How the Brain Processes Information: Memory, attention and learning

1. How the Brain Processes Information:
Memory, attention and learning
Tracey Tokuhama-Espinosa, Ph.D.
IDEA, Universidad San Francisco de Quito
UDLA, Quito
Mayo 2010

2.  “Mind, Brain, and Education
(MBE) Science is the new and
improved brain‐based
learning. It is the scientifically
substantiated art of teaching.
It is the intersection of
neuroscience, education, and
psychology. And it is a
paradigm shift in formal
education…” (p.22)

3. "Tracey Tokuhama‐Espinosa’s book is not only an excellent guide for teachers, a most
needed review of the cutting edge research on neuroeducation, but also a model of
pedagogy. The author has done a generous effort to guide the readers step by step in the
fascinating exploration of the new transdisciplinary field called MBE, Mind, Brain and
Education. I recommend this book to every teacher. It will clarify many issues and promote
many educational initiatives."
‐Antonio M. Battro, MD, PhD
President of IMBES, International Mind, Brain and Education Society
“Tracey Tokuhama‐Espinosa has written a highly accessible, extraordinarily well‐
documented compilation of essential information for all educators. She firmly establishes
the links between neuroscience and psychology provides the background knowledge
needed to evaluate research for validity. In doing so, Tracey Tokuhama‐Espinosa offers the
important principles teachers can follow to be critical consumers. The exposures of the
neuromyths, that have plagued optimal progress in the incorporation of appropriately
supported research into our textbooks, teacher education, and classroom strategies, is
accompanied with tools for differentiating between valid research interpretations and
future neuromyths. Readers will be vital resources for students, colleagues, and the future
of our educational system. This breakthrough book guides informed decision making using
the best science has to offer to return joy and authentic learning to our classrooms.”
‐Judy Willis, M.D., M.Ed, neurologist, middle school teacher, author and renowned speaker
on brain‐based education

4. Today’s focus
1. Assumptions
2. Definitions:
 Neurogenesis
 Neuroplasticity
3. Memory
4. Attention
5. Learning and classroom
implications: What every
teacher should know

5. Background
 Master’s from Harvard University in
International Education and Development and
doctorate (Ph.D.) from Capella University (cross‐
disciplinary approach comparing findings in
neuroscience, psychology, pedagogy, cultural
anthropology and linguistics). Bachelor’s of Arts
(International Relations) and Bachelor’s of
Science (Communications) from Boston
University, magna cum laude.
 Director of the Institute for Research and
Educational Development (IDEA), Universidad
San Francisco de Quito, Ecuador and professor of
Education and Neuropsychology.
 Teacher (pre‐kindergarten through university)
with 22 years of comparative research experience
and support to hundreds of schools in 17
countries.

6. There is an
explosion in research
about the brain that
is changing how we
think about learning
and education.

7. "We know a little of
what goes on in the
brain when we learn,
but hardly anything
about what goes on in
the brain when we
teach," (Blakemore &
Frith, 2008, p.118).

8. In brief
 Concepts from Mind, Brain, and Education science,
commonly referred in the popular press as “brain-based
learning,” have been applied indiscreetly and
inconsistently to classroom teaching practices for many
years.
 While standards exist in neuroscience, psychology and
pedagogy, until recently there were no agreed upon
standards in their intersection, Mind, Brain, and
Education science. Some of these standards will be
discussed today.

9. Assump8ons
1. The new academic discipline in discussion is the
intersection of neuroscience, education and
psychology.
2. The focus is equally balanced between knowledge
of how humans learn and how best to teach.
3. Education is not a “one-size-fits-all” practice
(recipe approach).
4. The first rule of Education is the same as that of
Medicine: “Do no harm.”

10. Good teaching
methodologies and
ac8vi8es can come
from….
 …a single discipline
 …bilateral cooperation between
disciplines
 …multiple disciplines
 However, the more academic fields
that offer support for a teaching
methodology or activity, the more
credible it is.

11. Where does this informa8on come from?
Dissertation
1. Grounded Theory development based on a meta-
analysis of the literature (1977-2008), over 4,500
documents reviewed (2,266).
2. New Model developed.
3. Delphi expert panel (20 experts from six
countries) discussed 11 topics (25; 7) in three
rounds.
4. New Model modified.
5. Comparison with existing literature.

12. Delphi Par8cipants
 Usha Goswami
 Daniel Ansari
 Christina Hinton
 Michael Atherton  Virginia Berninger
 Mary Helen
 Jane Bernstein  John T. Bruer
Immordino-Yang
 Sarah Jayne Blakemore  Howard Gardner
 Eric Jensen
 Renate Nummela-  Paul Howard-Jones
 Jelle Jolles
Caine  Hideaki Koizumi
 Donna Coch  Michael Posner
 David Daniel  Marc Schwartz
 Stanislas Dehaene Neuroscientists
 Rita Smilkstein
 Marian Diamond Psychologists
 Kurt Fischer  David Sousa
 John Geake  Judy Willis Educators

13. Topics Researched in Mind, Brain, and
Science Educa8on
1. Neuroimaging
2. Neurotransmitters and Chemicals
3. Neurogenesis and Plasticity
4. Theories of Consciousness
5. Beliefs about Intelligence
6. New Learning Theories
7. Neuroethics
8. Learning Differences
9. Mind-Body Connection
a. Sleep
b. Physical Exercise
c. Nutrition

14. Major Brain Func8ons in the Research
School Subjects Life Skills
1. Art 1. Affect and Empathy
2. Creativity 2. Emotions
3. Motivation
3. Language
4. Attention
4. Reading 5. Executive Functions and/or
5. Math Decision-Making
6. Music 6. Facial Recognition and
Interpretation
7. Science 7. Memory
8. Social Cognition
9. Spatial Management
10. Time Management

15. Eleven Areas Discussed by the Experts
1. Name of the emerging field;
2. Academic roots;
3. Definition of terms;
4. The overarching research, practice and policy goals of the emerging field;
5. History;
6. Thought leaders;
7. Steps to judging quality information;
8. Organizations and societies qualified to judge the information;
9. BELIEFS AND NEUROMYTHS (today’s focus);
10. Enhanced communication between professionals in the parent disciplines;
11. Design of a new Master’s program to meet the needs of new professionals in
the emerging field.
For complete dissertation, email tracey.tokuhama@gmail.com

16. The Foundations of Instructional Guidelines in the New Model
The New Instructional Guidelines
Model Principles Tenets
Beliefs and Myths
 The categorization of neuromyths and the beliefs agreed upon by
the Delphi expert panel pointed to the main tenets and principles of
Mind, Brain, and Education science.
 The tenets are relative to each individual learner while the
principles are important in the same way for all learners.
 The tenets and principles define the instructional guidelines of the
field.

17. Categoriza8on criteria
In Understanding the brain:
The birth of a learning
science, (OECD, 2002)* the
authors propose a continuum
of four categories of
information quality.
*OECD= 30 countries (Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, France,
Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Korea, Luxemburg, Mexico, the Netherlands, New
Zealand, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, United Kingdom, United
States.

18. Criteria used to categorize concepts
Categories:
A. What is well-established (i.e. plasticity, which now has
hundreds of credible human studies behind it);
B. What is probably so (i.e., sensitive periods, which has
hundreds of studies behind it, though not all conducted on
humans);
C. What is intelligent speculation (i.e., gender differences,
which has thousands of studies behind it, albeit of mixed
quality and sometimes with contradictory findings); and
D. What is popular misconception or a neuromyth (i.e., "right
brain" and "left brain" discussion, which has been the target
of thousands of books and articles, some of which promote
the term, but most of which criticize the lack of factual
accuracy of the claim).

19. 76 Educa8onal Concepts
Well-established Probably so Intelligent speculation Neuromyth
5 19 24 28
concepts concepts concepts concepts

20. Conceptual Assump8ons

21. Ques8on:
Attention + Memory =
Learning?

22. Probably so:
ATen8on + Memory = Learning
 To learn something new means
you have to pay attention to it,
and to remember it.
 Declarative memory depends on
being able to pay attention.
 It is impossible for a student not to
pay attention if (s)he is the
protagonist of the activity.
However, it is very easy to get
distracted when the attention is
focused on others.

23. Defini8ons

24. Neurogenesis
(“new birth”)
 Neurogenesis is the production of cells in the nervous
system in the brain (neurons) and glial cells. Most
notable in neo‐natal stages, but occurs throughout
the lifespan.
 In humans, neurogenesis has been documented most
notably in the olfactory bulb and hippocampus.

25. Neurogenesis
 Neuogenesis in
mammals was
established in 1992,
and documented in
humans in 1998.
Eriksson P.S., Perfilieva, E., Björk-Eriksson, T., et al. (November 1998). Neurogenesis in the
adult human hippocampus. Nature Medicine,4 (11). 1313–1317.

26. Myth: Neurons are never replaced
 This myth is defied by
the existence of
neurogenesis.

27. Myth: Learning can be op8mized if 8med
with neurogenesis.
 This is a myth because learning
takes place with or without
neurogenesis.
 You cannot anticipate moments of
neurogenesis.
 There is no evidence that better
learning occurs with “new” versus
“old” neurons.

28. Synaptogenesis
“new synapses”
 The formation of
synapsis between
neurons.

29. 1. Human brain (model)
2. Cut of a human brain (real)
3. Neurons in a human brain (real)
4. Synapses between neurons (model)
1. 2.
3. 4.
http://www.willamette.edu/~gorr/classes/cs449/figs/brain2.jpg; http://www.alzheimers-brace.org/images/
brain_images.jpg

30. “Hebbian synapse”
 “Use it or lose it.”

31. Myth: You lean more if you 8me
lessons with periods of
synaptogenesis.
 This is a myth because
learning causes
synaptogenesis (not
the other way around).

32. (Neuro) plas8city
 The ability of the brain
to re‐wire itself using
non‐traditional
pathways if a “normal”
route is damaged or
blocked.

33. (Neuro) plas8city

34. Plas8city: A paradigm shic in how we
look at the brain
 BEFORE we believed in “localizationism” which we
now know is an oversimplified vision of the brain.

35. Plas8city
We now know that….
 “we see with our brains, not with our eyes.”*
Example: Seeing with tongue (Bach‐y‐Rita).
 “Children are not always stuck with the
mental abilities they are born with; that the
damaged brain can often reorganize itself so
that when one part fails, another can often
substitute; that is brain cells die, they can at
times be replaced; that many ‘circuits’ and
even basic reflexes that we think are
hardwired are not.”**
 Michel Merzenich; Norman Doidge; Paul
Bach‐y‐Rita
*Doidge (2007, p.14).;** Doidge (2007, p.xv).

36. Myth: Plas8city is due to good pedagogy
 This is a myth because
plasticity is a natural
neural process and occurs
with or without good
pedagogy.
 Examples: addiction,
racism.

37. Memory

38. Ques8on:
True or false?
“The brain
changes daily
with experience.”

39. Well established: The brain changes
constantly with experience
 “The brain is a complex, dynamic, and integrated system that is constantly
changed by experience, though most of this change is only evident at a
microscopic level.”
 You will go to bed tonight with a different brain with which you awoke. Each
smell, sight, taste and touch you experience and each feeling you have can
alter the physical form of your brain. The complexity and dynamic nature of
the brain remind teachers that even when they feel they are not reaching
students, they may very well be changing them, bit by bit.

40. Ques8on:
True or False?
“Past information
inEluences how we
learn something new.”

41. Well‐established:
Influence of past knowledge
 “Connecting new
information to prior
knowledge facilitates
learning.”
 We learn better and faster
when we relate new
information to things that
we already know.

42. Intelligent specula8on: Memory
 “Different memory systems (i.e., short term-, long
term-, working-, spatial-, motor-, modality-specific-,
rote-, etc.) receive and process information in different
ways and are retrieved through distinct, though
sometimes overlapping, neural pathways.”
 Human memory is a complex system and it is vital for
learning. Information is stored and retrieved in various
forms, implying that teachers should vary their methods
of instruction in order to create a variety of pathways
through which it can be retrieved, thus facilitating the
recall process.
(e.g., Multiple Intelligences Theory instructional
practices)
Not yet well-established because documentation in
classroom contexts using neuroscientific criteria is
sparse.

43. Intelligent specula8on:
Exis8ng knowledge
 “Human learning is a constructive process
in that humans construct meaning from
existing knowledge structures. Such
existing knowledge structures are
individually defined.”
 People take past experiences and make
conceptual building blocks from them, upon
which new knowledge is developed. The
building metaphor is the basis for the
constructivist philosophy of education.
While proven in education and psychology,
not yet well-established because
documentation in neuroscience is sparse.

44. Neuromyth: “Memory is like an objec8ve
recording of a situa8on, and reality exists
in an abstract form for all to perceive.”
 This is a neuromyth because
individual human memories are not
recorded as if stored on a hard
drive, but are rather influenced by
the experiences of the learner.
 The filters through which events are
recalled are subject to false
recollection and/or
misinterpretation.

45. Neuromyth: “The brain remembers
everything it has ever experienced; forgegng
is simply an absence of recall ability.”
 While forgetting is an absence
of recall, the brain does not
necessarily remember
everything that it has ever
experienced. Only information
that has moved from working
to long-term memory (in its
many forms) is retrievable is
remembered.

46. Memory
 There are various types
of memory:
 Long term
 Declarative
 Procedural
 Working
 Short term
 Emotional
 Episodic

47. Requirements for long‐term memory
 For information to get into
long‐term memory it has to
have at least one of three
traits:
1. Survival
2. Association
3. Emotional or personal value

48. Think about…
Three things that are easy to remember.
Three things that are hard to remember.

49. Probably so: Sleep
 “Sleep is important for declarative memory
consolidation, (though other types of
memories, such as emotional memories, can
be achieved without sleep). Sleep deprivation
also has a negative impact on memory.”
 Lack of sleep compromises one’s abilities to
be attentive and to organize mental activity
efficiently and effectively.
 Memory consolidation is dependent on REM
(rapid eye movement) sleep.
 Without a good night’s sleep, memory is
compromised.
Not yet well-established because there are only a
few studies available on school-age populations.

50. Strategies to remember
 ….?
 Repetition
 Elaboration
 Association
 Timelines
 Sensory variation
 Other?

51. Probably so: Novelty
 “Human brains seek and often
quickly detect novelty, (which is
individually defined).”
 We are quick to notice things that
are out of place or different, and
we actually unconsciously look
for things that don’t belong.
(e.g., “2+3=5” and “5-3=2”)
Not yet well-established because
the individual nature of “novelty”
makes it hard to study.

52. Probably so: PaTerning
 “Human brains seek patterns upon which they
predict outcomes, and neural systems form
responses to repeated patterns of activation
(patterns being individually defined).”
 We categorize our world in ways that help us
understand information. Part of how we do this
relates to designing patterns for the things we
find. These patterns are like a road map that tells
us where to go next. This road map is the neural
system for that group of like experiences.
(e.g., math, writing genres, social interactions,
etc.)
While proven in neuroscience and psychology,
not yet well-established because of the limited
number of classroom studies.

53. Probably so: Rehearsal
 “The rehearsal of retrieval cues aids in
declarative memory processes.”
 While memory can be created by
emotionally shocking experiences,
declarative memory (associated with
school learning) is improved through
rehearsal. This is why the use of mnemonic
cues (including repetition and rehearsal)
improves the ability to retrieve
information.
(e.g., “good” homework; explicitly
teaching mnemonic devices, etc.)
Not yet well-established because of lack of
consensus on what type of rehearsal aids
memory best.

54. Probably so: Elabora8on
 “The elaboration (overt teaching)
of key concepts facilitates new
learning.”
 Teachers achieve better results if
they give explicit explanations of
the core concepts.
(e.g., priming, use of concepts,
assessment of concept
knowledge, and re-teaching of
concepts)
While proven in psychology, not
yet well-established because not
enough studies available in
classroom contexts.

55. ATen8on

56. ATen8on
 How long is the average attention span?

57. ATen8on
Attention spans
 Recognize that students have
an average 10‐20 minute
maximum attention span.

58. In prac(ce:
 This means that teachers need to change the person,
place or activity every 10‐20 minutes to maintain a high
level of attention.

59. “Primacy‐Recency”
The Primacy‐
Receny Effect
 People remember
best what happens
first, second best
what happens last,
and least what
happens in the
middle.

60. In prac(ce:
 This means that
moments in the
“middle” should be
dedicated to student‐
centered practice.

61. In prac(ce:
 The last part of the class
should be dedicated to
summarizing important
concepts and bridging to
next class.

62. Classroom implica8ons:
What every teacher needs to know…

63. The reten8on of new informa8on
 Depending on the chosen methodology, students have varying
attention levels.
 The best way to learn anything is….

64. Reten8on varies with method:
National Training Laboratories, Maine, as cited in Sousa (2000).

65. Reten8on varies with method:
 REMEMBER: Just because
you taught something does
NOT mean they learned it!
 Students need exposure to
new concepts between 10‐59
times to “get it”!

66. In prac(ce:
The Law of 10:
1. Present the new concept
2. Give an example
3. Ask students to explain the concept
4. Clarify doubts
5. Design an activity in which the concept is used by the
student
6. Review results of the activity and clarify concept
7. Send homework that applies the concept
8. Review homework in class
9. Clarify doubts about the concept
10. Design an activity that applies the concept or direct use
of the concept by student.

67. In prac(ce:
 If you use lecture,
use it wisely
(clarification of core
concepts).

68. In prac(ce:
 Homework should be
used to reinforce the
new ideas and
concepts.

69. Best prac8ce…
 Best practice activities have certain traits:
 Student‐centered • Collaborative
 Experiential • Democratic
 Holistic • Cognitive
 Authentic • Developmental
 Expressive • Constructivist
 Reflexive • Challenging
 Social
• (Fun)

70. In prac(ce:
 Activities that have one or more
of the aforementioned
characteristics are more likely
to have an impact and create
significant learning experiences.

71. Examples of best prac8ce
ac8vi8es….?

72. 10 Guides for BeTer
Teaching

73. Guide 1:
Learning environments
The best learning environments
provide:
 Emotional and physical
security
 Respect
 Intellectual liberty
 Self‐directed experiences
 Paced challenges
 Feedback
 Active learning
(Billington, 1997)

74. Guide 2:
Sense, Meaning and Transfer
Students tend to learn
better when…
 …course content makes
sense
 …has a clear logic
 …has significance in
their lives.

75. Guide 3:
Different memory pathways
 Long term memory
depends on linking
information to…
 survival needs
 past knowledge
(association)
 values, emotions or
interests

76. Guide 4:
Attention limits
 Remember that students’
attention spans are only
10‐20 minutes long.
 Remember to change the
activity, place, or main
person of focus frequently.

77. Guide 5:
Social learning
 The brain is a social organ and people learn better
when they can “bounce” ideas off of one another.

78. Guide 6:
Mind‐Body Concepts
 Students learn better when
the needs of the body and
mind are both satisfied. This
includes sleep, diet and
physical exercise needs.

79. Guide 7:
Teacher metaphor: Orquestra director
 The teacher can be seen as an orchestra director who
knows how to integrate the different voices, sounds
and talents of each member.

80. Guide 8:
Ac8ve proceses
 Students learn best when they
can participate actively in their
own learning.
 “I hear, I forget; I see, I
understand; I do, I remember.”

81. Guide 9:
Meta‐cogni8on y
Self‐reflec8on
 To remember best, it is necessary to reflect upon our
experiences.
 Given the vast amount of information that students are
bombarded with daily, it is important to give them “down
time” to process.

82. Guide 10:
Learning across the lifespan
 The brain has the ability to learn
across the lifespan.
 For this reason, while it is
important to take advantage of
sensitive periods in childhood,
we should also recognize that we
can learn into old age.

83. Ques8ons?

84. For more informa8on:
Tracey Tokuhama-Espinosa, Ph.D.
Universidad San Francisco de Quito
Casa Corona
Telf: 297-1700 x1338
desarrolloprofesional@usfq.edu.ec

85. Bibliography
 For a list of more than 2000 book related to this study see:
http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/
pqdt.shtml y el nombre “Tokuhama-Espinosa” (gratis).
 You can find this presentation on:
www.educacionparatodos.com