie physiologique
égyptienne.” Bulletin de l’Institut français d’archéologie orientale 61 (1962): 139–46.

Index
A
Adam, 66, 93, 137, 145, 146, 147, 148
Adams, J. N., 28, 49
Albert, Jean-Pierre, 60
Albert-Lhorca, Marlène, 132, 143, 144,
151, 158, 160
Albert-Llorca, Marlène, 129
Alford, Violet, 31
Almeida, Carlos Alberto Ferreira de,
129, 131
Almeida, Miguel Vale de, 60
Antipodes, 79, 91–94, 125
Aristotle, 2, 15, 17, 19, 33, 34, 35, 36,
37, 38, 40, 41, 42, 47, 49, 56, 64, 68,
80, 82, 83, 84, 88, 118, 126, 141
B
Basile, Giambattista, 65
Baxandall, Michael, 116, 130
Belmont, Nicole, 32, 33, 47, 48, 85, 86
Benini, Rudolfo, 106
Bennett, W. H., 83, 159
Berger, A-L., 106
Bettelheim, Bruno, 157
Bloch, Maurice, 85, 156
Blok, Anton, 9, 10, 12, 27, 28, 57, 59
Blood
and flowers, 63–66, 141–44, 158
and milk, 25, 26, 32, 35–38, 53–58,
56, 59, 72, 137, 144
and olive oil, 148
and semen, 15, 18, 19, 29, 33–40, 34,
53–58, 59
and snakes, 66–69, 70, 83, 84, 115–
19, 145, 148–49, 150, 154, 155
and soul, 45
and wine, 57, 60, 148
Christ’s, 99, 136, 137, 139–41, 142,
144, 145, 146, 147, 148, 149–52,
155, 158
curdling, 24, 34, 35, 36, 38, 40, 42,
43, 44, 53, 64
feminine, 18, 19, 36, 37, 41, 42, 43,
44, 45, 47, 52, 53–58, 63–69, 81,
83, 84, 139–41, 147, 155, 157, 160
Eve’s, 115–19, 144, 148–49, 150
Mary’s, 115–19, 141–44, 149–52
goat’s, 9, 25
pig's, 42–47
poisonous, 66, 83, 141, 151, 154
sacrificial, 25, 43, 47, 136, 138, 139–
41, 142, 144, 147, 148
Bourdieu, Pierre, 103, 107
Braga, Joaquim Teófilo, 88, 132
Brand, John, 7, 9, 19, 26, 27, 30, 82, 88
Brandes, Stanley H., 11, 12, 13, 14, 27,
28, 51, 52, 53, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 65,
66, 83, 141, 157
Briffault, Robert, 68, 84, 85, 149, 159
Bringéus, Nils-Arvid, 44, 49
Buckley, Thomas, 48, 83
Burkert, Walter., 79, 86, 87
Bynum, Caroline Walker, 66, 83, 136,
137, 138, 139, 156
C
Calame-Griaule, Geneviève, 64, 83
Cardigos, Isabel, 50, 83, 84
Cardini, Franco, 60
Carroll, Michael P., 151, 160
Cartry, Michel, 85
Cátedra Tomás, María, 18, 30, 53, 58,
129, 160

Caul, birth in a, 71, 85
Charuty, Giordana, 160
Chassany, Jean-Philippe, 30
Chaves, Luís, 129
Christ, Jesus, 94, 116, 117, 120, 121,
122, 148, 149, 150, 153
and blood. See Blood
and femininity, 13, 136–41
and flowers, 141–44
and phallic metaphor, 135–36, 139
and snakes, 144, 145–46, 152, 155,
160
and the dragon, 115, 121, 128, 145
Cicero, 96, 106, 107
Cock, A. de, 83
Coelho, Francisco Adolfo, 83
Columella, 103, 107, 120
Cosmogony, 95, 165
Cuckoldry, 7–10, 19–24, 124–28
Cuckoo. See Soul birds
Cumont, Franz, 80, 88
Cunha, Arlindo Ribeiro da, 129, 131,
151, 160
Cutileiro, José, 51, 52, 58
D
D’Onofrio, Salvatore, 13, 27, 28, 60
Dante, 18, 29, 40, 49, 92, 93, 94, 95, 99,
105
Darmon, Pierre, 85
de Martino, Ernesto, 153, 154, 155, 160
de Santillana, Giorgio, 48, 49, 75, 78,
86, 87, 99, 106
Delaney, Carol, 38, 40, 48, 49, 71, 72,
78, 85, 86, 87, 88, 103, 107, 126, 127,
130, 133, 141, 149, 157, 159
Delarue, Paul, 132
Delpech, François, 46, 50
Deslandres, Yvonne, 29
Dimmitt, Cornelia, 48
Dinzelbacher, Peter, 105
Dionysius of Halicarnassus, 31
Doniger, Wendy, 48
Dontenville, Henri, 129
Dove. See Soul birds
Dragon, 46, 72, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117,
119, 121, 122, 128, 129, 145, 147, 150,
156, 159. See also Snake
du Boulay, Juliet, 51, 52, 58
du Fail, Noël, 50
Dumézil, Georges, 30, 31, 85, 119, 131
Dumond, Louis, 145, 158
Dundes, Alan, 9, 27, 48, 132, 139, 156,
158, 163, 168
Dupeux, Cécile, 144, 158
Dupray, F., 88
Duvernoy, Jean, 47
E
Ecliptic, 96, 99, 100, 101, 103, 104, 116.
See also Zodiac
Eliade, Mircea, 147, 155, 159, 161
Elliott, J. K., 132
Elworthy, Frederick Thomas, 17, 19,
29, 30
Espinosa, Aurélio M., 50
Eve, 66, 93, 115–19, 137, 144, 145, 147,
148–49, 150. See also Blood. See also
Snake
F
Fairy tales. See Wondertales
Feilberg, H. F., 86
Ferro, Paulo, 129, 131
Fine, Agnès, 105
Flamel, Nicolas, 146, 159
Floralia. See Roman festivals
Flowers, 20, 41, 63–66, 68, 84, 141–44,
157, 158

Index 187
and Jesus Christ. See Christ, Jesus
and the Virgin Mary. See Mary,
Virgin
lily, 20, 117, 118
poppy, 64
rose, 1, 20, 64, 65, 66, 142, 143, 151,
157, 158
Foster, George M., 14, 163, 168
Frazer, James George, 24, 30, 31, 80,
85, 86, 88, 107
Freud, Sigmund, 28, 41, 48, 49, 67, 84,
102, 107, 127, 133, 164, 165, 166, 167,
168, 169
Frey, Nancy Louise, 99, 106
Friedmann, Alexander, 165, 169
G
Gaignebet, Claude, 21, 25, 30, 31, 73,
84, 86, 97, 102, 106, 107, 114, 123,
129, 130, 131, 144, 149, 158, 159
Galaxy. See Milky Way
Gallini, Clara, 150, 159
Gélis, Jacques, 85, 86, 89, 104, 105
Gillison, Gillian, 29, 59
Gilmore, David D., 52, 58
Gimbutas, Marija, 147, 159
Ginzburg, Carlo, 31, 33, 37, 39, 47, 48,
86
Godelier, Maurice, 55, 59
González Terriza, Alejandro A., 157
Gottlieb, Alma, 48, 64, 83
Grahn, Judy, 64, 82, 158
Great Year, 95–97
Griaule, Marcel, 169
Grimm, Brothers, 65, 83, 106, 131, 132
Groddeck, Georg, 67, 84
Guénon, René, 94, 105, 106
Gura, Aleksandr V., 131, 132
H
Hamayon, Roberte, 133
Harf-Lancner, Laurence, 50
Hartland, Edwin Sidney, 84
Hélias, Pierre Jakez, 86
Hell, 25, 76, 92, 93, 94, 97, 99, 104, 105,
106, 145, 147
Hell, Bertrand, 40, 49
Hemorrhissa, 140, 145, 149, 150
Herdt, Gilbert H., 28, 29, 53, 54, 55, 56,
58, 59, 60
Héritier, Françoise, 12, 16, 17, 18, 28,
29, 30, 34, 47, 48, 59, 87
Hesiod, 35, 75, 78, 86, 87, 91, 93, 105
Holbek, Bengt, 31, 86
Homer, 38, 48, 49, 75, 76, 78, 79, 87, 91,
93, 105
I
Ivanov, Viatcheslav, 114, 129
J
Jakobson, Roman, 31, 32, 85
Johns, Andreas B., 132
Joines, Karen Randolph, 145, 159
Joisten, Charles, 82
Jones, Ernest, 50, 117, 130
Jones, Malcolm, 9, 26, 27, 28
Joubert, Laurent, 41, 49, 58, 64, 66, 68,
83, 84
Jubainville, Henri d’Arbois de, 86, 87
Julian of Norwich, 26, 138, 144, 145,
156, 158, 159
K
Kierkegaard, Sören, 164, 168
Klapisch-Zuber, Christiane, 105
Kosinski, Jerzi, 102, 107
Kragh, Helge, 166, 169

Krappe, Alexander H., 92, 105, 130
L
Ladurie, Emmanuel Le Roy, 47
Laqueur, Thomas, 15, 28, 34, 40, 47,
48, 49, 118, 131
Lawrence, Denise L., 43, 49, 50
Le Goff, Jacques, 105
Leach, Edmund R., 16, 28, 29
Lebrun, François, 72, 86
Lemaître, Georges, 165, 169
Leonardo da Vinci, 36, 47, 48, 168
Lévi-Strauss, Claude, 16, 29, 118, 129,
130, 131, 165, 167, 168, 169
Lienhardt, Godfrey, 156
M
Macrobius, 39, 48, 98, 99, 100, 101, 106,
120, 131
Madonna. See Mary, Virgin
Malinowski, Bronislaw, 86, 126, 133
Manilius, 39, 48
Mary, Virgin
and bird, 124–28
and grottoes, 112–15
and milk, 52, 139, 144
and roses, 1, 142–44, 158
and sap, 119
and snakes, 113, 115–19, 117, 119,
145, 150
and tarantulas, 151
chromatics of, 52, 143
impregnation through the ear, 117,
118
in art, 111, 116–19, 120, 122, 131,
142, 143, 148, 150, 158
New Eve, 115, 117, 145, 150
Mattéi, Jean-François, 79, 87, 88
Méchin, Colette, 44, 49, 50
Mencej, Mirjam, 76, 87, 107, 130
Menéndez Pidal, Ramón, 50
Menstruation. See Blood
Milk
and sap, 13, 24, 26, 39, 54, 119, 120
and semen, 12–14, 17, 18, 19, 28, 40,
54, 55, 53–58, 56, 59, 101, 144
and snakes. See Snake
and soul, 38–39, 103–4
and the Milky Way. See Milky Way
and the moon, 19
Virgin
and womb blood. See Blood
animals’, 12, 13, 25, 41, 57
celestial, 37, 38, 39, 40, 46, 99, 101,
103, 104, 120
curdled, 33, 34, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42,
44, 47
kinship, 12
mother’s, 13, 14, 17, 35, 36, 37, 40,
52, 54, 55, 56, 101, 120, 137
sea of, 37, 48
Milky Way, 39, 98, 99, 100, 101, 106,
120. See also Souls. See also Milk
Milton, John, 66, 83, 130
Monmouth, Geoffrey, 20, 30, 113, 129
Moon
and births, 68–70, 85
and cows, 69–70
and horns, 19–21, 22, 70, 116, 117
and Juno, 68–70
and marrow, 19–21
and snakes. See Snake
and souls. See Souls
and women, 68. See also Snake and
women. See also Snake and
moon
Virgin

Index 189
O
O’Neill, Brian Juan, 49, 50
Obeyesekere, Gananath, 29, 84
Onians, Richard Broxton, 16, 17, 27,
29, 79, 87, 88
Oppitz, Michael, 29
Ott, 41–44
Ott, Sandra, 32, 33, 35, 36, 39, 45, 47,
49, 50, 64, 68, 83, 84, 85, 86
P
Paradise
earthly, 90, 92, 93, 94, 95, 97
heavenly, 91, 94
Paré, Ambroise, 68, 70, 84, 85
Pedroso, Zófimo Consiglieri, 84, 87
Penzer, N. M., 83
Pérouas, Louis, 105
Perrault, Charles, 17, 63, 65, 82, 83
Pina-Cabral, João de, 60
Pitt-Rivers, Julian, 7, 8, 9, 10, 26, 27,
51, 52, 58, 156
Plato, 3, 15, 36, 38, 39, 47, 58, 71, 73–
80, 77, 78, 79, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89–100,
92, 97, 105, 106, 126, 163, 164, 165,
167
Pliny the Elder, 33, 39, 48, 67, 80, 84,
101, 102, 106, 107, 120, 124, 131
Plutarch, 23, 25, 31, 69, 85
Pócs, Éva, 32, 85
Poison. See Tarantula. See Snake. See
Blood
Porter, Eliot, 157
Praneuf, Michel, 31, 32
Propp, Vladimir, 116, 117, 130, 133
Proust, Marcel, 1, 3
R
Rabelais, François, 58, 67, 124, 125,
128, 132, 143, 149, 157, 158, 159
Radcliffe-Brown, A. R., 89, 104, 105
Rank, Otto, 126, 127, 133
Reingold, Edward M., 131
Renard, Marcel, 69, 70, 85
Rey-Henningsen, Marisa, 84
Roman Festivals
Floralia, 65
Lupercalia, 23, 24
Nonae Caprotinae, 24
Roses. See Flowers
Rydberg, Viktor, 78, 87
S
Sagan, Carl, 127, 133
Saintyves, Pierre, 19, 30, 88, 158
Sauneron, Serge, 28, 29
Schmitt, Jean-Claude, 141, 157
Schulenburg, W., 132
Sébillot, Paul, 30, 87, 106, 131, 132
Serpent. See Snake
Shakespeare, William, 1, 8, 9, 10, 11,
13, 14, 15, 22, 27, 38, 63, 64, 65, 80,
124, 128
Silva, Francisco Vaz da, 32, 48, 83, 84,
85, 86, 87, 107, 129, 130, 133, 156,
158, 168
Singh, Simon, 166, 169
Snake. See also Dragon
ancestor, 46, 50
and birthing, 70, 72
and hair, 67–68, 84
and Jesus Christ. See Christ, Jesus
and milk, 54
and soul, 79
and springtime, 102, 107
and St. Paul, 152–54

and the moon, 32, 68, 116, 117, 144,
149
and tree, 146–47, 149
and women, 66–69, 83, 150, 160
and Eve, 66, 83, 115–19, 130, 144,
145, 147, 148–49, 150, 159
Virgin
chthonic, 68, 70, 82
crucified, 145–46, 149, 153, 155
poisonous, 66, 68, 83, 149–52, 154,
160
sloughing, 26, 68, 70, 72, 85, 86, 113,
115, 119, 149, 151, 152, 154, 156
Soul birds
cuckoo, 1, 7, 9, 11, 20–22, 24, 25, 26,
30, 102, 104, 107, 122–26, 127,
128, 131, 132
dove, 102, 104, 111, 112, 117, 118,
119, 120, 122, 123, 127, 128
stork, 1, 24, 25, 102, 103, 123, 126,
127
swan, 125, 127
Souls
and birds, 105, 123, 125
and breath, 79, 80–81
and cows, 114
and marrow, 38, 39
and milk. See Milk
and seed, 75, 102
and stars, 89, 95, 97–100, 106, 120
and the ecliptic, 98, 99, 100, 101,
102, 103, 104
and the Milky Way, 39, 97–100,
101, 106, 120
and the moon, 80–81, 80
and water, 76–80, 76, 87, 101, 103
in the otherworld, 71, 89–100, 94,
95, 97, 100, 104
reincarnating, 71, 89, 90, 91, 95, 98,
99, 101, 102, 103, 104, 127, 128
released, 91, 95, 100, 104, 115, 121,
129
shamanic, 75
transmigration of, 106
St. Augustine, 118, 130
St. Isidore, 9, 27
St. James, Way of, 99
St. Paul, 152–54
St. Thomas Aquinas, 135, 143, 156, 158
Steinberg, Leo, 118, 119, 131, 135, 136,
137, 138, 139, 141, 142, 146, 156, 157,
158, 159
Stewart, J. A., 87, 92, 105, 106
Stork. See Soul birds
Swan. See Soul birds
T
Taboada, Jesús, 49
Tarantula, 151, 153, 160. See also St.
Paul. See also Mary, Virgin
Tenèze, Marie-Louise, 157
Testart, Alain, 130, 149, 159
Tilbury, Gervais of, 139, 145, 149, 157,
158, 159
Toporov, Vladimir, 114, 129
Trexler, Richard C., 141, 157
U
Uther, Hans-Jörg, 132, 157
V
van Buitenan, J. A. B., 48
van Gennep, Arnold, 22, 30, 31, 71, 85,
86, 87, 103, 106, 107, 114, 129, 158
Varagine, Jacopo da, 114, 117, 118,
120, 121, 122, 123, 129, 130, 131, 132,
145, 158

Index 191
Varro, 19, 30, 68, 85, 102, 107, 120
Vasconcelos, José Leite de, 30, 84, 85,
86, 88, 107, 122, 124, 131, 132
Vassas, Claudine, 11, 27, 42, 43, 44, 45,
46, 49, 50, 68, 84
Veiga de Oliveira, Ernesto, 160
Verdier, Yvonne, 32, 44, 50, 68, 71, 76,
77, 78, 82, 84, 85, 87
Veronica, 139, 140, 144, 145, 149, 150,
157
Vicente, Gil, 76, 87
Virey, Julien-Joseph, 14, 28
Virgil, 39, 75, 76, 77, 79, 87, 91, 93, 97,
101, 102, 103, 105, 106, 107, 120, 131
Virgin Mary. See Mary, Virgin
Vulpesco, Michel, 24, 30, 31, 132
W
Werewolf, 25, 26, 31, 32
Wine. See Blood
Wondertales
ATU 333, Little Red Riding Hood, 63
ATU 410, Sleeping Beauty, 65
ATU 433B, King Lindorm, 25, 46, 72
ATU 507, The Monster’s Bride, 66
ATU 510A, Cinderella, 76, 141
ATU 706D, St. Wilgefortis and Her
Beard, 141
Y
Yoyotte, Jean, 28
Z
Ziolkowski, Jan M., 28
Zodiac, 39, 96, 98. See also Ecliptic

It is remarkablehow often we considercertainconstructs
in other
peoples'worldviewto be "myths,"while in our own casewe regard
equallyarbitraryassumptions
as inherentto the natureof things.As
everyanthropologistknows,one'smost cherished
culturalassump-
tions tend to remain implicit;in other words, worldview is largely
unconscious.
Thisbook explores
the possibility
of plumbingobscure
aspects
of one'sown culturein orderto assess
what somemight call
(regardingother cultures)the mythic underpinningsof worldview.
Seven
explorations
in folkloreand ethnography
exhumea conceptual
heritagethat still influences
perception,
albeit in unconscious
ways.
Thisarcheology
of intangibleheritageprovides
the sort of breakin
intellectual
routinethat allowsusto look anew at familiarthings.
Francisco Vaz da Silva teachesanthropologyand folklore at Insti-
tuto Superior
dasCiências
do Trabalho
e da Empresa
in Lisbon,
where
he alsoreceived
hisPh.D.
Hehaspublished
papers
on symbolic
folklore
and wondertalesin professional
journalsin Europeand America.His
publicationsinclude Metamorphosis:The Dynamicsof Symbolismin
EuropeanFairy Tales(Peter Lang, 2002),and a forthcoming seven-
volumeLibraryof EuropeanFairyTales
(in Portuguese).
www.peterlang.com
ISBN Ì?8--1,-r.tllr-041,8-3
llllllil
8143

Archeology Of Intangible Heritage

Recommended

Recommended

More Related Content

Similar to Archeology Of Intangible Heritage

Similar to Archeology Of Intangible Heritage (13)

More from Kelly Taylor

More from Kelly Taylor (20)

Recently uploaded

Recently uploaded (20)

Archeology Of Intangible Heritage