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BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz, n.d.) (Cellan-Jones, 2014) (Davis, 2018) (Equifax Breach Exposed More Consumer Data Than First Disclosed, 2018) (Nakashima & Soltani, 2014) (Romm, 2018) (Snow, 2018) (Stjernfelt & Lauritzen, 2019) (The cost of data security: Are cybersecurity investments worth it?, n.d.) (Walker, 2017) Bibliography Breuninger, K. (2017, December 13). Net neutrality rules are likely doomed, but the debate isn’t going away. Retrieved April 21, 2021, from CNBC: https://www.cnbc.com/2017/12/13/net-neutrality-rules-look-doomed--will- consumers-pay.html Britz, J. J. (n.d.). TECHNOLOGY AS A THREAT TO PRIVACY: Ethical Challenges to the Information Profession. Retrieved April 21, 2021, from Simmons University: http://web.simmons.edu/~chen/nit/NIT%2796/96-025-Britz.html Cellan-Jones, R. (2014, May 15). US v Europe - a cultural gap on the right to be forgotten. Retrieved April 21, 2021, from BBC: https://www.bbc.com/news/technology- 27421969 Davis, J. (2018, April 18). FDA medical device plan zeros in on cybersecurity, public-private partnership. Retrieved April 21, 2021, from Healthcare IT News: https://www.healthcareitnews.com/news/fda-medical-device-plan-zeros- cybersecurity-public-private-partnership Equifax Breach Exposed More Consumer Data Than First Disclosed. (2018, February 13). Retrieved April 21, 2021, from Insurance Journal: https://www.insurancejournal.com/news/national/2018/02/13/480357.htm Nakashima, E., & Soltani, A. (2014, October 7). The ethics of Hacking 101. Retrieved April 21, 2021, from The Washington Post: https://www.washingtonpost.com/postlive/the-ethics-of-hacking- 101/2014/10/07/39529518-4014-11e4-b0ea- 8141703bbf6f_story.html?utm_term=.e9c36c86d53a Romm, T. (2018, June 27). California is on the verge of passing a sweeping new online privacy law targeting Facebook, Google and other tech giants. Retrieved April 21, 2021, from The Washington Post: https://www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2018/06/27/california-is-verge- passing-sweeping-new-online-privacy-law-targeting-facebook-google-other- tech-giants/ Snow, J. (2018, February 26). Bias already exists in search engine results, and it’s only going to get worse. Retrieved April 21, 2021, from MIT Technology Review: https://www.technologyreview.com/2018/02/26/3299/meet-the-woman-who- searches-out-search-engines-bias-against-women-and-minorities/ Stjernfelt, F., & Lauritzen, A. M. (2019). Chapter 11: Facebook’s Handbook of Content Removal. In Your Post has been Removed (pp. 115-137). Basel, Switzerland: Springer, Cham. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-25968-6_11 The cost of data security: Are cybersecurity investments worth it? (n.d.). Retrieved April 21, 2021, from CloudMask: https://www.cloudmask.com/blog/the-cost-of-data- security-are-cybersecurity-investments-worth-it Walker, M. J. (2017, November). Ethics and advanced medical devices: Do we need a new approach. Retri ...

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BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz, n.d.) (Cellan-Jones, 2014) (Davis, 2018) (Equifax Breach Exposed More Consumer Data Than First Disclosed, 2018) (Nakashima & Soltani, 2014) (Romm, 2018) (Snow, 2018) (Stjernfelt & Lauritzen, 2019) (The cost of data security: Are cybersecurity investments worth it?, n.d.) (Walker, 2017) Bibliography Breuninger, K. (2017, December 13). Net neutrality rules are likely doomed, but the debate isn’t going away. Retrieved April 21, 2021, from CNBC: https://www.cnbc.com/2017/12/13/net-neutrality-rules-look-
doomed--will- consumers-pay.html Britz, J. J. (n.d.). TECHNOLOGY AS A THREAT TO PRIVACY: Ethical Challenges to the Information Profession. Retrieved April 21, 2021, from Simmons University: http://web.simmons.edu/~chen/nit/NIT%2796/96-025-Britz.html Cellan-Jones, R. (2014, May 15). US v Europe - a cultural gap on the right to be forgotten. Retrieved April 21, 2021, from BBC: https://www.bbc.com/news/technology- 27421969 Davis, J. (2018, April 18). FDA medical device plan zeros in on cybersecurity, public-private partnership. Retrieved April 21, 2021, from Healthcare IT News: https://www.healthcareitnews.com/news/fda-medical-device- plan-zeros- cybersecurity-public-private-partnership Equifax Breach Exposed More Consumer Data Than First Disclosed. (2018, February 13). Retrieved April 21, 2021, from Insurance Journal: https://www.insurancejournal.com/news/national/2018/02/13/48 0357.htm Nakashima, E., & Soltani, A. (2014, October 7). The ethics of Hacking 101. Retrieved April 21, 2021, from The Washington Post: https://www.washingtonpost.com/postlive/the-ethics-of- hacking-
101/2014/10/07/39529518-4014-11e4-b0ea- 8141703bbf6f_story.html?utm_term=.e9c36c86d53a Romm, T. (2018, June 27). California is on the verge of passing a sweeping new online privacy law targeting Facebook, Google and other tech giants. Retrieved April 21, 2021, from The Washington Post: https://www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2018/06/27/cali for nia-is-verge- passing-sweeping-new-online-privacy-law-targeting-facebook- google-other- tech-giants/ Snow, J. (2018, February 26). Bias already exists in search engine results, and it’s only going to get worse. Retrieved April 21, 2021, from MIT Technology Review: https://www.technologyreview.com/2018/02/26/3299/meet-the- woman-who- searches-out-search-engines-bias-against-women-and- minorities/ Stjernfelt, F., & Lauritzen, A. M. (2019). Chapter 11: Facebook’s Handbook of Content Removal. In Your Post has been Removed (pp. 115-137). Basel, Switzerland: Springer, Cham. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-25968- 6_11 The cost of data security: Are cybersecurity investments worth it? (n.d.). Retrieved April 21, 2021, from CloudMask: https://www.cloudmask.com/blog/the- cost-of-data- security-are-cybersecurity-investments-worth-it
Walker, M. J. (2017, November). Ethics and advanced medical devices: Do we need a new approach. Retrieved April 21, 2021, from Health Voices: http://healthvoices.org.au/issues/november-2017/ethics- advanced-medical- devices-need-new-approach/ 4/20/2021 Net neutrality rules look doomed -- will consumers pay? https://www.cnbc.com/2017/12/13/net-neutrality-rules-look- doomed--will-consumers-pay.html 1/9 KEY POINTS Kevin Breuninger @ K E V I N W I L L I A M B I N T E R N E T Net neutrality rules are likely doomed, but the debate isn’t going away P U B L I S H E D W E D , D E C 1 3 2 0 1 7 • 4 : 0 4 P M E S T U P D AT E D W E D , D E C 1 3 2 0 1 7 • 7 : 2 5 P M E S T Net neutrality advocates say broadband internet providers would
charge more for faster speeds without the FCC protections. Opponents argue the rules are effectively price controls that stifle investment and limit consumers’ options. Federal Communications Commission Chairman Ajit Pai has said he wants to repeal the Obama-era rules. V I D E O 0 6 : 3 3 What is net neutrality? M A R K E TS C N B C T V WATC H L I ST M E N U Adobe Acrobat Downloading for conversion... Net neutrality rules look doomed -… https://www.cnbc.com/kevin-breuninger/ https://twitter.com/KevinWilliamB
https://www.cnbc.com/internet/ https://www.cnbc.com/ https://www.cnbc.com/markets/ https://www.cnbc.com/tv/ https://www.cnbc.com/watchlist/ 4/20/2021 Net neutrality rules look doomed -- will consumers pay? https://www.cnbc.com/2017/12/13/net-neutrality-rules-look- doomed--will-consumers-pay.html 2/9 Demonstrators, supporting net neutrality, protest a plan by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) to repeal restrictions on internet service providers during a protest outside a Verizon store on December 7, 2017 in Chicago, Illinois. Getty Images The Federal Communications Commission’s vote on “net neutrality” rules, scheduled for Thursday, holds major implications for the future of the internet — but it’s not always clear who will foot the bill. FCC Chairman Ajit Pai says he intends to repeal the rules that keep internet service providers from treating online content unequally. The regulations prohibit ISPs, such as , or , from slowing or censoring traffic to certain websites. Advocates say net neutrality is a bulwark against ISPs abusing their power by forcing or prioritizing some online content against
their competitors. Doing so would create an internet that handicaps smaller businesses and limits customers’ freedom to access whatever websites they want. “Net neutrality is actually what gives people choices,” said Evan Greer, campaign director for the pro-net neutrality activist group Fight for the Future. “If we get rid of net neutrality protections, it allows the largest, most incumbent web companies to essentially pay protection money to ISPs to solidify their monopoly status and squash competition.” Crushing that competition, she said, opens the door for fewer companies with more control to charge higher prices. “It essentially amounts to a tax on the entire economy.” Public opinion, while still largely in favor of the regulations, has narrowed in recent months. Net neutrality enjoyed strong bipartisan public support in June, but recent polling shows just a slim majority of U.S. voters still favor the rules, according to data from Morning Consult and Politico. The apparent public support for net neutrality, opponents say, is largely a matter of successful branding. “This is the brilliance of marketing,” said Roslyn Layton, a scholar at the American Enterprise Institute, a conservative think tank. “The political left tends to win on net neutrality because the framing is better,” she said.
M A R K E TS C N B C T V WATC H L I ST M E N U Adobe Acrobat Downloading for conversion... Net neutrality rules look doomed -… https://www.cnbc.com/2017/11/28/net-neutrality-loses-support- poll-from-morning-consult-and-politico.html https://www.cnbc.com/ https://www.cnbc.com/markets/ https://www.cnbc.com/tv/ https://www.cnbc.com/watchlist/ 4/20/2021 Net neutrality rules look doomed -- will consumers pay? https://www.cnbc.com/2017/12/13/net-neutrality-rules-look- doomed--will-consumers-pay.html 3/9 WATCH: Father of net neutrality weighs in on battle over internet regulations p y g ,
Layton blames what she considers onerous FCC regulations, not the free market, for creating a costly and unequal internet for consumers. In a July report on the consumer impact of the rules, Layton and AEI argued that “the Open Internet rules against blocking and throttling, although seemingly consumer-centric, are powerful price controls and legal tools to compel broadband providers to deliver traffic regardless of the marginal cost to networks and frequently at zero price.” It’s not just the additional costs: A Phoenix Center study concluded that the threat of reclassifying broadband internet service under the FCC’s purview may have reduced investment from the telecommunications sector between $30 billion and $40 billion annually from 2011 to 2015. Net neutrality supporters, however, aren’t buying it. “I think that’s totally bogus,” Greer said. “If you want to talk about fees getting passed onto consumers, that’s what is going to happen if paid prioritization is allowed.” Disclosure: Comcast is the owner of NBCUniversal, parent company of CNBC and CNBC.com. V I D E O 0 3 : 5 0 ‘Father of net neutrality’ weighs in on the battle over internet regulations M A R K E TS
C N B C T V WATC H L I ST M E N U Adobe Acrobat Downloading for conversion... Net neutrality rules look doomed -… http://www.aei.org/publication/how-title-ii-harms-consumers- and-innovators/ http://www.phoenix-center.org/perspectives/Perspective17- 02Final.pdf https://www.cnbc.com/ https://www.cnbc.com/markets/ https://www.cnbc.com/tv/ https://www.cnbc.com/watchlist/ 4/20/2021 Net neutrality rules look doomed -- will consumers pay? https://www.cnbc.com/2017/12/13/net-neutrality-rules-look- doomed--will-consumers-pay.html 4/9 by TaboolaSponsored Links TRENDING NOW Former police officer Derek Chauvin found guilty of murder,
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https://www.cnbc.com/sign-up-for-cnbc-newsletters/ https://www.nbcuniversal.com/privacy?intake=CNBC https://www.nbcuniversal.com/privacy/notrtoo?intake=CNBC https://www.nbcuniversal.com/privacy/california-consumer- privacy-act?intake=CNBC https://www.cnbc.com/ https://www.cnbc.com/markets/ https://www.cnbc.com/tv/ https://www.cnbc.com/watchlist/ 4/20/2021 Net neutrality rules look doomed -- will consumers pay? https://www.cnbc.com/2017/12/13/net-neutrality-rules-look- doomed--will-consumers-pay.html 9/9 CA Notice Terms of Service © 2021 CNBC LLC. All Rights Reserved. A Division of NBCUniversal Data is a real-time snapshot *Data is delayed at least 15 minutes. Global Business and Financial News, Stock Quotes, and Market Data and Analysis. Market Data Terms of Use and Disclaimers Data also provided by M A R K E TS
C N B C T V WATC H L I ST M E N U Adobe Acrobat Downloading for conversion... Net neutrality rules look doomed -… https://www.nbcuniversal.com/privacy/california-consumer- privacy-act?intake=CNBC https://www.cnbc.com/nbcuniversal-terms-of-service/ https://www.nbcuniversal.com/ https://www.cnbc.com/market-data-terms-of-service/ https://www.cnbc.com/market-data-terms-of-service/ https://www.cnbc.com/ https://www.cnbc.com/markets/ https://www.cnbc.com/tv/ https://www.cnbc.com/watchlist/ 4/20/2021 TECHNOLOGY AS A THREAT TO PRIVACY: Ethical Challenges web.simmons.edu/~chen/nit/NIT%2796/96-025-Britz.html 1/9 TECHNOLOGY AS A THREAT TO PRIVACY: Ethical Challenges to the Information Profession J. J. BRITZ
Department of Information Science University of Pretoria 0002 Pretoria, South Africa E-mail: [email protected] The aim of this paper is to assess the impact of technology on the private lives of people. It is approached from a socio-ethical perspective with specific emphasis on the implication for the information profession. The issues discussed are the concept privacy, he influence of technology on the processing of personal and private information, the relevance of this influence for the information profession, and proposed solutions to these ethical issues for the information profession. 1. INTRODUCTION We are currently living in the so-called information age which can be described as an era were economic activities are mainly information based (an age of informationalization). This is due to the development and use of technology. The main characteristics of this era can be summarized as a rise in the number of knowledge workers, a world that has become more open - in the sense of communication (global village/Gutenberg galaxy) and internationalization (trans-border flow of data). This paradigm shift brings new ethical and juridical problems which are mainly related to issues such as the right of access to information, the right of privacy which is threatened by the emphasis on the free flow of information, and the protection of the economic interest of the owners of intellectual property. In this paper the ethical questions related to the right to privacy
of the individual which is threatened by the use of technology will be discussed. Specific attention will be given to the challenges these ethical problems pose to the information professional. A number of practical guidelines, based on ethical norms will be laid down. 2. ETHICS The ethical actions of a person can be described in general terms as those actions which are performed within the criterium of what is regarded as good. It relates thus to the question of what is good or bad in terms of human actions. According to Spinello (1995, p. 14) the purpose of ethics is to help us behave honorably and attain those basic goods that make us more fully human. 3. THE CONCEPT OF PRIVACY 3.1. Definition of Privacy Privacy can be defined as an individual condition of life characterized by exclusion from publicity (Neetling et al., 1996, p. 36). The concept follows from the right to be left alone (Stair, 1992, p. 635; Shank, 1986, p. 12)1 . Shank (1986, p. 13) states that such a perception of privacy set the course for passing of privacy laws in the United States for the ninety years that followed. As such privacy could be regarded as a natural right which provides the foundation for the legal right. The right to privacy is therefore protected under private law. 4/20/2021 TECHNOLOGY AS A THREAT TO PRIVACY: Ethical Challenges
web.simmons.edu/~chen/nit/NIT%2796/96-025-Britz.html 2/9 The legal right to privacy is constitutionally protected in most democratic societies. This constitutional right is expressed in a variety of legislative forms. Examples include the Privacy Act (1974) in the USA, the proposed Open Democracy Act in South Africa (1996) and the Data Protection Act in England. During 1994 Australia also accepted a Privacy Charter containing 18 privacy principles which describe the right of a citizen concerning personal privacy as effected by handling of information by the state (Collier, 1994, p. 44-45). The Organization for Economic and Coordination and Development (OECD) also accepted in 1980 the Guidelines for the Protection of Privacy and Transborder Flow of Personal Data (Collier, 1994, p. 41). Privacy is an important right because it is a necessary condition for other rights such as freedom and personal autonomy. There is thus a relationship between privacy, freedom and human dignity. Respecting a person's privacy is to acknowledge such a person's right to freedom and to recognize that individual as an autonomous human being. The duty to respect a person's privacy is furthermore a prima facie duty. In other words, it is not an absolute duty that does not allow for exceptions. Two examples can be given. Firstly, the police may violate a criminal's privacy by spying or by seizing personal documents (McGarry, 1993, p. 178)2 . A government also has the right to gather private and personal information from its citizens with the aim of ensuring order and harmony in society (Ware, 1993:205). The right to privacy (as an expression of individual freedom) is thus confined by
social responsibility. 3.2. Different Categories of Private Information Based on the juridical definition of privacy, two important aspects which are of specific relevance for the information profession must be emphasized. The first is the fact that privacy as a concept is closely related to information - in terms of the definition of Neethling (1996, p. 35) privacy refers to the entirety of facts and information which is applicable to a person in a state of isolation. The fact that privacy is expressed by means of information, implies that it is possible to distinguish different categories of privacy namely, private communications, information which relates to the privacy of a person's body, other personal information, and information with regard to a person's possessions. Each of these categories will be briefly dealt with. � Private communications. This category of privacy concerns all forms of personal communication which a person wishes to keep private. The information exchanged during a reference interview between the user and the information professional can be seen as an example. � Privacy of the body (Westin, 1967, p. 351). This normally refers to medical information and enjoys separate legal protection (Neethling, 1991, p. 35-36). According to this legislation a person has the right to be informed about the nature of an illness as well as the implications thereof. Such a person further has the right to privacy about the nature of the illness and can not be forced to make it known to others. The only exception is when the health, and possibly the lives of others may be endangered by the specific illness - such as the case may be where a person is HIV positive and the chance exists that other
people may contract the virus.3 This category of information is of specific importance for an information professional working in a medical library. � Personal information. Personal information refers to those categories of information which refer to only that specific person, for example bibliographic (name, address) and financial information. This type of information is of relevance to all categories of information professionals. � Information about one's possessions. This information is closely related to property right. According to this a person does have control over the information which relates to personal possessions in certain instances. For example, a person may keep private the information about the place where a wallet is kept. 3.3. The Expressed Will to Privacy 4/20/2021 TECHNOLOGY AS A THREAT TO PRIVACY: Ethical Challenges web.simmons.edu/~chen/nit/NIT%2796/96-025-Britz.html 3/9 The following important aspect of privacy is the desire for privacy (by means of an expressed will) since this desire is important for the delimitation of privacy. In short, the desire for privacy implies that privacy will only be at issue in cases where there is a clear expression of a desire for privacy. For example, a personal conversation between two persons will be regarded as private as long as there is an expressed will to keep it private. The moment that this will is relinquished the
information is no longer regarded as private. The same applies to the other categories of personal and private information. If a person makes a private telephone number (as a form of personal information) known to a company, it is no longer regarded as private information. According to the law it can then even be seen as business information which may legally be traded in. This expressed will to privacy acts therefore as a very important guideline for the information professional regarding the delimitation of privacy. 3.4. The Relationship Between Privacy and Confidentiality (Secrecy) It is also important to distinguish between privacy and confidentiality/secrecy. The confidential treatment of information is not only applicable to the above-mentioned four categories of private and personal information - it may refer to any category of information, such as, inter al ia, trade secrets. 4. THE INFLUENCE OF TECHNOLOGY ON THE PROCESSING OF PERSONAL AND PRIVATE INFORMATION 4.1. Definition of Information Technology Before the influence of the use of technology in the processing of personal and private information can be dealt with, it is important to briefly pay attention to the concept technology. For the purpose of this paper the definition of Van Brakel (1989, p. 240) will be used, namely: the gathering, organizing, storage and distribution of information in various formats by means of computer and telecommunications techniques based on micro- electronics.4
4.2. The Ethical Implications for the Use of Technology in the Processing of Information Although technology has a major impact on the gathering, storage, retrieval and dissemination of information its main ethical impact relates to accessibility/inaccessibility and the manipulation of information. It creates the possibility of wider as well as simultaneous access to information. By implication, it becomes easier to access a person's private information by more people. On the other hand, a person can be excluded from necessary information in electronic format by means of a variety of security measures such as passwords. The technological manipulation of information refers, among others, to the integration of information (merging of documents), the repackaging thereof (translations and the integration of textual and graphical formats) and the possible altering of information (changing of photographic images) by electronic means. The use of technology in the processing of information can therefore not be seen as ethically neutral. Christians (199, p. 7) refers to the use of technology as a value laden process. Kluge (1994, p. 337) even comments that technology has changed the ontological status of a document with accompanying ethical implications. By this he specifically refers to the manipulation of information by means of technology. Brown (1990, p. 3) however on the other hand, indicates correctly that the ethical problems that are caused by the use of technology do not imply - as he puts it - "...that we should rethink our moral values".
The impact of the use of technology on the privacy of people manifests itself in a variety of areas. These areas include, inter alia the following: � The electronic monitoring of people in the workplace. This relates to personal information as discussed earlier. This is done by so-called electronic eyes. The justification by companies for the use of such technology is to increase productivity. Stair (1992, p. 655), however, in the discussion of this practice, clearly points out the ethical problem pertaining to the use of these technologies. According to him 4/20/2021 TECHNOLOGY AS A THREAT TO PRIVACY: Ethical Challenges web.simmons.edu/~chen/nit/NIT%2796/96-025-Britz.html 4/9 peoples' privacy in the workplace are threatened by these devices. It can also lead to a feeling of fear and of all ways being watched - the so-called panopticon phenomenon. � The interception and reading of E-mail messages. This poses an ethical problem which relates to the private communication of an individual. It is technically possible to intercept E-mail messages, and the reading thereof is normally justified by companies because they firstly see the technology infrastructure (E-mail) as a resource belonging to the company and not the individual, and secondly messages are intercepted to check on people to see whether they use the facility for private reasons or to do their job.5
� The merging of databases which contains personal information. This is also known as databanking (Frocht & Thomas, 1994, p. 24). By this is meant the integration of personal information from a variety of databases into one central database. The problem here does not in the first place arise from the integration of the information as such. The main problems include the fact that the individual is not aware of personal information being integrated into a central database, that the individual does not know the purpose/s for which the integration is effected, or by whom or for whose benefit the new database is constructed and whether the information is accurate.6 In order to counter these problems relating to privacy and the merging of databases the American Congress passed the Computer Matching and Privacy Protection Act in the 1980s (Benjamin, 1991, p. 11). � Closely related to the merging of files is the increasing use of buying cards ("frequent-shopper cards") by retail stores. Inside such a card a computer chip is buried that records every item purchased along with a variety of personal information of the buyer (Branscomb, 1995, p. 19). This information obtained from the card enables marketing companies to do targeted marketing to specific individuals because the buying habits as well as other personal information of people are known. � Another major threat to privacy is the raise of so called hackers and crackers which break into computer systems (Benjamin, 1991, p. 7). This coincides with the shift in ethical values and the emergence of the cyberpunk culture with the motto of "information wants to be free".
� The development of software that makes the decoding of digital information (which can be private information) virtually impossible also poses serious legal as well as ethical questions because it can protect criminals. A good example is the development of software called Pretty Good Privacy by P Zimmerman in 1991. According to an article in the IT Review (1996, p. 22) he has developed the most complex algorithm ever invented which makes the decoding of digital information virtually impossible. 4.3. The Individual and Socio-economical Effect The use of technology for the processing of personal and other forms of private information has far reaching effects on society. The following effects can be distinguished: � On the individual level: The effect on the individual can be summarized as a loss of dignity and spontaneity, as well as a threat to freedom and the right to privacy. In her research on the impact of technology on the privacy of the individual, Rosenberg (1994, p. 228) concluded that: "Technology continuous to be viewed as a threat to privacy rather than a possible solution". A survey that was conducted in 1990 by Equifax (one of the three biggest credit bureau companies in the USA) on the use of technology and the threat to the privacy of people, found that 79% of the respondents indicated that they were weary of the use of technology for the processing of their personal information (Frocht & Thomas, 1994, p. 24). � On the economic and social levels the biggest effect is the growth of large information businesses like credit bureau and telecommunication companies that specialize
in the processing and trade of person- related information. This brings about a redefinition of the role of society (big businesses) in the personal and private lives of the individual (the use of personal information as a commodity). It also becomes clear 4/20/2021 TECHNOLOGY AS A THREAT TO PRIVACY: Ethical Challenges web.simmons.edu/~chen/nit/NIT%2796/96-025-Britz.html 5/9 that the legislation (for example on E-mail) on the protection of the privacy of the individual is falling behind due to the rapidly changing world of technology. 5. THE RELEVANCE FOR THE INFORMATION PROFESSIONAL The above-mentioned has implications for the information professional on at least three levels. Firstly, the information professional works with all four categories of personal and private information. Secondly, increasing use is made of technology in the processing thereof. Lastly, a new profession is emerging in the infopreneur whose main line of business may be the buying and selling of person-related and other private information. 5.1. The Main Ethical Issues In the handling and processing of these different categories of private and personal information the information professional is confronted with the following ethical issues:
� Deciding which categories of personal and private information the information professional is entitled to gather. This question is of utmost importance to infopreneurs. � The confidential treatment of such information. This issue refers specifically to information gained from the reference interview. According to Froehlich (1994), Smith (1994) and Shaver et al. (1985), the main ethical problems in this regard (with specific reference to online searching) are as follows: can personal details, obtained from the reference interview, be used for purposes other than for that which it was specifically gathered, is it ethically correct to re-use a search strategy formulated for one user for anther user?, is it appropriate to discuss the nature of a specific query with other people? � The accuracy of information. This issue is of specific importance in cases where an information professional is working with personal information that can have a direct influence on the life of a person. An example is the processing of medical information. � The purposes for which various categories of information may be used. The question here is whether an information professional may use any of these four categories of private information for any other reasons than the original reason given for the gathering thereof. Relating to this is the question whether the person must be notified about the way in which personal information is going to be used.
� The rights of a person in terms of the use and distribution of one's personal and private information. This ethical problem relates to the above- mentioned questions and boils down to the question of consent of the user in terms of the use of personal information. Related questions are as follows: does a user have the right to verify any personal and private information that is being held by an information professional, and if so, what are such person's rights regarding the correcting (in cases of the incorrectness thereof) of this information, and, does the person have the right to know who is using that personal and private information and for what purposes? 5.2. Applicable Ethical Norms Applicable ethical norms which can act as guidelines as well as instruments of measurement must be formulated to address these ethical issues. The following norms can be distinguished: truth, freedom and human rights. They will be discussed briefly. 4/20/2021 TECHNOLOGY AS A THREAT TO PRIVACY: Ethical Challenges web.simmons.edu/~chen/nit/NIT%2796/96-025-Britz.html 6/9 � Truth. Truth as an ethical norm has a dual ethical application. Firstly, it serves as norm for the factual correctness of information. As a norm it thus guides the information
professional regarding the accurate and factually correct handling of private information. In the second place truth is an expression of ethical virtues such as openness, honesty and trustworthiness. � Freedom. According to this norm a person has the freedom to make choices in terms of freedom of privacy and freedom from intrusion. As norm, however, it may not become absolutized. Therefore the choice to privacy from intrusion may not restrict the freedom of others. � Human rights. This norm is closely related to freedom, but can be regarded as a more concretely applicable norm. Applied to privacy it means the juridical acknowledgment and protection of a persons' right to privacy. As an individual human right it also protects the individual from unlawful interference from society (amongst others the state) in the private life of an individual.7 5.3. Ethical Guidelines for the Information Professional Based on these norms, practical guidelines for the information professional can be formulated. Before the formulation of these guidelines, two fundamental aspects must be taken into consideration, namely the recognition of a persons' autonomy and freedom as well as the fact that the legal guidelines on privacy do not offer a complete framework for the ethical actions of the information professional with regard to the handling of personal and private information.
The concepts of autonomy and freedom has already been dealt with. With regard to the juridical guidelines the following comments can be made. Firstly, once a person's private or personal information has been made known publicly (disclaim of the implied intention) such information is no longer, according to the law, viewed as private. This implies that the information can legally be dealt with as trade information. There is therefore (from a juridical perspective) no ethical sensitivity for the autonomy and freedom of the individual with regard to his right to privacy. The second remark relates to the content of legislation itself. As indicated, the immense growth in and development of information technology give rise to the fact that the legislators fall behind in the tabling of appropriate legislation on the protection of personal privacy. This is especially true in the South African situation where there is, for example no legislation on the protection of privacy to provide for information handled via E-mail. Bearing in mind these two aspects the following practical guidelines can be given: (The appropriate norms are also given) � As an acknowledgment of the autonomy and freedom of the individual the information professional must act on the assumption that the client regards as confidential all personal and private information that is handled by the information professional. This implies that the information professional acknowledges the right of the client to control to a certain extent any personal and private information8 - based on the norm of freedom. � The client must, on a regular basis have access to all private and personal information that is held and
used by the information professional. The reason for this is to provide the client the opportunity to verify the accuracy of the information. It is then the responsibility of the information professional to see to it that the necessary corrections are made and again verified by the client (Fouty, 1993, p. 290) - based on the norms of freedom and human rights. 4/20/2021 TECHNOLOGY AS A THREAT TO PRIVACY: Ethical Challenges web.simmons.edu/~chen/nit/NIT%2796/96-025-Britz.html 7/9 � The merging of personal and other private information of an individual into a different database than the one for which it was originally collected must be done with the necessary caution (Schattuck, 1995, p. 310). This is specifically applicable in situations where the client is not aware of such merging or the implications thereof. The appropriate action would not only be to inform the client about such a merging and the implications thereof, but also to give the client the right of access to the information on the central database, and the opportunity to change the information where it is incorrect, and the right to know who is using the information as well as the purpose of such use - based on the norms of human rights, freedom and truth. � The information professional must notify the client explicitly of the intended purposes9 of the use of all personal and private information. This implies the client's permission. Different avenues exist for seeking such permission. Spinello (1995:122) prefers the method of
implicit informed consent. According to this principle, companies (information professionals) that have collected information about a person must diligently inform that person about the various uses of the information. Clients must then be given an opportunity to consent to these uses or to withhold their consent. The burden is on the client to respond, and a lack of response implies consent. However, the client must be granted the opportunity to withdraw consent (Amidon, 1992:67) - based on the norms of freedom and human rights. � No unnecessary private information must be gathered. This is not only for logistic reasons but also to prevent the unnecessary violation or exposure of a person's privacy - based on the norm of freedom. � Personal and other private information that is no longer necessary for the function for which it was collected must be destroyed (Branscomb, 1995, p. 71) - based on the norms of freedom and human rights. � When the rendering of a specific service or product to a person is refused on the grounds of personal information (e.g. creditworthiness), the reason for this denial must be made known to the person10 - based on the norms of truth and human rights. � A person's information must be handled with the necessary confidentiality. This implies security and control of access to the information, of the right to use it, as well as the right to change or add any information (Fouty, 1993:290) - based on the norms of freedom, truth and human rights. � A private policy must be formulated consisting of the
following elements: the categories of information that must be regarded as private and personal, the levels of confidentiality (e.g. who has access and use of which information), a clear explanation of the purposes of the use of the information, and the description of the procedures to ensure the accuracy of this information - based on the norms of freedom, truth and human rights. 6. CONCLUSION It can thus be concluded that the use of technology in the processing of information, poses important questions with regard to a person's right to privacy. This right is directly linked to the right to freedom and human autonomy. These problems relate mainly to the accessibility of information and the manipulation thereof. This is of specific relevance to the information professional who deals with private and personal information. Practical guidelines in the handling of these problems can be formulated according to the norms of freedom, truth and human rights. REFERENCES Amidon, P. (1992). Widening privacy concerns. Online, 16 (4): 64-67. 4/20/2021 TECHNOLOGY AS A THREAT TO PRIVACY: Ethical Challenges
web.simmons.edu/~chen/nit/NIT%2796/96-025-Britz.html 8/9 Baker, L. (1992). Needed: An ethical code for library administrators. Journal of Library Administration, 16 (4): 1-17. Benjamin, L.M. (1991). Privacy, computers and personal information: Towards equality and equity in an information age. Communications and the Law, 13 (2): 3-16. Branscomb, A.W. (1994). Who Owns Information?: From Privacy to Private Access. New York: Basic Books. A division of Harper Collins Publishers. Christians, C.G. (1991). Information ethics in a complicated age. In Ethics and the Librarian. Proceedings of the Allerton Park Institute, 29-31 October 1989, University of Illinois, Graduate School of Library, edited by F.W. Lancaster. Vol. 31. Also In Cochrane, J. (1991). Hell hound on my trail. Ethics and librarianship. New Zealand Libraries, 46 (11):2 6-31. Collier, G. (1994). Information privacy. Just how private are the details of individuals in a company's database? Information Management and Computer Security, 3 (1): 41-45. Focht, K.T. & Thomas, D.S. (1994). Information compilation and disbursement: moral, legal and ethical considerations. Information Management and Computer Security, 2 (2): 23-28. Fouty, K.G. (1993). Online patron records and privacy: Service vs Security. The Journal of Academic Librarianship, 19 (5): 289-293. Froehlich, T.J. (1994). Re-thinking ethical issues in an online
environment. Online Information '94 Proceedings, 6-8 December 1994, edited by D.I. Raitt & B. Jeapes. Oxford: Learned Information. pp. 415-422. Goode, J & Johnson, M. (1991). Putting out the flames: The etiquette and law of e-mail. Online, 15 (6): 61-66. I spy. Personal rights in the information age. (1996). Information Technology. Kluge, E.H.W. (1994). Health information, the fair information principles and ethics. Methods of Information in Medicine, 33: 336-345. McGarry, K. (1993). The Changing Context of Information. An Introductory Analysis. 2nd ed. London: Library Association Publishing. Neethling, J. (1991). Persoonlikheidsreg. Derde uitgawe. Durban: Butterworths. Neethling, J., Potgieter, J.M. & Visser, P.J. 1996. Neethling's law of personality. Durban: Butterworths. Rosenberg, R.S. (1993). Free speech, pornography, sexual harassment, and electronic networks. The Information Society, 9: 285-331. Shank, R. (1986, Summer). Privacy: History, legal, social, and ethical aspects. Library Trends, pp. 7-15. Shattucks, J. (1995). Computer matching is a serious threat to individual rights. In Computers, Ethics and Social Values, edited by D.G. Johnson & H. Nissenbaum. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. pp. 305-311.
Shaver, D.B. et al. (1985, Fall). Ethics for online intermediaries. Special Libraries, Fall: 238-245. Smith, M.M. (1994). Online information ethics: Online searching and the searching self. Proceedings of the 15th National Online Meeting, May 1994, edited by M.E. Williams. Medford, NY: Learned Information. pp. 399-405. Spinello, R.A. (1995). Ethical Aspects of Information Technology. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall Inc. Stair, R.M. (1992). Principles of Information Systems. A Managerial Approach. Boston: Boyd & Fraser. 4/20/2021 TECHNOLOGY AS A THREAT TO PRIVACY: Ethical Challenges web.simmons.edu/~chen/nit/NIT%2796/96-025-Britz.html 9/9 Van Brakel, P.A. (1989). Inligtingstegnologie: Verkenning van navorsingstemas. Suid-Afrikaanse Tydskrif vir Biblioteek- en Inligtingkunde, 57 (3). Ware, W.H. (1993). The new faces of privacy. The Information Society, 9 (3): 195-211. Westin, A. (1967). Privacy and Freedom. New York: Atheneum. Zorkoczy, P. (1990). Information Technology: An Introduction. 2nd edition. London: Pitman Publishing. 4/20/2021 US v Europe - a cultural gap on the right to be
forgotten - BBC News https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-27421969 1/4 US v Europe - a cultural gap on the right to be forgotten Rory Cellan-Jones Technology correspondent @BBCRoryCJ 15 May 2014 Comments The reverberations from this week's landmark European Court of Justice ruling on the right to be forgotten continue to be felt. Legions of lawyers are still trying to work out what it will mean for the search engines, and for millions of EU citizens who may want to force them to remove links to their past online lives. And the cultural divide between Europe and the US appears wider than ever, with two very different views of how we should live our lives online. On the one hand there is what you might call the web utopian view, held by the US internet giants and some in Europe who look to Silicon Valley for inspiration. This sees the ECJ ruling as unworkable, illiberal and just out of touch. The Wikipedia founder Jimmy Wales, who divides his time
between London and the US, explains to me why something like it could never happen across the Atlantic because of the constitutional guarantee of free speech: "This is not a ALAMY https://www.bbc.com/news/correspondents/rorycellanjones https://www.twitter.com/BBCRoryCJ https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-27421969#comments http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-27388289 4/20/2021 US v Europe - a cultural gap on the right to be forgotten - BBC News https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-27421969 2/4 debate the United States is even capable of entering into. You'd have to repeal the First Amendment - and that's like a religious artefact - so that's never going to happen." He tells me this is not necessarily a new cultural gap but one that is being made evident for the first time. "In the past if you were in Germany you were never worried that some encyclopedia website based in the United States was going to name you as a murderer after you got out of jail because that was inconceivable. Today that can happen, so the cultural gap that was always there about the regulation of speech is becoming more visible."
But in Europe many politicians and regulators and some - though by no means all - privacy campaigners have welcomed the ruling. Mr Wales' point about local laws - which used to mean old convictions simply disappeared from the record after a certain time - is one of the reasons for that support. Europeans who have been told that the internet is basically ungovernable - and if it does have guiding principles then they come from the land of the free - are expressing some satisfaction that court has refused to believe that. Max Mosley, who has fought privacy battles with tabloid newspapers and Google over pictures of a sadomasochistic orgy, expresses particular satisfaction that the European Court decided the search firm was subject to local laws. When I talked to him as he emerged from a radio studio he was also exercised about the rehabilitation of offenders: "A principle accepted in most civilised countries. The internet shouldn't regurgitate things for ever." And he refuses to accept the idea that the online world just cannot be regulated. "The internet is so new that the law hasn't caught up with it but eventually it'll be ADVERTISEMENT
4/20/2021 US v Europe - a cultural gap on the right to be forgotten - BBC News https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-27421969 3/4 regulated like every other aspect of society and that's quite right." So a battle between two views of freedom - the US belief that free speech trumps everything, and the European view that individuals should have some control over what the world knows about them. But there is something else in play here, a growing unease about the power wielded by what are nearly always US web giants over our lives. Mario Costeja Gonzalez, the man who prompted this week's EU ruling against Google Google, Facebook, Twitter and other firms that store and use vast banks of data about Europeans have all sought to deny responsibility for how people use and share that information. They also maintain that they are not media firms - which in Europe face strict regulation - but mere technology platforms enabling better communication. In Google's case that stance has come to bite it. Media firms like the Spanish newspaper site at the heart of this test case, haven't been told to remove content. It is the "data controllers" - the search engines -
which are in the court's sights. Now there are obvious questions about the practicality of getting Google to decide which of billions of links to millions of European names should or should not be removed. The temptation for the company will be to automatically agree to all requests, rather than to set up a vast quasi-judicial bureaucracy to decide what is justified and what is not, and that could have a chilling effect on free expression. But European web users, who have been told for so long that companies based in Silicon Valley cannot be told what to do in the UK or France or Germany, may feel REUTERS 4/20/2021 US v Europe - a cultural gap on the right to be forgotten - BBC News https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-27421969 4/4 a smidgen of satisfaction about the howls of outrage coming from across the Atlantic. 4/20/2021 FDA medical device plan zeros in on cybersecurity, public-private partnership | Healthcare IT News
https://www.healthcareitnews.com/news/fda-medical-device- plan-zeros-cybersecurity-public-private-partnership 1/3 Medical Devices FDA medical device plan zeros in on cybersecurity, public-private partnership The agency released a five-point plan outlining regulatory changes to bolster medical device safety, including requiring manufacturers ensure devices can be updated and patched. By Jessica Davis April 18, 2018 04:23 PM https://www.healthcareitnews.com/category/resource- topic/medical-devices https://www.healthcareitnews.com/author/jessica-davis https://www.addthis.com/bookmark.php?v=300 https://www.addthis.com/bookmark.php?v=300 https://www.addthis.com/bookmark.php?v=300 https://www.addthis.com/bookmark.php?v=300 4/20/2021 FDA medical device plan zeros in on cybersecurity, public-private partnership | Healthcare IT News https://www.healthcareitnews.com/news/fda-medical-device- plan-zeros-cybersecurity-public-private-partnership 2/3 The Food and Drug Administration released its plan to improve medical device safety, which includes a reorganization of its medical device center and a Congressional plan to launch a
public-private partnership focused on cybersecurity. The five-point plan released Tuesday outlines a plan to consolidate offices within its device center, which oversees pre- and post-market activities. As part of the plan, the FDA will require manufacturers to ensure medical devices are capable of being updated and receiving security patches. FDA Commissioner Scott Gottlieb, MD, also said the agency is contemplating forcing manufacturers to publicly disclose known cybersecurity issues. [Also: California medical device manufacturer reports breach of 30,000 consumers] The FDA also is exploring regulatory options to expedite labeling changes and other features, including timely implementation of post-market changes. The current system on making those changes is voluntary, even when safety issues arise. “Although medical devices provide great benefits to patients, they also present risks,” Gottlieb said in a statement. “And we are focusing equal attention on advancing new frameworks for identifying risks and protecting consumers.”
“Our aim is to ensure not only that devices meet the gold standard for getting to market, but also that they continue to meet this standard as we get more data about devices and learn more about their benefit-risk profile in real-world clinical settings,” he added. https://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/Newsroom/PressAnnounceme nts/ucm604672.htm https://www.healthcareitnews.com/news/california-medical- device-manufacturer-reports-breach-30000-consumers 4/20/2021 FDA medical device plan zeros in on cybersecurity, public-private partnership | Healthcare IT News https://www.healthcareitnews.com/news/fda-medical-device- plan-zeros-cybersecurity-public-private-partnership 3/3 The agency also is looking into a requirement of additional training or education of providers to ensure the safety and effectiveness of complex devices. Gottlieb said the FDA also is looking into ways to support developers pursuing safer devices, including a faster review of those devices with vastly improved safety features. While the FDA has a breakthrough device program, those devices currently can be reviewed
under that program. Gottlieb also outlined plans for a public-private partnership, CyberMed Safety (expert) Analysis Board, which complements its existing device vulnerability coordination and response efforts. The group, made up of a wide range of experts from clinicians to biomedical engineers, also will support device manufacturers and FDA on safety issues, such as high-risk vulnerabilities and adjudicating disputes. Funding for CYMSAB will be included in the agency’s requested $70 million for Fiscal Year 2019 for its digital health technology advancements. Twitter: @JessieFDavis Email the writer: [email protected] Topics: Compliance & Legal, Government & Policy, Medical Devices, Privacy & Security, Quality and Safety More regional news https://twitter.com/jessiefdavis mailto:[email protected] https://www.healthcareitnews.com/category/resource- topic/compliance-legal https://www.healthcareitnews.com/category/resource-
topic/government https://www.healthcareitnews.com/category/resource- topic/medical-devices https://www.healthcareitnews.com/category/resource- topic/privacy-security https://www.healthcareitnews.com/category/resource- topic/quality-safety 4/20/2021 Equifax Breach Exposed More Consumer Data Than First Disclosed https://www.insurancejournal.com/news/national/2018/02/13/48 0357.htm 1/3 Email This Subscribe to Newsletter Equifax Breach Exposed More Consumer Data Than First Disclosed February 13, 2018 Article 3 Comments The Equifax data breach exposed more of consumers’ personal information than the company first disclosed last year, according to documents given to lawmakers. The credit reporting company announced in September that the personal information of 145.5 million consumers had been compromised in a data breach. It originally said that the information accessed included names, Social Security numbers, birth dates, addresses and — in some cases — driver’s license numbers and credit card numbers. It also said some consumers’ credit card numbers were among the information exposed, as well as the personal
information from thousands of dispute documents. mailto:?subject=Equifax%20Breach%20Exposed%20More%20C onsumer%20Data%20Than%20First%20Disclosed&body=Equifa x%20Breach%20Exposed%20More%20Consumer%20Data%20T han%20First%20Disclosed%0Ahttps%3A%2F%2Fwww.insuranc ejournal.com%2Fnews%2Fnational%2F2018%2F02%2F13%2F4 80357.htm https://www.insurancejournal.com/subscribe/ mailto:?subject=Equifax+Breach+Exposed+More+Consumer+Da ta+Than+First+Disclosed&body=Equifax+Breach+Exposed+Mo re+Consumer+Data+Than+First+Disclosed%0Ahttps://www.insu rancejournal.com/news/national/2018/02/13/480357.htm https://www.facebook.com/sharer/sharer.php?u=https://www.ins urancejournal.com/news/national/2018/02/13/480357.htm https://twitter.com/intent/tweet?original_referer=https%3A%2F %2Fwww.insurancejournal.com%2Fnews%2Fnational%2F2018 %2F02%2F13%2F480357.htm&text=Equifax+Breach+Exposed+ More+Consumer+Data+Than+First+Disclosed&url=https%3A% 2F%2Fwww.insurancejournal.com%2Fnews%2Fnational%2F201 8%2F02%2F13%2F480357.htm https://www.linkedin.com/sharing/share- offsite/?url=https://www.insurancejournal.com/news/national/20 18/02/13/480357.htm https://www.insurancejournal.com/news/national/2018/02/13/48 0357.htm?print https://www.insurancejournal.com/news/national/2018/02/13/48 0357.htm https://www.insurancejournal.com/news/national/2018/02/13/48 0357.htm/?comments https://www.insurancejournal.com/news/national/2017/09/08/46 3716.htm 4/20/2021 Equifax Breach Exposed More Consumer Data Than
First Disclosed https://www.insurancejournal.com/news/national/2018/02/13/48 0357.htm 2/3 However, Atlanta-based Equifax Inc. recently disclosed in a document submitted to the Senate Banking Committee, that a forensic investigation found criminals accessed other information from company records. According to the document, provided to The Associated Press by Sen. Elizabeth Warren’s office, that included tax identification numbers, email addresses and phone numbers. Finer details, such as the expiration dates for credit cards or issuing states for driver’s licenses, were also included in the list. The additional insight into the massive breach was first reported by the Wall Street Journal. Equifax’s disclosure, which it has not made directly to consumers, underscores the depth of detail the company keeps on individuals that it may have put at risk. And it adds to the string of missteps the company has made in recovering from the security debacle. Equifax spokeswoman Meredith Griffanti said that “in no way did we intend to mislead consumers.” The company last year disclosed only the information that affected the greatest number of consumers and wanted to “act with the greatest clarity” in terms of the information provided the committee, she said. Griffanti also said that while the list provided to the committee includes all the potential data points that
may have been accessed by criminals, those elements impacted a minimal portion of consumers. And some data _ like passport numbers _ were not stolen. The company reiterated that the total number of consumers affected is unchanged. “When you are making that kind of announcement, where do you draw the line? If you saw the list we provided the banking finance committee it was pretty exhaustive,” Griffanti said. “We wanted to show them that no stone was left unturned.” But to consumers whose information was exposed, it may feel like yet another slap in the face. Equifax waited months to disclose the hack. After it did, anxious consumers experienced jammed phone lines and uninformed company representatives. An Equifax website set up to help people determine their exposure was described as sketchy by security experts and provided inconsistent and unhelpful information to many. The company blamed the online customer help page’s problems on a vendor’s software code after it appeared that it had been hacked as well. 4/20/2021 Equifax Breach Exposed More Consumer Data Than First Disclosed https://www.insurancejournal.com/news/national/2018/02/13/48 0357.htm 3/3 Equifax has tried to make changes, replacing its CEO, as well as spending millions to research and
rectify the breach. In January, it launched a service that allows consumers to lock and unlock their credit report. But a test of the site by The New York Times found it unusable in many ways. The company said this experience was an exception and it has made some key changes to the service since it first launched. The company continues to deal with multiple regulatory investigations into the matter as well as hundreds consumer lawsuits. Warren, D-Mass., released a report on the hack Wednesday that described it as “one of the largest and most significant data security lapses in history.” Related: Treasury to Look Into Consumer Financial Bureau’s Handling of Equifax Breach Equifax, Wells Fargo May Still Face Class Actions Despite Wall Street Arbitration Win FTC, Congress, States Investigating Equifax Over Data Breach Is Equifax’s Cyber Insurance Enough to Cover Breach? Equifax Breach Exposed Credit Data of 143 Million U.S. Consumers Copyright 2021 Associated Press. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, broadcast, rewritten or redistributed. https://www.insurancejournal.com/news/national/2018/02/07/47 9854.htm https://www.insurancejournal.com/news/national/2017/10/26/46 9456.htm https://www.insurancejournal.com/news/national/2017/09/15/46 4450.htm
https://www.insurancejournal.com/news/national/2017/09/11/46 3769.htm https://www.insurancejournal.com/news/national/2017/09/08/46 3716.htm The Washington Post Washington Post Live The ethics of Hacking 101 By Ellen Nakashima and Ashkan Soltani October 7, 2014 At the University of Tulsa, professor Sujeet Shenoi is teaching students how to hack into oil pipelines and electric power plants. At Carnegie Mellon University in Pittsburgh, professor David Brumley is instructing students on how to write software to break into computer networks. And George Hotz, a largely self-taught hacker who became a millionaire in part by finding flaws in Apple and other computer systems, is now back in school, where he’s one of the stars on Carnegie Mellon’s competitive hacking team.
Cybersecurity: A Special Report Shenoi, Brumley and Hotz are players in a controversial area of technology: the teaching and practice of what is loosely called “cyberoffense.” In a world in which businesses, the military and governments rely on computer systems that are potentially vulnerable, having the ability to break into those systems provides a strategic advantage. Unsurprisingly, ethics is a big issue in this field. Both professors say they build an ethics component into their curriculum; Shenoi won’t even accept students who don’t promise to work, if hired, for the National Security Agency, the Energy Department or another U.S. government agency. But some experts say the academic community is not taking ethics seriously enough, and professors are not accepting responsibility for the potentially dangerous skills they are teaching. The very nature of hacking means that a lot of its skills and standards evolve outside academia. (Hotz, known in tech circles by the handle “geohot,” says he learned most of what he knows on the Internet “and from playing with things.”) This leads advocates of teaching cyberoffense to say that the “good guys” have to keep
up — which in turn raises more questions about whether such education is morally right. “There’s a very large stigma around saying we do anything offense-related,” said Tyler Nighswander, 23, a computer science graduate student at Carnegie Mellon. “It’s certainly understandable that you don’t want to say your school teaches offense — ‘Oh, you mean you teach kids how to break into computers and steal stuff?’ ” http://washingtonpostlive.com/ https://www.washingtonpost.com/people/ellen-nakashima/ http://www.utulsa.edu/cybercorps http://users.ece.cmu.edu/~dbrumley/index.html http://www.geohot.com/ http://www.washingtonpost.com/sf/post- live/collection/cybersecurity-special-report/ Some academics note that it may be too late to stop the worldwide expansion of offensive cyber tools and techniques. “There is an escalating arms race in cyberspace as governments, companies and malicious actors are all going on the offensive, most of it under a shroud of secrecy and absent any meaningful political oversight,” said Ron Deibert, director of the University of Toronto’s Citizen Lab.
Seeking ‘vulnerabilities’ No more than a handful of professors have the knowledge and resources to teach cyberattack skills at the level of Brumley or Shenoi, whose students are heavily recruited for government and industry positions. At Tulsa, Shenoi, 54, obtains permission from energy companies for his students to attempt to hack into them, infiltrating the systems that run gas pipelines or power grids and gaining access to critical U.S. infrastructure. They also do penetration testing for other companies, finding “vulnerabilities,” or flaws, that enemy hackers could exploit. “We have a class where we teach people how to write things like Stuxnet,” Shenoi said, referring to a computer worm, reportedly developed by U.S. and Israeli scientists, that was found in 2010 and damaged about 1,000 centrifuges in an Iranian uranium-enrichment plant, delaying the country’s nuclear program. Stuxnet, whose deployment is often considered the first true use of a cyberweapon, was built around an unprecedented four “zero-day exploits” — that is, attack tools based on previously unknown software flaws. Shenoi began teaching courses on offensive computer
techniques in 1999, he said, and by 2008, Tulsa was offering an entire program. Now, he said, there are “four courses in reverse engineering, two in cyber operations, two in offensive SCADA [supervisory control and data acquisition], and one on malware analysis and creation.” Shenoi said that the potential power of offensive cyber techniques is so great that he accepts only students who intend to work for the government and who have records that would qualify them for government security clearances. He interviews all the applicants as well as their parents. He sends 15 to 20 students a year, he said, to work at the NSA or the CIA. “In order for me to teach these real-world attack skills, these students have to be trusted,” he said. “They cannot go to work for the private sector. “There’s no reason to teach private-sector people how to use Stinger missiles,” he continued. Similarly, he said, you don’t teach them to use cyber weapons. Brumley, 39, has taught offensive cyber skills since 2009. A self-described “patriot,” he says he discusses ethics in his classes at Carnegie Mellon — an introductory computer security course as well as more advanced
vulnerability analysis, in which students learn techniques for breaking through computer defenses. Some of https://www.sfs.opm.gov/ http://www.wired.com/2011/07/how-digital-detectives- deciphered-stuxnet/ http://spectrum.ieee.org/telecom/security/the-real-story-of- stuxnet Brumley’s students work for the government, but most go to start-ups, big companies such as Google or defense contractors. To develop their skills, Brumley encourages his students to compete in hacking contests. In August, a recreational team he advises called PPP, made up of about 20 current and former Carnegie Mellon students, won the ultimate U.S. showcase of hacking skills at the DefCon hacking conference in Las Vegas — a “capture- the-flag” competition in which 20 teams tried to break into one another’s computers. PPP’s top gun is Hotz, who gained fame in 2007 for “jailbreaking” the previously impenetrable iPhone. He left Carnegie Mellon as a 23-year-old sophomore to work on his own, and is now back as a junior at 25. Hotz is so skilled that he has won some contests solo — as in July, when he beat nine teams to win $30,000 at the
SecuInside competition in Seoul. He earned $200,000 in April for finding bugs in Google’s Chromebook computer and the Firefox browser. Brumley calls him “a machine.” Hotz boasts that he is “maybe the best hacker in the world.” A question of profit Obviously, these students are developing valuable skills. Shenoi says his students never make money off the vulnerabilities they discover or exploits they develop. They give the information for free to the companies whose systems they are testing, or to the government. Intelligence agency officials fly every so often to Tulsa to be briefed on the flaws the students have found. Brumley agrees that it is dangerous to share vulnerabilities or exploits with anyone but the software vendor or the U.S. government. “If you’re selling exploits in a free market,” he said, “then you’re potentially selling them to the adversary.” Nighswander, a former student of Brumley’s, said that he has never sold a vulnerability to a software vendor, but that he thinks it’s ethical to do so, saying, “When you think that finding a vulnerability can take weeks and
months, you can understand that the person wants to get compensated.” Hotz declined to say whether he has sold an exploit (although he was caught last year on a surreptitiously recorded conversation appearing to broker a $350,000 deal to sell exploits to jailbreak the iPhone to a Chinese company). “I have never worked with any country aside from the U.S.,” he said. He says he doesn’t dwell on issues of morality, saying, “I’m not big on ethics.” Brian Pak, 25, who created the PPP hacking team while studying under Brumley and now works for a start-up he cofounded, said that sometimes, noodling around on his own, he finds bugs in software and discloses them to the software vendor. He said he has never sold information about flaws, although some vendors offer “bounties” of up to several thousand https://www.defcon.org/ http://www.iclarified.com/37008/leaked-audio-tape-of-geohot- negotiating-sale-of-ios-7-jailbreak-listen dollars. He holds onto some vulnerabilities for use in research — a practice common among security researchers, he said.
“I also don’t think it’s unethical to provide vulnerabilities or exploits to the U.S. government,” Pak said. “I trust the U.S. government. The government protects me. As long as it’s not used against our own people, I see less of an issue.” But some experts disapprove of providing previously unknown or “zero day” vulnerabilities to the government — whether for free or for profit. They worry that, rather than disclosing these zero days to vendors, the government is stockpiling them for use against adversaries. Doing so would leave the software vendors ignorant of dangerous flaws in their products, making the Internet less secure, they say. They also charge that the government is using these tools with far too little public debate, for example, in the controversial area of domestic law enforcement. Christopher Soghoian, chief technologist for the American Civil Liberties Union, said the government should have a policy of promptly disclosing any bugs it discovers so that software companies such as Microsoft can fix them before they cause damage. Not doing so can undermine network security, he said. But Brumley said such a blanket policy would be unwise.
“The obvious example is Stuxnet,” which destroyed Iranian centrifuges, he said. That, he said, was “an opportunity to use an exploit for good.” “Twenty years earlier, that would be the thing that we flew in bombers and bombed factories for, and people would die,” he said. Dual-use tools Selling exploits and vulnerabilities is not illegal, per se, but selling them with the intent that they’ll be used to hack someone else’s computer is a crime. Software is a classic “dual use” product. It can be used to do something as innocuous as unlock an iPhone to allow consumers to switch providers or as destructive as causing an adversary’s nuclear centrifuges to spin out of control. Some academics say the teaching of hacking techniques should remain limited. “I’m personally against the widespread or wholesale teaching of offensive cyber,” said Arthur Conklin, associate professor of information and logistics technology at the University of Houston. For one thing, he said, vetting students for trustworthiness, as Shenoi does, would be impractical on a mass scale.
Giovanni Vigna, a computer science professor at the University of California at Santa Barbara, warned that not teaching offensive skills is “not a very smart option because the bad guys are going to develop them http://www.cs.ucsb.edu/~vigna/ anyway.” He added, “The key is to make the students understand what are the lines that cannot be crossed.” So he integrates into his courses on offensive cyber “a very substantial chapter on ethical issues.” Some experts argue that the government should regulate the sale and use of offensive cyber technology — but others, including Shenoi, say regulation will only drive the market for such products deeper underground. At this point, the U.S. government is in the process of placing export controls on some hacking and surveillance tools. It already has forbidden the sale of such technologies to countries with particularly egregious human rights records, such as Sudan and Iran. Meanwhile, interest in offensive cyber skills is growing. Experts estimate that several thousand personnel in private industry work at finding bugs and building exploits. More companies are training employees in
offensive skills, and more people are competing in hacking competitions. In this context, Soghoian of the ACLU fears that universities are teaching students high-end skills without a solid ethical foundation. “The academic computer security community has not yet realized the role they are playing in cyberwar,” he said. Shenoi said that, above all, he wants to impress upon his students the responsibilities that come with their technological prowess. “They have great power to do harm. They have power to intimidate. They have power to accrue money illegally,” he said. “What I tell them is, ‘You may be learning some potentially deadly skills. But use them gently and wisely, and use them for the good of society.’ ” Related: Key to keeping cyberspace safe? International accord. With mobile devices, many firms are playing Russian roulette with cybersecurity What top government and business officials are saying about cybersecurity
Ellen Nakashima Ellen Nakashima is a two-time Pulitzer Prize-winning reporter covering intelligence and national security matters for The Washington Post. She joined The Post in 1995 and is based in https://www.washingtonpost.com/postlive/the-ethics-of- hacking-101/2014/10/07/39529518-4014-11e4-b0ea- 8141703bbf6f_story.html?utm_term=.e9c36c86d53a http://www.washingtonpost.com/business/capitalbusiness/with- mobile-devices-many-firms-are-playing-russian-roulette-with- cybersecurity/2014/10/07/9556219a-4979-11e4-891d- 713f052086a0_story.html http://www.washingtonpost.com/postlive/what-top-government- and-business-officials-are-saying-about- cybersecurity/2014/10/07/a6e5142e-4e70-11e4-8c24- 487e92bc997b_story.html https://www.washingtonpost.com/people/ellen-nakashima/ https://twitter.com/nakashimae Reporting the facts for over 140 years. Try 1 month for $10 $1 Already a subscriber? Sign in https://subscribe.washingtonpost.com/acquisition/?promo=ba_d _am_4&acqEntType=mktg_onsite_article Democracy Dies in Darkness California is on the verge of passing a sweeping new
online privacy law targeting Facebook, Google and other tech giants By June 27, 2018 at 4:07 p.m. EDT California is hurtling toward the adoption of a new online privacy law that would govern how tech giants like Amazon, Facebook, Google and Uber collect and monetize consumers' personal data – a set of changes that could ripple throughout the country. The Golden State legislature is due to vote Thursday on the California Consumer Privacy Act of 2018, which would require tech companies to disclose the categories of data they collect about consumers as well as the third-party entities, like advertisers, with whom they share that information. Web users would also gain the ability to opt out of having their data sold, and companies wouldn’t be allowed to charge users a fee or provide them less service if they made that choice. And the proposal comes with some teeth: California’s attorney general would be empowered to fine companies that fail to secure consumers' sensitive details against cyber threats. If it passes, California’s proposed privacy rules would apply to only its citizens. But it still could force companies like
Facebook and Google to change some of their practices across the country, given the difficulty in maintaining two sets of privacy protections – one in California, the most populous state in the country, and a second for everyone else. Many tech giants in Silicon Valley took precisely that approach in May, adapting their data-collection practices worldwide when Europe began implementing its own strict privacy rules. California’s new regulations also could add to the pressure on other regulators, including federal lawmakers in Congress, to follow suit and adopt fresh data-collection protections, responding to web users who have grown furious with a series of recent privacy mishaps, particularly at Facebook. "These corporations make billions of dollars selling people's privacy without people having any visibility into what they're doing," said Alastair Mactaggart, a real-estate developer and driving force behind California’s new privacy push. State policymakers have moved at an unprecedented pace to introduce tweak and advance the bill all in a matter of Tony Romm https://leginfo.legislature.ca.gov/faces/billTextClient.xhtml?bill _id=201720180AB375 https://www.washingtonpost.com/people/tony-romm/
State policymakers have moved at an unprecedented pace to introduce, tweak and advance the bill -- all in a matter of days -- as they seek to avoid a November ballot initiative spearheaded by Mactaggart that would impose even tougher privacy rules on the tech industry. It would have allowed local consumers, for example, to sue companies in almost any case where their privacy or security had been compromised. The ballot initiative had garnered more than 600,000 signatures, almost double what it needed to qualify for consideration in the upcoming election. But Mactaggart announced this week he would withdraw his measure if lawmakers passed a compromise bill by California’s June 28 deadline for finalizing ballot propositions, setting up a last-minute blitz in the state’s Assembly and Senate after years of slow progress on privacy reform. Major technology companies like Amazon, Facebook, Google and Twitter had strongly opposed the ballot measure, chiefly through their lobbying group, the Internet Association. Tech giants like Facebook, Google, Microsoft and Uber, and Internet providers like AT&T and Verizon, also donated $200,000 each to a California coalition assembled in March to defeat it, according to local campaign finance records, though Facebook has maintained it is not actively
fighting the ballot initiative. Two of those companies, Facebook and Uber, have been the subjects of recent federal investigations into their privacy and data security practices. AT&T and Verizon, meanwhile, lobbied last year to defeat federal rules governing the way they handle customers' web-browsing information. But some tech companies have come to stomach the compromise bill now advancing in the legislature, believing that even if it does become law they can train their political firepower on trying to change it before it takes effect on Jan. 1, 2020. Robert Callahan, the vice president of state government affairs at the Internet Association, said the group opposes “many problematic provisions” in the bill and the “unprecedented lack of debate or full legislative process.” But he stressed that the “Internet industry will not obstruct or block [the measure] from moving forward, because it prevents the even worse ballot initiative from becoming law in California.” In the past, California’s regulations have spurred other states – and even the federal government – to adopt laws in areas as wide ranging as email spam and climate change. This time, privacy experts hope Congress steps in to do the same in response to major privacy mishaps, including
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BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,

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BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,

  • 1. BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz, n.d.) (Cellan-Jones, 2014) (Davis, 2018) (Equifax Breach Exposed More Consumer Data Than First Disclosed, 2018) (Nakashima & Soltani, 2014) (Romm, 2018) (Snow, 2018) (Stjernfelt & Lauritzen, 2019) (The cost of data security: Are cybersecurity investments worth it?, n.d.) (Walker, 2017) Bibliography Breuninger, K. (2017, December 13). Net neutrality rules are likely doomed, but the debate isn’t going away. Retrieved April 21, 2021, from CNBC: https://www.cnbc.com/2017/12/13/net-neutrality-rules-look-
  • 2. doomed--will- consumers-pay.html Britz, J. J. (n.d.). TECHNOLOGY AS A THREAT TO PRIVACY: Ethical Challenges to the Information Profession. Retrieved April 21, 2021, from Simmons University: http://web.simmons.edu/~chen/nit/NIT%2796/96-025-Britz.html Cellan-Jones, R. (2014, May 15). US v Europe - a cultural gap on the right to be forgotten. Retrieved April 21, 2021, from BBC: https://www.bbc.com/news/technology- 27421969 Davis, J. (2018, April 18). FDA medical device plan zeros in on cybersecurity, public-private partnership. Retrieved April 21, 2021, from Healthcare IT News: https://www.healthcareitnews.com/news/fda-medical-device- plan-zeros- cybersecurity-public-private-partnership Equifax Breach Exposed More Consumer Data Than First Disclosed. (2018, February 13). Retrieved April 21, 2021, from Insurance Journal: https://www.insurancejournal.com/news/national/2018/02/13/48 0357.htm Nakashima, E., & Soltani, A. (2014, October 7). The ethics of Hacking 101. Retrieved April 21, 2021, from The Washington Post: https://www.washingtonpost.com/postlive/the-ethics-of- hacking-
  • 3. 101/2014/10/07/39529518-4014-11e4-b0ea- 8141703bbf6f_story.html?utm_term=.e9c36c86d53a Romm, T. (2018, June 27). California is on the verge of passing a sweeping new online privacy law targeting Facebook, Google and other tech giants. Retrieved April 21, 2021, from The Washington Post: https://www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2018/06/27/cali for nia-is-verge- passing-sweeping-new-online-privacy-law-targeting-facebook- google-other- tech-giants/ Snow, J. (2018, February 26). Bias already exists in search engine results, and it’s only going to get worse. Retrieved April 21, 2021, from MIT Technology Review: https://www.technologyreview.com/2018/02/26/3299/meet-the- woman-who- searches-out-search-engines-bias-against-women-and- minorities/ Stjernfelt, F., & Lauritzen, A. M. (2019). Chapter 11: Facebook’s Handbook of Content Removal. In Your Post has been Removed (pp. 115-137). Basel, Switzerland: Springer, Cham. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-25968- 6_11 The cost of data security: Are cybersecurity investments worth it? (n.d.). Retrieved April 21, 2021, from CloudMask: https://www.cloudmask.com/blog/the- cost-of-data- security-are-cybersecurity-investments-worth-it
  • 4. Walker, M. J. (2017, November). Ethics and advanced medical devices: Do we need a new approach. Retrieved April 21, 2021, from Health Voices: http://healthvoices.org.au/issues/november-2017/ethics- advanced-medical- devices-need-new-approach/ 4/20/2021 Net neutrality rules look doomed -- will consumers pay? https://www.cnbc.com/2017/12/13/net-neutrality-rules-look- doomed--will-consumers-pay.html 1/9 KEY POINTS Kevin Breuninger @ K E V I N W I L L I A M B I N T E R N E T Net neutrality rules are likely doomed, but the debate isn’t going away P U B L I S H E D W E D , D E C 1 3 2 0 1 7 • 4 : 0 4 P M E S T U P D AT E D W E D , D E C 1 3 2 0 1 7 • 7 : 2 5 P M E S T Net neutrality advocates say broadband internet providers would
  • 5. charge more for faster speeds without the FCC protections. Opponents argue the rules are effectively price controls that stifle investment and limit consumers’ options. Federal Communications Commission Chairman Ajit Pai has said he wants to repeal the Obama-era rules. V I D E O 0 6 : 3 3 What is net neutrality? M A R K E TS C N B C T V WATC H L I ST M E N U Adobe Acrobat Downloading for conversion... Net neutrality rules look doomed -… https://www.cnbc.com/kevin-breuninger/ https://twitter.com/KevinWilliamB
  • 6. https://www.cnbc.com/internet/ https://www.cnbc.com/ https://www.cnbc.com/markets/ https://www.cnbc.com/tv/ https://www.cnbc.com/watchlist/ 4/20/2021 Net neutrality rules look doomed -- will consumers pay? https://www.cnbc.com/2017/12/13/net-neutrality-rules-look- doomed--will-consumers-pay.html 2/9 Demonstrators, supporting net neutrality, protest a plan by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) to repeal restrictions on internet service providers during a protest outside a Verizon store on December 7, 2017 in Chicago, Illinois. Getty Images The Federal Communications Commission’s vote on “net neutrality” rules, scheduled for Thursday, holds major implications for the future of the internet — but it’s not always clear who will foot the bill. FCC Chairman Ajit Pai says he intends to repeal the rules that keep internet service providers from treating online content unequally. The regulations prohibit ISPs, such as , or , from slowing or censoring traffic to certain websites. Advocates say net neutrality is a bulwark against ISPs abusing their power by forcing or prioritizing some online content against
  • 7. their competitors. Doing so would create an internet that handicaps smaller businesses and limits customers’ freedom to access whatever websites they want. “Net neutrality is actually what gives people choices,” said Evan Greer, campaign director for the pro-net neutrality activist group Fight for the Future. “If we get rid of net neutrality protections, it allows the largest, most incumbent web companies to essentially pay protection money to ISPs to solidify their monopoly status and squash competition.” Crushing that competition, she said, opens the door for fewer companies with more control to charge higher prices. “It essentially amounts to a tax on the entire economy.” Public opinion, while still largely in favor of the regulations, has narrowed in recent months. Net neutrality enjoyed strong bipartisan public support in June, but recent polling shows just a slim majority of U.S. voters still favor the rules, according to data from Morning Consult and Politico. The apparent public support for net neutrality, opponents say, is largely a matter of successful branding. “This is the brilliance of marketing,” said Roslyn Layton, a scholar at the American Enterprise Institute, a conservative think tank. “The political left tends to win on net neutrality because the framing is better,” she said.
  • 8. M A R K E TS C N B C T V WATC H L I ST M E N U Adobe Acrobat Downloading for conversion... Net neutrality rules look doomed -… https://www.cnbc.com/2017/11/28/net-neutrality-loses-support- poll-from-morning-consult-and-politico.html https://www.cnbc.com/ https://www.cnbc.com/markets/ https://www.cnbc.com/tv/ https://www.cnbc.com/watchlist/ 4/20/2021 Net neutrality rules look doomed -- will consumers pay? https://www.cnbc.com/2017/12/13/net-neutrality-rules-look- doomed--will-consumers-pay.html 3/9 WATCH: Father of net neutrality weighs in on battle over internet regulations p y g ,
  • 9. Layton blames what she considers onerous FCC regulations, not the free market, for creating a costly and unequal internet for consumers. In a July report on the consumer impact of the rules, Layton and AEI argued that “the Open Internet rules against blocking and throttling, although seemingly consumer-centric, are powerful price controls and legal tools to compel broadband providers to deliver traffic regardless of the marginal cost to networks and frequently at zero price.” It’s not just the additional costs: A Phoenix Center study concluded that the threat of reclassifying broadband internet service under the FCC’s purview may have reduced investment from the telecommunications sector between $30 billion and $40 billion annually from 2011 to 2015. Net neutrality supporters, however, aren’t buying it. “I think that’s totally bogus,” Greer said. “If you want to talk about fees getting passed onto consumers, that’s what is going to happen if paid prioritization is allowed.” Disclosure: Comcast is the owner of NBCUniversal, parent company of CNBC and CNBC.com. V I D E O 0 3 : 5 0 ‘Father of net neutrality’ weighs in on the battle over internet regulations M A R K E TS
  • 10. C N B C T V WATC H L I ST M E N U Adobe Acrobat Downloading for conversion... Net neutrality rules look doomed -… http://www.aei.org/publication/how-title-ii-harms-consumers- and-innovators/ http://www.phoenix-center.org/perspectives/Perspective17- 02Final.pdf https://www.cnbc.com/ https://www.cnbc.com/markets/ https://www.cnbc.com/tv/ https://www.cnbc.com/watchlist/ 4/20/2021 Net neutrality rules look doomed -- will consumers pay? https://www.cnbc.com/2017/12/13/net-neutrality-rules-look- doomed--will-consumers-pay.html 4/9 by TaboolaSponsored Links TRENDING NOW Former police officer Derek Chauvin found guilty of murder,
  • 11. manslaughter in the death of George Floyd Here’s everything Apple just announced: New iPad Pros, colorful iMacs, AirTags and more Netflix reports dramatic slowdown in subscribers S&P 500 futures fall slightly in overnight trading, Netflix shares tank ‘It will be ugly’: Bitcoin bear gives 2 reasons why he thinks the ‘bubble’ is going to burst FROM THE WEB 1 2 3 4 5 EnergyBillCruncher Empire Financial Research Maryland: Say Bye To Expensive Solar Panels If You Own A Home In Crownsville Man Who Bought Netflix at $7.78 Says Buy This Now by Taboola
  • 12. MORE FROM CNBC Dogecoin spikes 400% in a week, stoking fears of a cryptocurrency bubble Kelly Evans: Apple's $3 trillion air tags 'We need at least one more check.' The case for a fourth stimulus payment Here's who could still be waiting and eligible for a $1,400 stimulus check FROM THE WEB Empire Financial Research EnergyBillCruncher Naked Wines Man Who Bought Netflix at $7.78 Says Buy This Now Maryland: Say Bye To Expensive Solar Panels If You Live
  • 13. Near Crownsville Why You Should Stop Drinking $10 Grocery Store Wine Learn More M A R K E TS C N B C T V WATC H L I ST M E N U Adobe Acrobat Downloading for conversion... Net neutrality rules look doomed -… https://popup.taboola.com/en/?template=colorbox&utm_source= cnbc&utm_medium=referral&utm_content=thumb nails-rr- 2:right-rail-thumbnails: https://popup.taboola.com/en/?template=colorbox&utm_source= cnbc&utm_medium=referral&utm_content=thumbnails-rr- 2:right-rail-thumbnails: https://www.cnbc.com/2021/04/20/derek-chauvin-trial- verdict.html https://www.cnbc.com/2021/04/20/derek-chauvin-trial- verdict.html https://www.cnbc.com/2021/04/20/apple-event-live- updates.html
  • 14. https://www.cnbc.com/2021/04/20/apple-event-live- updates.html https://www.cnbc.com/2021/04/20/netflix-nflx-q1-2021- earnings.html https://www.cnbc.com/2021/04/20/netflix-nflx-q1-2021- earnings.html https://www.cnbc.com/2021/04/20/stock-market-futures-open- to-close-news.html https://www.cnbc.com/2021/04/20/stock-market-futures-open- to-close-news.html https://www.cnbc.com/2021/04/20/bitcoin-bear-gives-2-reasons- why-the-bubble-is-going-to-burst.html https://www.cnbc.com/2021/04/20/bitcoin-bear-gives-2-reasons- why-the-bubble-is-going-to-burst.html https://www.energybillcruncher.com/pa/?tg_ref=pwlt2&camp_id =Maryland%3A+Say+Bye+To+Expensive+Solar+Panels+If+You +Own+A+Home+In+Crownsville&keyword=cnbc&sub2=http%3 A%2F%2Fcdn.taboola.com%2Flibtrc%2Fstatic%2Fthumbnails% 2F753c1c2635785dbbc2994f256276d1c6.jpg&csg_ref=pagen&p ag_ref=gen_na#tblciGiCRCUP1KXhL6W22vEopvkJjcVfZE1Oy AF0Qm-tZ6z7O4yDk3j4o_8yum8-D_6Et https://monivation.com/pages/have-you-heard-of- taas?cid=MKT450682&eid=MKT458526&utm_source=taboola& utm_medium=referral&tblci=GiCRCUP1KXhL6W22vEopvkJjc VfZE1OyAF0Qm- tZ6z7O4yD0nEwoicKt35C_u4Bx#tblciGiCRCUP1KXhL6W22v EopvkJjcVfZE1OyAF0Qm-tZ6z7O4yD0nEwoicKt35C_u4Bx https://popup.taboola.com/en/?template=colorbox&utm_source= cnbc&utm_medium=referral&utm_content=thumbs-feed-stream- half-size- v2:Below%20Article%20Thumbnails%20Bento%20Feed%20|%2 0Card%202: https://popup.taboola.com/en/?template=colorbox&utm_source= cnbc&utm_medium=referral&utm_content=thumbs-feed-stream- half-size- v2:Below%20Article%20Thumbnails%20Bento%20Feed%20|%2
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  • 34. C N B C T V WATC H L I ST M E N U Adobe Acrobat Downloading for conversion... Net neutrality rules look doomed -… https://www.nbcuniversal.com/privacy/california-consumer- privacy-act?intake=CNBC https://www.cnbc.com/nbcuniversal-terms-of-service/ https://www.nbcuniversal.com/ https://www.cnbc.com/market-data-terms-of-service/ https://www.cnbc.com/market-data-terms-of-service/ https://www.cnbc.com/ https://www.cnbc.com/markets/ https://www.cnbc.com/tv/ https://www.cnbc.com/watchlist/ 4/20/2021 TECHNOLOGY AS A THREAT TO PRIVACY: Ethical Challenges web.simmons.edu/~chen/nit/NIT%2796/96-025-Britz.html 1/9 TECHNOLOGY AS A THREAT TO PRIVACY: Ethical Challenges to the Information Profession J. J. BRITZ
  • 35. Department of Information Science University of Pretoria 0002 Pretoria, South Africa E-mail: [email protected] The aim of this paper is to assess the impact of technology on the private lives of people. It is approached from a socio-ethical perspective with specific emphasis on the implication for the information profession. The issues discussed are the concept privacy, he influence of technology on the processing of personal and private information, the relevance of this influence for the information profession, and proposed solutions to these ethical issues for the information profession. 1. INTRODUCTION We are currently living in the so-called information age which can be described as an era were economic activities are mainly information based (an age of informationalization). This is due to the development and use of technology. The main characteristics of this era can be summarized as a rise in the number of knowledge workers, a world that has become more open - in the sense of communication (global village/Gutenberg galaxy) and internationalization (trans-border flow of data). This paradigm shift brings new ethical and juridical problems which are mainly related to issues such as the right of access to information, the right of privacy which is threatened by the emphasis on the free flow of information, and the protection of the economic interest of the owners of intellectual property. In this paper the ethical questions related to the right to privacy
  • 36. of the individual which is threatened by the use of technology will be discussed. Specific attention will be given to the challenges these ethical problems pose to the information professional. A number of practical guidelines, based on ethical norms will be laid down. 2. ETHICS The ethical actions of a person can be described in general terms as those actions which are performed within the criterium of what is regarded as good. It relates thus to the question of what is good or bad in terms of human actions. According to Spinello (1995, p. 14) the purpose of ethics is to help us behave honorably and attain those basic goods that make us more fully human. 3. THE CONCEPT OF PRIVACY 3.1. Definition of Privacy Privacy can be defined as an individual condition of life characterized by exclusion from publicity (Neetling et al., 1996, p. 36). The concept follows from the right to be left alone (Stair, 1992, p. 635; Shank, 1986, p. 12)1 . Shank (1986, p. 13) states that such a perception of privacy set the course for passing of privacy laws in the United States for the ninety years that followed. As such privacy could be regarded as a natural right which provides the foundation for the legal right. The right to privacy is therefore protected under private law. 4/20/2021 TECHNOLOGY AS A THREAT TO PRIVACY: Ethical Challenges
  • 37. web.simmons.edu/~chen/nit/NIT%2796/96-025-Britz.html 2/9 The legal right to privacy is constitutionally protected in most democratic societies. This constitutional right is expressed in a variety of legislative forms. Examples include the Privacy Act (1974) in the USA, the proposed Open Democracy Act in South Africa (1996) and the Data Protection Act in England. During 1994 Australia also accepted a Privacy Charter containing 18 privacy principles which describe the right of a citizen concerning personal privacy as effected by handling of information by the state (Collier, 1994, p. 44-45). The Organization for Economic and Coordination and Development (OECD) also accepted in 1980 the Guidelines for the Protection of Privacy and Transborder Flow of Personal Data (Collier, 1994, p. 41). Privacy is an important right because it is a necessary condition for other rights such as freedom and personal autonomy. There is thus a relationship between privacy, freedom and human dignity. Respecting a person's privacy is to acknowledge such a person's right to freedom and to recognize that individual as an autonomous human being. The duty to respect a person's privacy is furthermore a prima facie duty. In other words, it is not an absolute duty that does not allow for exceptions. Two examples can be given. Firstly, the police may violate a criminal's privacy by spying or by seizing personal documents (McGarry, 1993, p. 178)2 . A government also has the right to gather private and personal information from its citizens with the aim of ensuring order and harmony in society (Ware, 1993:205). The right to privacy (as an expression of individual freedom) is thus confined by
  • 38. social responsibility. 3.2. Different Categories of Private Information Based on the juridical definition of privacy, two important aspects which are of specific relevance for the information profession must be emphasized. The first is the fact that privacy as a concept is closely related to information - in terms of the definition of Neethling (1996, p. 35) privacy refers to the entirety of facts and information which is applicable to a person in a state of isolation. The fact that privacy is expressed by means of information, implies that it is possible to distinguish different categories of privacy namely, private communications, information which relates to the privacy of a person's body, other personal information, and information with regard to a person's possessions. Each of these categories will be briefly dealt with. � Private communications. This category of privacy concerns all forms of personal communication which a person wishes to keep private. The information exchanged during a reference interview between the user and the information professional can be seen as an example. � Privacy of the body (Westin, 1967, p. 351). This normally refers to medical information and enjoys separate legal protection (Neethling, 1991, p. 35-36). According to this legislation a person has the right to be informed about the nature of an illness as well as the implications thereof. Such a person further has the right to privacy about the nature of the illness and can not be forced to make it known to others. The only exception is when the health, and possibly the lives of others may be endangered by the specific illness - such as the case may be where a person is HIV positive and the chance exists that other
  • 39. people may contract the virus.3 This category of information is of specific importance for an information professional working in a medical library. � Personal information. Personal information refers to those categories of information which refer to only that specific person, for example bibliographic (name, address) and financial information. This type of information is of relevance to all categories of information professionals. � Information about one's possessions. This information is closely related to property right. According to this a person does have control over the information which relates to personal possessions in certain instances. For example, a person may keep private the information about the place where a wallet is kept. 3.3. The Expressed Will to Privacy 4/20/2021 TECHNOLOGY AS A THREAT TO PRIVACY: Ethical Challenges web.simmons.edu/~chen/nit/NIT%2796/96-025-Britz.html 3/9 The following important aspect of privacy is the desire for privacy (by means of an expressed will) since this desire is important for the delimitation of privacy. In short, the desire for privacy implies that privacy will only be at issue in cases where there is a clear expression of a desire for privacy. For example, a personal conversation between two persons will be regarded as private as long as there is an expressed will to keep it private. The moment that this will is relinquished the
  • 40. information is no longer regarded as private. The same applies to the other categories of personal and private information. If a person makes a private telephone number (as a form of personal information) known to a company, it is no longer regarded as private information. According to the law it can then even be seen as business information which may legally be traded in. This expressed will to privacy acts therefore as a very important guideline for the information professional regarding the delimitation of privacy. 3.4. The Relationship Between Privacy and Confidentiality (Secrecy) It is also important to distinguish between privacy and confidentiality/secrecy. The confidential treatment of information is not only applicable to the above-mentioned four categories of private and personal information - it may refer to any category of information, such as, inter al ia, trade secrets. 4. THE INFLUENCE OF TECHNOLOGY ON THE PROCESSING OF PERSONAL AND PRIVATE INFORMATION 4.1. Definition of Information Technology Before the influence of the use of technology in the processing of personal and private information can be dealt with, it is important to briefly pay attention to the concept technology. For the purpose of this paper the definition of Van Brakel (1989, p. 240) will be used, namely: the gathering, organizing, storage and distribution of information in various formats by means of computer and telecommunications techniques based on micro- electronics.4
  • 41. 4.2. The Ethical Implications for the Use of Technology in the Processing of Information Although technology has a major impact on the gathering, storage, retrieval and dissemination of information its main ethical impact relates to accessibility/inaccessibility and the manipulation of information. It creates the possibility of wider as well as simultaneous access to information. By implication, it becomes easier to access a person's private information by more people. On the other hand, a person can be excluded from necessary information in electronic format by means of a variety of security measures such as passwords. The technological manipulation of information refers, among others, to the integration of information (merging of documents), the repackaging thereof (translations and the integration of textual and graphical formats) and the possible altering of information (changing of photographic images) by electronic means. The use of technology in the processing of information can therefore not be seen as ethically neutral. Christians (199, p. 7) refers to the use of technology as a value laden process. Kluge (1994, p. 337) even comments that technology has changed the ontological status of a document with accompanying ethical implications. By this he specifically refers to the manipulation of information by means of technology. Brown (1990, p. 3) however on the other hand, indicates correctly that the ethical problems that are caused by the use of technology do not imply - as he puts it - "...that we should rethink our moral values".
  • 42. The impact of the use of technology on the privacy of people manifests itself in a variety of areas. These areas include, inter alia the following: � The electronic monitoring of people in the workplace. This relates to personal information as discussed earlier. This is done by so-called electronic eyes. The justification by companies for the use of such technology is to increase productivity. Stair (1992, p. 655), however, in the discussion of this practice, clearly points out the ethical problem pertaining to the use of these technologies. According to him 4/20/2021 TECHNOLOGY AS A THREAT TO PRIVACY: Ethical Challenges web.simmons.edu/~chen/nit/NIT%2796/96-025-Britz.html 4/9 peoples' privacy in the workplace are threatened by these devices. It can also lead to a feeling of fear and of all ways being watched - the so-called panopticon phenomenon. � The interception and reading of E-mail messages. This poses an ethical problem which relates to the private communication of an individual. It is technically possible to intercept E-mail messages, and the reading thereof is normally justified by companies because they firstly see the technology infrastructure (E-mail) as a resource belonging to the company and not the individual, and secondly messages are intercepted to check on people to see whether they use the facility for private reasons or to do their job.5
  • 43. � The merging of databases which contains personal information. This is also known as databanking (Frocht & Thomas, 1994, p. 24). By this is meant the integration of personal information from a variety of databases into one central database. The problem here does not in the first place arise from the integration of the information as such. The main problems include the fact that the individual is not aware of personal information being integrated into a central database, that the individual does not know the purpose/s for which the integration is effected, or by whom or for whose benefit the new database is constructed and whether the information is accurate.6 In order to counter these problems relating to privacy and the merging of databases the American Congress passed the Computer Matching and Privacy Protection Act in the 1980s (Benjamin, 1991, p. 11). � Closely related to the merging of files is the increasing use of buying cards ("frequent-shopper cards") by retail stores. Inside such a card a computer chip is buried that records every item purchased along with a variety of personal information of the buyer (Branscomb, 1995, p. 19). This information obtained from the card enables marketing companies to do targeted marketing to specific individuals because the buying habits as well as other personal information of people are known. � Another major threat to privacy is the raise of so called hackers and crackers which break into computer systems (Benjamin, 1991, p. 7). This coincides with the shift in ethical values and the emergence of the cyberpunk culture with the motto of "information wants to be free".
  • 44. � The development of software that makes the decoding of digital information (which can be private information) virtually impossible also poses serious legal as well as ethical questions because it can protect criminals. A good example is the development of software called Pretty Good Privacy by P Zimmerman in 1991. According to an article in the IT Review (1996, p. 22) he has developed the most complex algorithm ever invented which makes the decoding of digital information virtually impossible. 4.3. The Individual and Socio-economical Effect The use of technology for the processing of personal and other forms of private information has far reaching effects on society. The following effects can be distinguished: � On the individual level: The effect on the individual can be summarized as a loss of dignity and spontaneity, as well as a threat to freedom and the right to privacy. In her research on the impact of technology on the privacy of the individual, Rosenberg (1994, p. 228) concluded that: "Technology continuous to be viewed as a threat to privacy rather than a possible solution". A survey that was conducted in 1990 by Equifax (one of the three biggest credit bureau companies in the USA) on the use of technology and the threat to the privacy of people, found that 79% of the respondents indicated that they were weary of the use of technology for the processing of their personal information (Frocht & Thomas, 1994, p. 24). � On the economic and social levels the biggest effect is the growth of large information businesses like credit bureau and telecommunication companies that specialize
  • 45. in the processing and trade of person- related information. This brings about a redefinition of the role of society (big businesses) in the personal and private lives of the individual (the use of personal information as a commodity). It also becomes clear 4/20/2021 TECHNOLOGY AS A THREAT TO PRIVACY: Ethical Challenges web.simmons.edu/~chen/nit/NIT%2796/96-025-Britz.html 5/9 that the legislation (for example on E-mail) on the protection of the privacy of the individual is falling behind due to the rapidly changing world of technology. 5. THE RELEVANCE FOR THE INFORMATION PROFESSIONAL The above-mentioned has implications for the information professional on at least three levels. Firstly, the information professional works with all four categories of personal and private information. Secondly, increasing use is made of technology in the processing thereof. Lastly, a new profession is emerging in the infopreneur whose main line of business may be the buying and selling of person-related and other private information. 5.1. The Main Ethical Issues In the handling and processing of these different categories of private and personal information the information professional is confronted with the following ethical issues:
  • 46. � Deciding which categories of personal and private information the information professional is entitled to gather. This question is of utmost importance to infopreneurs. � The confidential treatment of such information. This issue refers specifically to information gained from the reference interview. According to Froehlich (1994), Smith (1994) and Shaver et al. (1985), the main ethical problems in this regard (with specific reference to online searching) are as follows: can personal details, obtained from the reference interview, be used for purposes other than for that which it was specifically gathered, is it ethically correct to re-use a search strategy formulated for one user for anther user?, is it appropriate to discuss the nature of a specific query with other people? � The accuracy of information. This issue is of specific importance in cases where an information professional is working with personal information that can have a direct influence on the life of a person. An example is the processing of medical information. � The purposes for which various categories of information may be used. The question here is whether an information professional may use any of these four categories of private information for any other reasons than the original reason given for the gathering thereof. Relating to this is the question whether the person must be notified about the way in which personal information is going to be used.
  • 47. � The rights of a person in terms of the use and distribution of one's personal and private information. This ethical problem relates to the above- mentioned questions and boils down to the question of consent of the user in terms of the use of personal information. Related questions are as follows: does a user have the right to verify any personal and private information that is being held by an information professional, and if so, what are such person's rights regarding the correcting (in cases of the incorrectness thereof) of this information, and, does the person have the right to know who is using that personal and private information and for what purposes? 5.2. Applicable Ethical Norms Applicable ethical norms which can act as guidelines as well as instruments of measurement must be formulated to address these ethical issues. The following norms can be distinguished: truth, freedom and human rights. They will be discussed briefly. 4/20/2021 TECHNOLOGY AS A THREAT TO PRIVACY: Ethical Challenges web.simmons.edu/~chen/nit/NIT%2796/96-025-Britz.html 6/9 � Truth. Truth as an ethical norm has a dual ethical application. Firstly, it serves as norm for the factual correctness of information. As a norm it thus guides the information
  • 48. professional regarding the accurate and factually correct handling of private information. In the second place truth is an expression of ethical virtues such as openness, honesty and trustworthiness. � Freedom. According to this norm a person has the freedom to make choices in terms of freedom of privacy and freedom from intrusion. As norm, however, it may not become absolutized. Therefore the choice to privacy from intrusion may not restrict the freedom of others. � Human rights. This norm is closely related to freedom, but can be regarded as a more concretely applicable norm. Applied to privacy it means the juridical acknowledgment and protection of a persons' right to privacy. As an individual human right it also protects the individual from unlawful interference from society (amongst others the state) in the private life of an individual.7 5.3. Ethical Guidelines for the Information Professional Based on these norms, practical guidelines for the information professional can be formulated. Before the formulation of these guidelines, two fundamental aspects must be taken into consideration, namely the recognition of a persons' autonomy and freedom as well as the fact that the legal guidelines on privacy do not offer a complete framework for the ethical actions of the information professional with regard to the handling of personal and private information.
  • 49. The concepts of autonomy and freedom has already been dealt with. With regard to the juridical guidelines the following comments can be made. Firstly, once a person's private or personal information has been made known publicly (disclaim of the implied intention) such information is no longer, according to the law, viewed as private. This implies that the information can legally be dealt with as trade information. There is therefore (from a juridical perspective) no ethical sensitivity for the autonomy and freedom of the individual with regard to his right to privacy. The second remark relates to the content of legislation itself. As indicated, the immense growth in and development of information technology give rise to the fact that the legislators fall behind in the tabling of appropriate legislation on the protection of personal privacy. This is especially true in the South African situation where there is, for example no legislation on the protection of privacy to provide for information handled via E-mail. Bearing in mind these two aspects the following practical guidelines can be given: (The appropriate norms are also given) � As an acknowledgment of the autonomy and freedom of the individual the information professional must act on the assumption that the client regards as confidential all personal and private information that is handled by the information professional. This implies that the information professional acknowledges the right of the client to control to a certain extent any personal and private information8 - based on the norm of freedom. � The client must, on a regular basis have access to all private and personal information that is held and
  • 50. used by the information professional. The reason for this is to provide the client the opportunity to verify the accuracy of the information. It is then the responsibility of the information professional to see to it that the necessary corrections are made and again verified by the client (Fouty, 1993, p. 290) - based on the norms of freedom and human rights. 4/20/2021 TECHNOLOGY AS A THREAT TO PRIVACY: Ethical Challenges web.simmons.edu/~chen/nit/NIT%2796/96-025-Britz.html 7/9 � The merging of personal and other private information of an individual into a different database than the one for which it was originally collected must be done with the necessary caution (Schattuck, 1995, p. 310). This is specifically applicable in situations where the client is not aware of such merging or the implications thereof. The appropriate action would not only be to inform the client about such a merging and the implications thereof, but also to give the client the right of access to the information on the central database, and the opportunity to change the information where it is incorrect, and the right to know who is using the information as well as the purpose of such use - based on the norms of human rights, freedom and truth. � The information professional must notify the client explicitly of the intended purposes9 of the use of all personal and private information. This implies the client's permission. Different avenues exist for seeking such permission. Spinello (1995:122) prefers the method of
  • 51. implicit informed consent. According to this principle, companies (information professionals) that have collected information about a person must diligently inform that person about the various uses of the information. Clients must then be given an opportunity to consent to these uses or to withhold their consent. The burden is on the client to respond, and a lack of response implies consent. However, the client must be granted the opportunity to withdraw consent (Amidon, 1992:67) - based on the norms of freedom and human rights. � No unnecessary private information must be gathered. This is not only for logistic reasons but also to prevent the unnecessary violation or exposure of a person's privacy - based on the norm of freedom. � Personal and other private information that is no longer necessary for the function for which it was collected must be destroyed (Branscomb, 1995, p. 71) - based on the norms of freedom and human rights. � When the rendering of a specific service or product to a person is refused on the grounds of personal information (e.g. creditworthiness), the reason for this denial must be made known to the person10 - based on the norms of truth and human rights. � A person's information must be handled with the necessary confidentiality. This implies security and control of access to the information, of the right to use it, as well as the right to change or add any information (Fouty, 1993:290) - based on the norms of freedom, truth and human rights. � A private policy must be formulated consisting of the
  • 52. following elements: the categories of information that must be regarded as private and personal, the levels of confidentiality (e.g. who has access and use of which information), a clear explanation of the purposes of the use of the information, and the description of the procedures to ensure the accuracy of this information - based on the norms of freedom, truth and human rights. 6. CONCLUSION It can thus be concluded that the use of technology in the processing of information, poses important questions with regard to a person's right to privacy. This right is directly linked to the right to freedom and human autonomy. These problems relate mainly to the accessibility of information and the manipulation thereof. This is of specific relevance to the information professional who deals with private and personal information. Practical guidelines in the handling of these problems can be formulated according to the norms of freedom, truth and human rights. REFERENCES Amidon, P. (1992). Widening privacy concerns. Online, 16 (4): 64-67. 4/20/2021 TECHNOLOGY AS A THREAT TO PRIVACY: Ethical Challenges
  • 53. web.simmons.edu/~chen/nit/NIT%2796/96-025-Britz.html 8/9 Baker, L. (1992). Needed: An ethical code for library administrators. Journal of Library Administration, 16 (4): 1-17. Benjamin, L.M. (1991). Privacy, computers and personal information: Towards equality and equity in an information age. Communications and the Law, 13 (2): 3-16. Branscomb, A.W. (1994). Who Owns Information?: From Privacy to Private Access. New York: Basic Books. A division of Harper Collins Publishers. Christians, C.G. (1991). Information ethics in a complicated age. In Ethics and the Librarian. Proceedings of the Allerton Park Institute, 29-31 October 1989, University of Illinois, Graduate School of Library, edited by F.W. Lancaster. Vol. 31. Also In Cochrane, J. (1991). Hell hound on my trail. Ethics and librarianship. New Zealand Libraries, 46 (11):2 6-31. Collier, G. (1994). Information privacy. Just how private are the details of individuals in a company's database? Information Management and Computer Security, 3 (1): 41-45. Focht, K.T. & Thomas, D.S. (1994). Information compilation and disbursement: moral, legal and ethical considerations. Information Management and Computer Security, 2 (2): 23-28. Fouty, K.G. (1993). Online patron records and privacy: Service vs Security. The Journal of Academic Librarianship, 19 (5): 289-293. Froehlich, T.J. (1994). Re-thinking ethical issues in an online
  • 54. environment. Online Information '94 Proceedings, 6-8 December 1994, edited by D.I. Raitt & B. Jeapes. Oxford: Learned Information. pp. 415-422. Goode, J & Johnson, M. (1991). Putting out the flames: The etiquette and law of e-mail. Online, 15 (6): 61-66. I spy. Personal rights in the information age. (1996). Information Technology. Kluge, E.H.W. (1994). Health information, the fair information principles and ethics. Methods of Information in Medicine, 33: 336-345. McGarry, K. (1993). The Changing Context of Information. An Introductory Analysis. 2nd ed. London: Library Association Publishing. Neethling, J. (1991). Persoonlikheidsreg. Derde uitgawe. Durban: Butterworths. Neethling, J., Potgieter, J.M. & Visser, P.J. 1996. Neethling's law of personality. Durban: Butterworths. Rosenberg, R.S. (1993). Free speech, pornography, sexual harassment, and electronic networks. The Information Society, 9: 285-331. Shank, R. (1986, Summer). Privacy: History, legal, social, and ethical aspects. Library Trends, pp. 7-15. Shattucks, J. (1995). Computer matching is a serious threat to individual rights. In Computers, Ethics and Social Values, edited by D.G. Johnson & H. Nissenbaum. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. pp. 305-311.
  • 55. Shaver, D.B. et al. (1985, Fall). Ethics for online intermediaries. Special Libraries, Fall: 238-245. Smith, M.M. (1994). Online information ethics: Online searching and the searching self. Proceedings of the 15th National Online Meeting, May 1994, edited by M.E. Williams. Medford, NY: Learned Information. pp. 399-405. Spinello, R.A. (1995). Ethical Aspects of Information Technology. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall Inc. Stair, R.M. (1992). Principles of Information Systems. A Managerial Approach. Boston: Boyd & Fraser. 4/20/2021 TECHNOLOGY AS A THREAT TO PRIVACY: Ethical Challenges web.simmons.edu/~chen/nit/NIT%2796/96-025-Britz.html 9/9 Van Brakel, P.A. (1989). Inligtingstegnologie: Verkenning van navorsingstemas. Suid-Afrikaanse Tydskrif vir Biblioteek- en Inligtingkunde, 57 (3). Ware, W.H. (1993). The new faces of privacy. The Information Society, 9 (3): 195-211. Westin, A. (1967). Privacy and Freedom. New York: Atheneum. Zorkoczy, P. (1990). Information Technology: An Introduction. 2nd edition. London: Pitman Publishing. 4/20/2021 US v Europe - a cultural gap on the right to be
  • 56. forgotten - BBC News https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-27421969 1/4 US v Europe - a cultural gap on the right to be forgotten Rory Cellan-Jones Technology correspondent @BBCRoryCJ 15 May 2014 Comments The reverberations from this week's landmark European Court of Justice ruling on the right to be forgotten continue to be felt. Legions of lawyers are still trying to work out what it will mean for the search engines, and for millions of EU citizens who may want to force them to remove links to their past online lives. And the cultural divide between Europe and the US appears wider than ever, with two very different views of how we should live our lives online. On the one hand there is what you might call the web utopian view, held by the US internet giants and some in Europe who look to Silicon Valley for inspiration. This sees the ECJ ruling as unworkable, illiberal and just out of touch. The Wikipedia founder Jimmy Wales, who divides his time
  • 57. between London and the US, explains to me why something like it could never happen across the Atlantic because of the constitutional guarantee of free speech: "This is not a ALAMY https://www.bbc.com/news/correspondents/rorycellanjones https://www.twitter.com/BBCRoryCJ https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-27421969#comments http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-27388289 4/20/2021 US v Europe - a cultural gap on the right to be forgotten - BBC News https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-27421969 2/4 debate the United States is even capable of entering into. You'd have to repeal the First Amendment - and that's like a religious artefact - so that's never going to happen." He tells me this is not necessarily a new cultural gap but one that is being made evident for the first time. "In the past if you were in Germany you were never worried that some encyclopedia website based in the United States was going to name you as a murderer after you got out of jail because that was inconceivable. Today that can happen, so the cultural gap that was always there about the regulation of speech is becoming more visible."
  • 58. But in Europe many politicians and regulators and some - though by no means all - privacy campaigners have welcomed the ruling. Mr Wales' point about local laws - which used to mean old convictions simply disappeared from the record after a certain time - is one of the reasons for that support. Europeans who have been told that the internet is basically ungovernable - and if it does have guiding principles then they come from the land of the free - are expressing some satisfaction that court has refused to believe that. Max Mosley, who has fought privacy battles with tabloid newspapers and Google over pictures of a sadomasochistic orgy, expresses particular satisfaction that the European Court decided the search firm was subject to local laws. When I talked to him as he emerged from a radio studio he was also exercised about the rehabilitation of offenders: "A principle accepted in most civilised countries. The internet shouldn't regurgitate things for ever." And he refuses to accept the idea that the online world just cannot be regulated. "The internet is so new that the law hasn't caught up with it but eventually it'll be ADVERTISEMENT
  • 59. 4/20/2021 US v Europe - a cultural gap on the right to be forgotten - BBC News https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-27421969 3/4 regulated like every other aspect of society and that's quite right." So a battle between two views of freedom - the US belief that free speech trumps everything, and the European view that individuals should have some control over what the world knows about them. But there is something else in play here, a growing unease about the power wielded by what are nearly always US web giants over our lives. Mario Costeja Gonzalez, the man who prompted this week's EU ruling against Google Google, Facebook, Twitter and other firms that store and use vast banks of data about Europeans have all sought to deny responsibility for how people use and share that information. They also maintain that they are not media firms - which in Europe face strict regulation - but mere technology platforms enabling better communication. In Google's case that stance has come to bite it. Media firms like the Spanish newspaper site at the heart of this test case, haven't been told to remove content. It is the "data controllers" - the search engines -
  • 60. which are in the court's sights. Now there are obvious questions about the practicality of getting Google to decide which of billions of links to millions of European names should or should not be removed. The temptation for the company will be to automatically agree to all requests, rather than to set up a vast quasi-judicial bureaucracy to decide what is justified and what is not, and that could have a chilling effect on free expression. But European web users, who have been told for so long that companies based in Silicon Valley cannot be told what to do in the UK or France or Germany, may feel REUTERS 4/20/2021 US v Europe - a cultural gap on the right to be forgotten - BBC News https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-27421969 4/4 a smidgen of satisfaction about the howls of outrage coming from across the Atlantic. 4/20/2021 FDA medical device plan zeros in on cybersecurity, public-private partnership | Healthcare IT News
  • 61. https://www.healthcareitnews.com/news/fda-medical-device- plan-zeros-cybersecurity-public-private-partnership 1/3 Medical Devices FDA medical device plan zeros in on cybersecurity, public-private partnership The agency released a five-point plan outlining regulatory changes to bolster medical device safety, including requiring manufacturers ensure devices can be updated and patched. By Jessica Davis April 18, 2018 04:23 PM https://www.healthcareitnews.com/category/resource- topic/medical-devices https://www.healthcareitnews.com/author/jessica-davis https://www.addthis.com/bookmark.php?v=300 https://www.addthis.com/bookmark.php?v=300 https://www.addthis.com/bookmark.php?v=300 https://www.addthis.com/bookmark.php?v=300 4/20/2021 FDA medical device plan zeros in on cybersecurity, public-private partnership | Healthcare IT News https://www.healthcareitnews.com/news/fda-medical-device- plan-zeros-cybersecurity-public-private-partnership 2/3 The Food and Drug Administration released its plan to improve medical device safety, which includes a reorganization of its medical device center and a Congressional plan to launch a
  • 62. public-private partnership focused on cybersecurity. The five-point plan released Tuesday outlines a plan to consolidate offices within its device center, which oversees pre- and post-market activities. As part of the plan, the FDA will require manufacturers to ensure medical devices are capable of being updated and receiving security patches. FDA Commissioner Scott Gottlieb, MD, also said the agency is contemplating forcing manufacturers to publicly disclose known cybersecurity issues. [Also: California medical device manufacturer reports breach of 30,000 consumers] The FDA also is exploring regulatory options to expedite labeling changes and other features, including timely implementation of post-market changes. The current system on making those changes is voluntary, even when safety issues arise. “Although medical devices provide great benefits to patients, they also present risks,” Gottlieb said in a statement. “And we are focusing equal attention on advancing new frameworks for identifying risks and protecting consumers.”
  • 63. “Our aim is to ensure not only that devices meet the gold standard for getting to market, but also that they continue to meet this standard as we get more data about devices and learn more about their benefit-risk profile in real-world clinical settings,” he added. https://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/Newsroom/PressAnnounceme nts/ucm604672.htm https://www.healthcareitnews.com/news/california-medical- device-manufacturer-reports-breach-30000-consumers 4/20/2021 FDA medical device plan zeros in on cybersecurity, public-private partnership | Healthcare IT News https://www.healthcareitnews.com/news/fda-medical-device- plan-zeros-cybersecurity-public-private-partnership 3/3 The agency also is looking into a requirement of additional training or education of providers to ensure the safety and effectiveness of complex devices. Gottlieb said the FDA also is looking into ways to support developers pursuing safer devices, including a faster review of those devices with vastly improved safety features. While the FDA has a breakthrough device program, those devices currently can be reviewed
  • 64. under that program. Gottlieb also outlined plans for a public-private partnership, CyberMed Safety (expert) Analysis Board, which complements its existing device vulnerability coordination and response efforts. The group, made up of a wide range of experts from clinicians to biomedical engineers, also will support device manufacturers and FDA on safety issues, such as high-risk vulnerabilities and adjudicating disputes. Funding for CYMSAB will be included in the agency’s requested $70 million for Fiscal Year 2019 for its digital health technology advancements. Twitter: @JessieFDavis Email the writer: [email protected] Topics: Compliance & Legal, Government & Policy, Medical Devices, Privacy & Security, Quality and Safety More regional news https://twitter.com/jessiefdavis mailto:[email protected] https://www.healthcareitnews.com/category/resource- topic/compliance-legal https://www.healthcareitnews.com/category/resource-
  • 65. topic/government https://www.healthcareitnews.com/category/resource- topic/medical-devices https://www.healthcareitnews.com/category/resource- topic/privacy-security https://www.healthcareitnews.com/category/resource- topic/quality-safety 4/20/2021 Equifax Breach Exposed More Consumer Data Than First Disclosed https://www.insurancejournal.com/news/national/2018/02/13/48 0357.htm 1/3 Email This Subscribe to Newsletter Equifax Breach Exposed More Consumer Data Than First Disclosed February 13, 2018 Article 3 Comments The Equifax data breach exposed more of consumers’ personal information than the company first disclosed last year, according to documents given to lawmakers. The credit reporting company announced in September that the personal information of 145.5 million consumers had been compromised in a data breach. It originally said that the information accessed included names, Social Security numbers, birth dates, addresses and — in some cases — driver’s license numbers and credit card numbers. It also said some consumers’ credit card numbers were among the information exposed, as well as the personal
  • 66. information from thousands of dispute documents. mailto:?subject=Equifax%20Breach%20Exposed%20More%20C onsumer%20Data%20Than%20First%20Disclosed&body=Equifa x%20Breach%20Exposed%20More%20Consumer%20Data%20T han%20First%20Disclosed%0Ahttps%3A%2F%2Fwww.insuranc ejournal.com%2Fnews%2Fnational%2F2018%2F02%2F13%2F4 80357.htm https://www.insurancejournal.com/subscribe/ mailto:?subject=Equifax+Breach+Exposed+More+Consumer+Da ta+Than+First+Disclosed&body=Equifax+Breach+Exposed+Mo re+Consumer+Data+Than+First+Disclosed%0Ahttps://www.insu rancejournal.com/news/national/2018/02/13/480357.htm https://www.facebook.com/sharer/sharer.php?u=https://www.ins urancejournal.com/news/national/2018/02/13/480357.htm https://twitter.com/intent/tweet?original_referer=https%3A%2F %2Fwww.insurancejournal.com%2Fnews%2Fnational%2F2018 %2F02%2F13%2F480357.htm&text=Equifax+Breach+Exposed+ More+Consumer+Data+Than+First+Disclosed&url=https%3A% 2F%2Fwww.insurancejournal.com%2Fnews%2Fnational%2F201 8%2F02%2F13%2F480357.htm https://www.linkedin.com/sharing/share- offsite/?url=https://www.insurancejournal.com/news/national/20 18/02/13/480357.htm https://www.insurancejournal.com/news/national/2018/02/13/48 0357.htm?print https://www.insurancejournal.com/news/national/2018/02/13/48 0357.htm https://www.insurancejournal.com/news/national/2018/02/13/48 0357.htm/?comments https://www.insurancejournal.com/news/national/2017/09/08/46 3716.htm 4/20/2021 Equifax Breach Exposed More Consumer Data Than
  • 67. First Disclosed https://www.insurancejournal.com/news/national/2018/02/13/48 0357.htm 2/3 However, Atlanta-based Equifax Inc. recently disclosed in a document submitted to the Senate Banking Committee, that a forensic investigation found criminals accessed other information from company records. According to the document, provided to The Associated Press by Sen. Elizabeth Warren’s office, that included tax identification numbers, email addresses and phone numbers. Finer details, such as the expiration dates for credit cards or issuing states for driver’s licenses, were also included in the list. The additional insight into the massive breach was first reported by the Wall Street Journal. Equifax’s disclosure, which it has not made directly to consumers, underscores the depth of detail the company keeps on individuals that it may have put at risk. And it adds to the string of missteps the company has made in recovering from the security debacle. Equifax spokeswoman Meredith Griffanti said that “in no way did we intend to mislead consumers.” The company last year disclosed only the information that affected the greatest number of consumers and wanted to “act with the greatest clarity” in terms of the information provided the committee, she said. Griffanti also said that while the list provided to the committee includes all the potential data points that
  • 68. may have been accessed by criminals, those elements impacted a minimal portion of consumers. And some data _ like passport numbers _ were not stolen. The company reiterated that the total number of consumers affected is unchanged. “When you are making that kind of announcement, where do you draw the line? If you saw the list we provided the banking finance committee it was pretty exhaustive,” Griffanti said. “We wanted to show them that no stone was left unturned.” But to consumers whose information was exposed, it may feel like yet another slap in the face. Equifax waited months to disclose the hack. After it did, anxious consumers experienced jammed phone lines and uninformed company representatives. An Equifax website set up to help people determine their exposure was described as sketchy by security experts and provided inconsistent and unhelpful information to many. The company blamed the online customer help page’s problems on a vendor’s software code after it appeared that it had been hacked as well. 4/20/2021 Equifax Breach Exposed More Consumer Data Than First Disclosed https://www.insurancejournal.com/news/national/2018/02/13/48 0357.htm 3/3 Equifax has tried to make changes, replacing its CEO, as well as spending millions to research and
  • 69. rectify the breach. In January, it launched a service that allows consumers to lock and unlock their credit report. But a test of the site by The New York Times found it unusable in many ways. The company said this experience was an exception and it has made some key changes to the service since it first launched. The company continues to deal with multiple regulatory investigations into the matter as well as hundreds consumer lawsuits. Warren, D-Mass., released a report on the hack Wednesday that described it as “one of the largest and most significant data security lapses in history.” Related: Treasury to Look Into Consumer Financial Bureau’s Handling of Equifax Breach Equifax, Wells Fargo May Still Face Class Actions Despite Wall Street Arbitration Win FTC, Congress, States Investigating Equifax Over Data Breach Is Equifax’s Cyber Insurance Enough to Cover Breach? Equifax Breach Exposed Credit Data of 143 Million U.S. Consumers Copyright 2021 Associated Press. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, broadcast, rewritten or redistributed. https://www.insurancejournal.com/news/national/2018/02/07/47 9854.htm https://www.insurancejournal.com/news/national/2017/10/26/46 9456.htm https://www.insurancejournal.com/news/national/2017/09/15/46 4450.htm
  • 70. https://www.insurancejournal.com/news/national/2017/09/11/46 3769.htm https://www.insurancejournal.com/news/national/2017/09/08/46 3716.htm The Washington Post Washington Post Live The ethics of Hacking 101 By Ellen Nakashima and Ashkan Soltani October 7, 2014 At the University of Tulsa, professor Sujeet Shenoi is teaching students how to hack into oil pipelines and electric power plants. At Carnegie Mellon University in Pittsburgh, professor David Brumley is instructing students on how to write software to break into computer networks. And George Hotz, a largely self-taught hacker who became a millionaire in part by finding flaws in Apple and other computer systems, is now back in school, where he’s one of the stars on Carnegie Mellon’s competitive hacking team.
  • 71. Cybersecurity: A Special Report Shenoi, Brumley and Hotz are players in a controversial area of technology: the teaching and practice of what is loosely called “cyberoffense.” In a world in which businesses, the military and governments rely on computer systems that are potentially vulnerable, having the ability to break into those systems provides a strategic advantage. Unsurprisingly, ethics is a big issue in this field. Both professors say they build an ethics component into their curriculum; Shenoi won’t even accept students who don’t promise to work, if hired, for the National Security Agency, the Energy Department or another U.S. government agency. But some experts say the academic community is not taking ethics seriously enough, and professors are not accepting responsibility for the potentially dangerous skills they are teaching. The very nature of hacking means that a lot of its skills and standards evolve outside academia. (Hotz, known in tech circles by the handle “geohot,” says he learned most of what he knows on the Internet “and from playing with things.”) This leads advocates of teaching cyberoffense to say that the “good guys” have to keep
  • 72. up — which in turn raises more questions about whether such education is morally right. “There’s a very large stigma around saying we do anything offense-related,” said Tyler Nighswander, 23, a computer science graduate student at Carnegie Mellon. “It’s certainly understandable that you don’t want to say your school teaches offense — ‘Oh, you mean you teach kids how to break into computers and steal stuff?’ ” http://washingtonpostlive.com/ https://www.washingtonpost.com/people/ellen-nakashima/ http://www.utulsa.edu/cybercorps http://users.ece.cmu.edu/~dbrumley/index.html http://www.geohot.com/ http://www.washingtonpost.com/sf/post- live/collection/cybersecurity-special-report/ Some academics note that it may be too late to stop the worldwide expansion of offensive cyber tools and techniques. “There is an escalating arms race in cyberspace as governments, companies and malicious actors are all going on the offensive, most of it under a shroud of secrecy and absent any meaningful political oversight,” said Ron Deibert, director of the University of Toronto’s Citizen Lab.
  • 73. Seeking ‘vulnerabilities’ No more than a handful of professors have the knowledge and resources to teach cyberattack skills at the level of Brumley or Shenoi, whose students are heavily recruited for government and industry positions. At Tulsa, Shenoi, 54, obtains permission from energy companies for his students to attempt to hack into them, infiltrating the systems that run gas pipelines or power grids and gaining access to critical U.S. infrastructure. They also do penetration testing for other companies, finding “vulnerabilities,” or flaws, that enemy hackers could exploit. “We have a class where we teach people how to write things like Stuxnet,” Shenoi said, referring to a computer worm, reportedly developed by U.S. and Israeli scientists, that was found in 2010 and damaged about 1,000 centrifuges in an Iranian uranium-enrichment plant, delaying the country’s nuclear program. Stuxnet, whose deployment is often considered the first true use of a cyberweapon, was built around an unprecedented four “zero-day exploits” — that is, attack tools based on previously unknown software flaws. Shenoi began teaching courses on offensive computer
  • 74. techniques in 1999, he said, and by 2008, Tulsa was offering an entire program. Now, he said, there are “four courses in reverse engineering, two in cyber operations, two in offensive SCADA [supervisory control and data acquisition], and one on malware analysis and creation.” Shenoi said that the potential power of offensive cyber techniques is so great that he accepts only students who intend to work for the government and who have records that would qualify them for government security clearances. He interviews all the applicants as well as their parents. He sends 15 to 20 students a year, he said, to work at the NSA or the CIA. “In order for me to teach these real-world attack skills, these students have to be trusted,” he said. “They cannot go to work for the private sector. “There’s no reason to teach private-sector people how to use Stinger missiles,” he continued. Similarly, he said, you don’t teach them to use cyber weapons. Brumley, 39, has taught offensive cyber skills since 2009. A self-described “patriot,” he says he discusses ethics in his classes at Carnegie Mellon — an introductory computer security course as well as more advanced
  • 75. vulnerability analysis, in which students learn techniques for breaking through computer defenses. Some of https://www.sfs.opm.gov/ http://www.wired.com/2011/07/how-digital-detectives- deciphered-stuxnet/ http://spectrum.ieee.org/telecom/security/the-real-story-of- stuxnet Brumley’s students work for the government, but most go to start-ups, big companies such as Google or defense contractors. To develop their skills, Brumley encourages his students to compete in hacking contests. In August, a recreational team he advises called PPP, made up of about 20 current and former Carnegie Mellon students, won the ultimate U.S. showcase of hacking skills at the DefCon hacking conference in Las Vegas — a “capture- the-flag” competition in which 20 teams tried to break into one another’s computers. PPP’s top gun is Hotz, who gained fame in 2007 for “jailbreaking” the previously impenetrable iPhone. He left Carnegie Mellon as a 23-year-old sophomore to work on his own, and is now back as a junior at 25. Hotz is so skilled that he has won some contests solo — as in July, when he beat nine teams to win $30,000 at the
  • 76. SecuInside competition in Seoul. He earned $200,000 in April for finding bugs in Google’s Chromebook computer and the Firefox browser. Brumley calls him “a machine.” Hotz boasts that he is “maybe the best hacker in the world.” A question of profit Obviously, these students are developing valuable skills. Shenoi says his students never make money off the vulnerabilities they discover or exploits they develop. They give the information for free to the companies whose systems they are testing, or to the government. Intelligence agency officials fly every so often to Tulsa to be briefed on the flaws the students have found. Brumley agrees that it is dangerous to share vulnerabilities or exploits with anyone but the software vendor or the U.S. government. “If you’re selling exploits in a free market,” he said, “then you’re potentially selling them to the adversary.” Nighswander, a former student of Brumley’s, said that he has never sold a vulnerability to a software vendor, but that he thinks it’s ethical to do so, saying, “When you think that finding a vulnerability can take weeks and
  • 77. months, you can understand that the person wants to get compensated.” Hotz declined to say whether he has sold an exploit (although he was caught last year on a surreptitiously recorded conversation appearing to broker a $350,000 deal to sell exploits to jailbreak the iPhone to a Chinese company). “I have never worked with any country aside from the U.S.,” he said. He says he doesn’t dwell on issues of morality, saying, “I’m not big on ethics.” Brian Pak, 25, who created the PPP hacking team while studying under Brumley and now works for a start-up he cofounded, said that sometimes, noodling around on his own, he finds bugs in software and discloses them to the software vendor. He said he has never sold information about flaws, although some vendors offer “bounties” of up to several thousand https://www.defcon.org/ http://www.iclarified.com/37008/leaked-audio-tape-of-geohot- negotiating-sale-of-ios-7-jailbreak-listen dollars. He holds onto some vulnerabilities for use in research — a practice common among security researchers, he said.
  • 78. “I also don’t think it’s unethical to provide vulnerabilities or exploits to the U.S. government,” Pak said. “I trust the U.S. government. The government protects me. As long as it’s not used against our own people, I see less of an issue.” But some experts disapprove of providing previously unknown or “zero day” vulnerabilities to the government — whether for free or for profit. They worry that, rather than disclosing these zero days to vendors, the government is stockpiling them for use against adversaries. Doing so would leave the software vendors ignorant of dangerous flaws in their products, making the Internet less secure, they say. They also charge that the government is using these tools with far too little public debate, for example, in the controversial area of domestic law enforcement. Christopher Soghoian, chief technologist for the American Civil Liberties Union, said the government should have a policy of promptly disclosing any bugs it discovers so that software companies such as Microsoft can fix them before they cause damage. Not doing so can undermine network security, he said. But Brumley said such a blanket policy would be unwise.
  • 79. “The obvious example is Stuxnet,” which destroyed Iranian centrifuges, he said. That, he said, was “an opportunity to use an exploit for good.” “Twenty years earlier, that would be the thing that we flew in bombers and bombed factories for, and people would die,” he said. Dual-use tools Selling exploits and vulnerabilities is not illegal, per se, but selling them with the intent that they’ll be used to hack someone else’s computer is a crime. Software is a classic “dual use” product. It can be used to do something as innocuous as unlock an iPhone to allow consumers to switch providers or as destructive as causing an adversary’s nuclear centrifuges to spin out of control. Some academics say the teaching of hacking techniques should remain limited. “I’m personally against the widespread or wholesale teaching of offensive cyber,” said Arthur Conklin, associate professor of information and logistics technology at the University of Houston. For one thing, he said, vetting students for trustworthiness, as Shenoi does, would be impractical on a mass scale.
  • 80. Giovanni Vigna, a computer science professor at the University of California at Santa Barbara, warned that not teaching offensive skills is “not a very smart option because the bad guys are going to develop them http://www.cs.ucsb.edu/~vigna/ anyway.” He added, “The key is to make the students understand what are the lines that cannot be crossed.” So he integrates into his courses on offensive cyber “a very substantial chapter on ethical issues.” Some experts argue that the government should regulate the sale and use of offensive cyber technology — but others, including Shenoi, say regulation will only drive the market for such products deeper underground. At this point, the U.S. government is in the process of placing export controls on some hacking and surveillance tools. It already has forbidden the sale of such technologies to countries with particularly egregious human rights records, such as Sudan and Iran. Meanwhile, interest in offensive cyber skills is growing. Experts estimate that several thousand personnel in private industry work at finding bugs and building exploits. More companies are training employees in
  • 81. offensive skills, and more people are competing in hacking competitions. In this context, Soghoian of the ACLU fears that universities are teaching students high-end skills without a solid ethical foundation. “The academic computer security community has not yet realized the role they are playing in cyberwar,” he said. Shenoi said that, above all, he wants to impress upon his students the responsibilities that come with their technological prowess. “They have great power to do harm. They have power to intimidate. They have power to accrue money illegally,” he said. “What I tell them is, ‘You may be learning some potentially deadly skills. But use them gently and wisely, and use them for the good of society.’ ” Related: Key to keeping cyberspace safe? International accord. With mobile devices, many firms are playing Russian roulette with cybersecurity What top government and business officials are saying about cybersecurity
  • 82. Ellen Nakashima Ellen Nakashima is a two-time Pulitzer Prize-winning reporter covering intelligence and national security matters for The Washington Post. She joined The Post in 1995 and is based in https://www.washingtonpost.com/postlive/the-ethics-of- hacking-101/2014/10/07/39529518-4014-11e4-b0ea- 8141703bbf6f_story.html?utm_term=.e9c36c86d53a http://www.washingtonpost.com/business/capitalbusiness/with- mobile-devices-many-firms-are-playing-russian-roulette-with- cybersecurity/2014/10/07/9556219a-4979-11e4-891d- 713f052086a0_story.html http://www.washingtonpost.com/postlive/what-top-government- and-business-officials-are-saying-about- cybersecurity/2014/10/07/a6e5142e-4e70-11e4-8c24- 487e92bc997b_story.html https://www.washingtonpost.com/people/ellen-nakashima/ https://twitter.com/nakashimae Reporting the facts for over 140 years. Try 1 month for $10 $1 Already a subscriber? Sign in https://subscribe.washingtonpost.com/acquisition/?promo=ba_d _am_4&acqEntType=mktg_onsite_article Democracy Dies in Darkness California is on the verge of passing a sweeping new
  • 83. online privacy law targeting Facebook, Google and other tech giants By June 27, 2018 at 4:07 p.m. EDT California is hurtling toward the adoption of a new online privacy law that would govern how tech giants like Amazon, Facebook, Google and Uber collect and monetize consumers' personal data – a set of changes that could ripple throughout the country. The Golden State legislature is due to vote Thursday on the California Consumer Privacy Act of 2018, which would require tech companies to disclose the categories of data they collect about consumers as well as the third-party entities, like advertisers, with whom they share that information. Web users would also gain the ability to opt out of having their data sold, and companies wouldn’t be allowed to charge users a fee or provide them less service if they made that choice. And the proposal comes with some teeth: California’s attorney general would be empowered to fine companies that fail to secure consumers' sensitive details against cyber threats. If it passes, California’s proposed privacy rules would apply to only its citizens. But it still could force companies like
  • 84. Facebook and Google to change some of their practices across the country, given the difficulty in maintaining two sets of privacy protections – one in California, the most populous state in the country, and a second for everyone else. Many tech giants in Silicon Valley took precisely that approach in May, adapting their data-collection practices worldwide when Europe began implementing its own strict privacy rules. California’s new regulations also could add to the pressure on other regulators, including federal lawmakers in Congress, to follow suit and adopt fresh data-collection protections, responding to web users who have grown furious with a series of recent privacy mishaps, particularly at Facebook. "These corporations make billions of dollars selling people's privacy without people having any visibility into what they're doing," said Alastair Mactaggart, a real-estate developer and driving force behind California’s new privacy push. State policymakers have moved at an unprecedented pace to introduce tweak and advance the bill all in a matter of Tony Romm https://leginfo.legislature.ca.gov/faces/billTextClient.xhtml?bill _id=201720180AB375 https://www.washingtonpost.com/people/tony-romm/
  • 85. State policymakers have moved at an unprecedented pace to introduce, tweak and advance the bill -- all in a matter of days -- as they seek to avoid a November ballot initiative spearheaded by Mactaggart that would impose even tougher privacy rules on the tech industry. It would have allowed local consumers, for example, to sue companies in almost any case where their privacy or security had been compromised. The ballot initiative had garnered more than 600,000 signatures, almost double what it needed to qualify for consideration in the upcoming election. But Mactaggart announced this week he would withdraw his measure if lawmakers passed a compromise bill by California’s June 28 deadline for finalizing ballot propositions, setting up a last-minute blitz in the state’s Assembly and Senate after years of slow progress on privacy reform. Major technology companies like Amazon, Facebook, Google and Twitter had strongly opposed the ballot measure, chiefly through their lobbying group, the Internet Association. Tech giants like Facebook, Google, Microsoft and Uber, and Internet providers like AT&T and Verizon, also donated $200,000 each to a California coalition assembled in March to defeat it, according to local campaign finance records, though Facebook has maintained it is not actively
  • 86. fighting the ballot initiative. Two of those companies, Facebook and Uber, have been the subjects of recent federal investigations into their privacy and data security practices. AT&T and Verizon, meanwhile, lobbied last year to defeat federal rules governing the way they handle customers' web-browsing information. But some tech companies have come to stomach the compromise bill now advancing in the legislature, believing that even if it does become law they can train their political firepower on trying to change it before it takes effect on Jan. 1, 2020. Robert Callahan, the vice president of state government affairs at the Internet Association, said the group opposes “many problematic provisions” in the bill and the “unprecedented lack of debate or full legislative process.” But he stressed that the “Internet industry will not obstruct or block [the measure] from moving forward, because it prevents the even worse ballot initiative from becoming law in California.” In the past, California’s regulations have spurred other states – and even the federal government – to adopt laws in areas as wide ranging as email spam and climate change. This time, privacy experts hope Congress steps in to do the same in response to major privacy mishaps, including