Research method presentation ppt 2021 by gemechu fufa arfasa

Chapter One: Introduction
1.1. Meaning and Basic concepts of science:
 What is science?
• The word “science” is derived from the Latin word
scientia meaning knowledge.
Science:- refers to a systematic and organized body of
knowledge in any area of inquiry that is acquired using “the
scientific method”
• Two major group of Science;
» Natural - physical, earth, life, and other sciences
» Social– psychology, sociology, economics & others
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8/23/2021 Gemechu Fufa M.Sc in NRM

Introduction…
Natural sciences are different from the social sciences in several
respects.
Natural sciences are very precise, accurate, deterministic, and
independent of the person making the scientific observations,
whereas:
Social sciences are less accurate, deterministic & unambiguous.
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Introduction…
 Scientific activity can be classified as: -
 Experimental science
 Observational science
 Historical science
Experimental science:- is controlled conditions under which
measurement are made E.g. laboratory experiment
Observational science:- are observations made under uncontrolled
condition or semi controlled condition. No experiment is possible.
E.g. social studies
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Introduction…
Historical science:- there is evidence from the past, which can never
be re-created experimentally
e.g. geology, archeology
 Based on purpose, sciences can classified as;
Basic or pure sciences - that explain basic objects, relationships
between objects, and laws governing them.
Applied or practical sciences - that apply scientific knowledge
from basic sciences in a physical environment.
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Introduction…
The difference between applied and fundamental (basic) science:
Fundamental science:- seeks to describe the most basic objects and
forces.
:- have less emphasis on practical applications
Applied science:- referred as research and development (R&D)
:- use in industrial setting
:- use in technology development
Experimental science:- experiment is Latin word, ex-periri meaning
‘‘ to try out”
:- is a method of investigating causal relation ships among variables,
or to test a hypothesis.
:- Used in both natural and social science.
:- Used to solve practical problems and used to support or negate
theoretical assumption. 5

Introduction…
What is the purpose of science? creating scientific knowledge.
• Scientific knowledge? is a generalized body of laws and theories to
explain a phenomenon or behavior of interest that are acquired using
scientific method.
– Laws - observed patterns of phenomena or behaviors
– Theories - systematic explanations of the underlying phenomenon
or behavior.
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1.2. Meaning and Concepts of Research
is a scientific investigation aim at discovering and applying
new facts, techniques' and natural laws.
a systematic investigation design to further knowledge and
understanding of a subject.
is a process by which science is produced, develop, …..etc.
 Objectives of research?
To gain familiarity with a phenomenon.
To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual,
situation or a group
 To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with
which it is associated with something else
 To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables
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1.3. Motivation of Research
What makes people to undertake research?
The possible motives for doing research may be either one or
more of the following:
Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits;
Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems,
Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work;
Desire to be of service to society;
Desire to get respectability.
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1.4. Types of Research
What is the purpose of research?
 to discover answer to questions (to solve problems) through the
applications of scientific procedures.
Types of Research
1. Basic /fundamental/ pure research
2. Applied research
3. Adaptive research
4. Strategic research
1. Basic Research:- is fundamental theoretical or experimental
investigation to advance scientific knowledge whose immediate
practical application not being a direct object.
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cont…
 Objectives of Basic Research
to provide a better understanding of the phenomena under
investigation
to discover or to illustrate theories or general principles
the experiment is primary to learn rather than to make use finding
2. Applied Research
 use the knowledge of basic research.
 there is linkage between basic and applied research
 is undertaking to solve the specific problem of the society and
 to produce knowledge and technologies that can be used in
practice.
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Fundamental vs. Applied :
Basic Applied
Theoretical?
More Invasive?
Laboratory Based?
Tightly Controlled?
Lacks External Validity?
Focus on Mechanism
Quick Answers?
Less Invasive?
Field Based?
Loosely Controlled?
Externally Valid?
Focus on Effect
Internal Validity?
>
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Research Method Lecture note

cont…
3. Adaptive Research
Is the most applied one
Is design to adjust technologies to a specific set of environmental
condition
No new scientific principles is to be discovered.
 it is adopted from other country
 involves taking applied research from else where and applies them to
specific situation or environment.
4. Strategic Research
:- aim at solving specific problems to strategic importance.
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Gemechu Fufa M.Sc in NRM

cont…
Based on the attributes to be measured and techniques used in data collection
and analysis, there are two types of research:-
1. Quantitative research
2. Qualitative research
Quantitative research:-
 is conducted to test/ check the theory
 can be replicate by other researcher
 data is in the form of numbers and statistics
The structure of this research are:
Theories Variables Observation analysis of observation draw
inferences.
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cont…
2. Qualitative Research
Is deductive approach rather than inductive reasoning
The data used to generate the unknown theory
 data is not generating to fit the theory
 it can not be repeated
 data is in the form of words, pictures or objects
Inferior to quantitative research, because procedures used are not rigorous.
But not mean they are less useful.
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Quantitative vs. Qualitative:
Quantitative
•Quantitative research is emphasis
on collecting and analyzing
numerical data; it concentrates on
measuring the scale, range,
frequency etc.
• highly detailed and structured
•results can be easily collated and
presented statistically.
Qualitative
•Qualitative research is more
subjective in nature
•examining and reflecting on the
less tangible aspects of a research
subject, e.g. values, attitudes,
perceptions.
• easier to start, it can be often
difficult to interpret and present the
findings; the findings can also be
challenged more easily.
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cont…
Based on the method there are two types of research:
1. Experimental Research
2. Non-experimental Research
1. Experimental Research
can be carried out in lab, green house, or field. (uncontrolled)
in field experiment there is un controlled factors
requires more space than materials
conduct experiment to observe the behavior of a variable/ variable of interest.
2. Non-experimental Research
 data not obtained from experiment but from survey research
 need careful question construction and sample selection
 very common in social sciences
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Kinds of descriptive research
 Formal Survey
 case study
 Historical Studies
 Farming Systems Research (FSR)
.
Descriptive vs. Analytical
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Experimental or Analytical Research
 variables are manipulated and their effects upon other variables
are observed.
 provides a systematic and logical method for answering the
question,
“If this is done under carefully planned and controlled conditions,
what will happen?”
In other words, exp research shows what will be the outcome when
certain variables are carefully controlled or manipulated.
• The intension is to find the relationships between variables under
study.
• Deliberate manipulation of the study variables is always a part of
the experimental method.
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• The main purpose of experimental research is to allow the
researcher to infer cause and effect relationship from the study.
• The most conventional type of experiment in the natural as well as
social sciences involves three major components.
I. Independent and dependent variables.
II. Experimental and control groups.
III. Pre-testing and post-testing.
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Experimental or Analytical Research…

• Conceptual research is that related to some abstract idea(s) or
theory.
 It is used to develop new concepts or to reinterpret existing ones.
• Empirical research relies on experience or observation alone,
often without due regard for system and theory.
 It is data-based research.
 It comes up with conclusions which are capable of being verified
by observation or experiment.
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Conceptual vs. Empirical

1.5. Role of Researcher
What a researcher have to do ?
researcher must has interest, dedication, perseverance, industrious…etc.
researcher should be aware of current, relevant knowledge and practice.
researcher must be have high probability of being accepted by the user.
they have to be technically appropriate to the intended purposes, resources and
socially accepted
researcher must communicate the out put of the research, in the form that can be
easily understood and adopted by users
researcher must be supplemented by the extension service
researcher must play a major role in ensuring that extension service do exist and
their research does not go waste.
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1.5. Function of Research
The main function of research are to answer question such as:
 the availability and distribution of resources
 the consequences of a particular course of action
 the cause of the observed phenomenon
 the incidence of diseases and insects
 failure of resources
 remedial of problematic resources,...etc
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1.7. Research Arrangement
1. Institutional research arrangement
2. Twining arrangement
3. Collaborative research arrangement
4. Co. operative research arrangement
5. Contractual research arrangement
6. Networking
1. Institutional research arrangement:
 Undertaken by an individual or group of researchers who belong to a
research organization or academic institution.
 the researchers are working in the same organization
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cont…
2. Twining arrangement:
 There could be a co.operative link between two countries
researchers to carry out some kind of research.
 E.g. Abay River
3. Collaborative research arrangement:
 Carry out in different instituties
 E.g AAU work with Jimma University
 Can not be undertaken individually
 It requires participation of multi disciplinary
 It needs commitment
 There will be sign letters commitment.
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cont…
4. Co.operative research arrangement:
 Is a researches that can be conducted between d/t institution of
the country w/c have similar problems and interests.
 It can be conducted between neighboring countries
 Is one way of effectively utilizing the limited resources, in this
arrangement expensive equipment can be shared.
Co.operative research implemented through:
 Sharing of information or knowledge
 Sharing the existing research facilities
 Joint development and use of research facilities
 Staff exchange
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cont…
 If well planned, co.operative research can enhance the national
scientific capability of the developing countries by way of
providing:
 provision of funds for research equipments
 Provision of fellowship opportunity for training
researchers and technicians
 On job training of staff through short term training,
workshops, seminars.
 Exchange of staff and research information
5. Contractual Research Arrangement:- is occur when there is
sufficient money but the institution do not have the capacity to
investigate the existing problem
e.g. lack of expertise, laboratory, etc.
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cont…
6. Networking:-
 Twining be extended to multiple twining
 One of the participants is assigned the relation ship and co.
ordination role.
 ICRAF (international center for research in agroforestry)
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1.8. Levels and principles of research planning
Planning:- is very important component of a research.
:- Is important especially in developing countries b/c there is competition
b/n projects for the limited resources.
Planning involves detailed description of:
 Key activities to be undertaken
 Manpower
 Funds
 Facilities
 Method of implementation
 Co.ordination
 Monitoring and evaluation,…etc
If a research is carefully planned it:
 Improve utilization of resource
 Reduce costs
 Facilitate the implementation process
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cont…
 The type of research planning depends up on the level.
 Five levels of planning:
1. Country level
2. Research institute level
3. Research programme level
4. Project level
5. Individual level
 General steps in Research planning
1. Identification, definition and selection of the problem
2. Identification of the key activities
3. Arrangement of the programme of the work
4. provision is made for co.ordination, monitoring and evaluation
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cont…
 In conducting a research, the researcher has to asses the current
condition like:
 Determine the problem
 Decide the type of solution
 Determine the steps that leads to the solution
 Six Important steps in planning process:
1. Problem identification
2. Ranking the problem
3. Identification of causes
4. Analysis the inter relationship
5. Identify the solution
6. Evaluation of the solution
 Propely planned research is half executed. 30
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1.9.Structure of Research
 The general structure of research include:
1. Raising (posing) questions/ problem
2. Providing evidence to answer this question
3. Making claims
4. Discussion of the reliability and relevance of the claims
Inshort
Questions Evidence Claims Context
 Research process Includes:-
1. Making observations.
2. Developing a prediction (developing a hypothesis)
3. Testing prediction (running an experiment)
4. Developing an explanation for the predicting (developing a
theory) 31
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1.10. General characteristics of research
 Originality
It places emphasis upon the discovery of general principles.
 Accuracy
It uses certain valid data gathering devices.
It is logical and objective.
 Zeal -The researcher resists the temptation to seek only the data that
support his hypotheses.
 Healthiness -The researcher eliminates personal feelings and
preferences.
 Application -It endeavors /enables to organize data in quantitative
terms.
 Moral- Research is patient and unhurried activity.
 Ethical- The researcher is willing to follow his procedures to the
conclusions that may be unpopular and bring social disapproval.
 Research is carefully recorded and reported.
Conclusions and generalizations are arrived at carefully
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• Agriculture Research in Ethiopia began in Jimma & Ambo in 1952
and was extended to the then College of Agriculture at Aramaya
in 1957 and later in 1965 included Debre Zeit (bishotu).
• Realizing the importance of agr. research in economic dev’t the
Ethiopian gov’t established the Institute of Agricultural Research
(IAR) in 1966
 as a semiautonomous organization under the general supervision
of the Ministerial Board of Directors.
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 The specific mandates of the IAR was to:
1. Formulate national agricultural research policies,
2. Coordinate national agricultural research
3. Undertake research in its centers & sub-centers located in
various agro-ecological zones of the country.
• In 1986, IAR had 7 main centers and 22 sub-centers.
• The main centers were; Hawassa, Bako, Holetta, Jimma, Mekele,
Werer and Nazreth (Adama) (IAR, 1989).
• These centers & sub centers were neither adequate in number nor
properly distributed to cover or represent all the major agro-
ecological zones of the country.
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cont…

Moreover, most of the research establishments are under-manned,
under-equipped & lack resources.
Subsequently, centers were designated in to two types of research
centers:
1. Zonal or regional and
2. Commodity centers.
 Accordingly, IAR had two types of research approaches:
commodity and zonal research approach.
A. The commodity research approach were designed to address
selected strategic crops at a national level while
B. The zonal approach were intended to address production
constraints specific to the particular agr.l dev’t zones.
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cont…

In general, the national agr. research system largely followed a
team approach composed of
Breeders, agronomists, pathologists, entomologists,
agricultural economists & soil scientists.
 By late 1980s, the IAR had organized its research in 12
departments including:
1. Field crop 7. Farm Implement
2. Horticulture 8. Animal Production
3. Stimulant Crops 9. Animal Feed & Nutrition
4. Agronomy & Physiology 10. Animal Health
5. Crop Protection 11. Food Science and
6. Soil Science & Water mgt 12. Agricultural Economics &Farm mgt
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cont…

 The GoE having recognized the fact that agr.l technologies are key factors
required to increase agr.l production & its contribution to the dev’t of the national
economy, thus restructured the national research system by establishing the
EARO in 1997 (Proclamation No. 79/1997).
 This proclamation was prepared with the presumption that
New technologies will be generated,
Indigenous knowledge will be improved,
Exotic technologies will be adapted and
New scientific knowledge and information will be developed in
line with the country’s Agr. Dev’t Led Industrialization Strategy,
(EARO, 2000).
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cont…

The establishment of EARO is justified b/c of the necessity to
establish an organization which shall be responsible for;
1. Generating, improving and adapting technologies &
2. Coordinating, encouraging & assisting research activities in
order to fulfill the current and long-term agricultural
requirements of the country.
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cont…

Cont…
 The specific objectives of the EARO are:
1. Generate, develop & adopt agr.l technologies that focus on
the needs of the overall agr.l dev.t & its beneficiaries.
2. Coordinate research activities of agr.l research centers or
higher learning institutes and any other related
establishments, which undertake agr.l research.
3. Build research capacity and establish a system that will
make agr.l research efficient, effective and based on dev.t
needs.
4. Popularize agr.l research results.
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cont…


The primary objective of agricultural research
i. To increase productivity by increasing production per unit
area.
ii. To increase efficiency by reducing the input of labor.
iii. To increase the stability of production of crop that is disease
resistance or more immune for unfavorable environmental
condition.
iv. To improve quality.
v. To avoid env.tal pollution and soil degradation
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cont…

12.Proplems of Research in Ethiopia
 The major problems related to research in Ethiopia includes:-
 Improper choice of methodology and personnel
 Shortage of manpower
 Data related problems
 Accessibility of research sites
 Institutional policies
 Lack of flexibility of experiments
 Lack of extension service
 Poor motivation of the researcher
 Cultural aspect
 Financial constraints
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Cont…
 The common Agricultural problems in Ethiopia:
 Vegetation loss
 Soil loss
 Low productivity (Animals and crop)
 Reduction in water resource
 Poor quality seed supply
 Shortage of technologies and transfer system
 Lack awareness to Ik
 Need for genetic conservation, …etc.
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Chapter 2 (two)
Rationale, approach and
methods in scientific research
43

2.1. Rationale for scientific research
 In research it is essential to explain importance of your research by
providing valid arguments.
The rationale should be specific, ideally and relate to the following
points;
Elimination of current knowledge gap in the literature “ avoid re-
invent”
Explain essence of the problem in a detailed and highlight practical
benefits associated with the solution of the problem
 “ don’t focus only on professional development of the researcher –
wining degree” 44
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2.2. Scientific research approach
 Scientific research operates at two levels:
Theoretical level “theories build” -developing abstract, concepts
about a natural/social phenomenon and relationships between those
concepts
Empirical level -testing the theoretical concepts and relationships
to see how well they reflect our observations of reality, with
ultimately goal of building better theories
Relying solely on observations for making inferences & ignoring
theory is invalid scientific research.
Depending on a researcher’s training and interest, scientific inquiry
may take one of two possible forms:
inductive or deductive. Is best known scientific method.
45

cont…
46
Deductive Research Inductive Research
Principles based on science
 Movement is done from theory to data
Quantitative type of data is mainly
collected
The approach is highly structured
Researcher is independent from the
research process
Samples need to be selected of a sufficient
size in order to be able to generalize research
conclusions.
Research context is understood in a deeper
manner
Qualitative type of data is collected
More flexible approach to research
structure
to ensure provisions for changes during the
research
Researcher is perceived to be a part of the
research process
Research findings do not have to be
generalized

cont…
47

cont…
Induction -> bottom up, generalization from examples to models
Deduction -> top down, from models to results
What is Scientific method ?
• Is standardized set of techniques (e.g., how to make valid
observations, how to interpret results, and how to generalize those
results) for building scientific knowledge.
• Allows researchers to independently and neutrally test preexisting
theories and prior findings, and subject them to open debate,
modifications, or enhancements.
48

cont…
Research vs development
•Research: discover new knowledge
– basic research ->no specific application in mind
– applied research->ideas into operational form
• Development: systematic use of the existing knowledge
Science vs technology
Science: organized or systematic body of knowledge
Technology: application of scientific knowledge for
practical ends in certain field (e.g., in forest, soil, biodiversity, etc)
49

cont…
What is scientific research?
• Many peoples (like business man, consultants, consumes, others)
carry out research or survey to meet their demands.
• Is it a scientific research?
Scientific research should:- contributes to a body of science &,
follows the scientific method
Academic researches ( e.g., postgraduate) are scientific research.
50

cont…
Conducting scientific research requires two sets of skills;
Theoretical skill "know-what")
– operate in theoretical level
– requires years of observation and reflection,
– cannot be “taught” but rather learned by experience.
– needed to be an extraordinary researcher
Methodological skill "know-how"
– Operate in empirical levels
– standard, invariant across disciplines, and easily acquired
through doctoral programs.
– needed to be an ordinary researcher
51

cont…
 To be successful in scientific research you have to be:
– analytical and curious,
– independent and collaborative
– criticism and tolerant
 How does a researcher work?
– make always notes in a “notebook”
– make summaries on what has been learned.
– make plans for future time (outlines, roadmaps)
– discuss, ask questions and argue (criticism)
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2.3. Research method and methodology
Research methods
understood as all those methods/techniques that are used to
conduct research.
all those methods which are used by the researcher during the
course of studying his research problem.
Research methodology
is a way to systematically solve the research problem.
understood as a science of studying how research is done
scientifically.
various steps that are generally adopted by a researcher in
studying his research problem along with the logic behind them.
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Cont…
It is necessary for the researcher:-
 to know not only research methods/techniques but also the
methodology.
 not only need to know how to develop certain tests, how to
calculate mean, mode, median, standard deviation or chi-square, how
to apply particular research techniques, but they also need to know
which of these methods or techniques, are relevant and which are
not, and what would they mean, indicate and why.
need to understand the assumptions underlying various techniques
 need to know the criteria by which they can decide that certain
techniques and procedures will be applicable to certain problems
and others will not. All this means, it is necessary for researcher to
design his methodology for his problem
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cont…
Research method consists research philosophy, research approach,
methods of data collection, sampling and ethical considerations
1. Research philosophy - is associated with clarification of
assumption about the nature and the source of knowledge
2. Research approach- can be inductive or deductive
3. Research design- can be exploratory or conclusive
4. Data collection methods – can be primary and secondary
5. Sampling- processes of collection
6. Ethics- researcher should be abide with scientific ethics throughout
research
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Cont…
Research design?
• It is a comprehensive plan for data collection in an empirical
research project.
• It is a “blueprint” for empirical research aimed at answering
specific research questions or testing hypotheses,
• It specify at least three processes:
the data collection process,
the instrument development process, and
the sampling process.
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Cont…
Research design can be divided into two groups:
1. Exploratory- according to its name purely aims to explore
specific aspects of the research area but not aim to provide final
and conclusive answers to research questions
2. Conclusive - the researcher may even change the direction of the
study to a certain extent
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Cont…
Major differences between exploratory and conclusive research
design.
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Cont…
Conclusive research can be divided into two categories;
1) Descriptive research design- as the name suggests it describes
specific elements, causes, or phenomena in the research area.
2) Causal research design- is conducted to
Identify the extent & nature of cause-effect relations
Assess impacts of specific changes on existing norms, various
processes etc.
Experiments are the most popular primary data collection methods
in this design.
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Cont…
 Examples causal research:
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2.4. Type of Data
There are two types of data:
1. Primary data - data which never existed before or 'not previously
published'. E.g. survey data
2. Secondary data- data that has been previously published in
journals, magazines, newspapers, books, online portals and other
sources. E,g. CSA data, Metrological data,
Primary data collection methods can be divided into two categories
1) qualitative and
2) quantitative.
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Cont…
Differences between qualitative & quantitative methods
1. quantitative research methods are usually expressed in the forms of
variables, while qualitative methods are expressed in motives &
generalizations.
2. quantitative research methods and measures are usually universal,
(like formulas for finding mean) while qualitative are approached
individually
3. quantitative research appears in the forms of numbers and specific
measurements while qualitative data are in forms of words, images,
transcripts, etc.
4. research findings of quantitative method are presented in tables,
graphs and pie-charts, bar charts and histograms whereas qualitative
are presented only using words
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Cont…
 The difference between quantitative and qualitative research
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Chapter 3(Three)
Methods of Data Collection
64

3.1. Methods of data collection in surveys and
descriptive researches
Methods of data collection in surveys and descriptive researches :
Observation method- e.g., behavioral study ,
Interview - structured & semi-structured , face to face, call..
Questionnaires
•structured and semi-structured
•Open & close ended
•Send to respondents - answer without senders aid
mechanical devices – night camera
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Cont….
Methods of data collection depends on;
– Nature, scope and object of enquiry
– Availability of funds
– Time factor
– Precision required
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3.1.1 Types of interviewing techniques
 There are four types of interviewing techniques:
1. Focused Group Discussion (FGD)
2. Key Informant Interviews (KI)
3. Structured interviewing
4. Unstructured/ open-ended interviewing
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Focused Group Discussion (FGD)
What is focus group discussion?
is a group discussion of approximately 6-12 persons guided by a
facilitator, during which the members of the group talk freely and
spontaneously about a certain topic.
• aims to be more than question-answer interaction where in the
members are also encouraged to discuss the topic among themselves.
Technique of gathering data and insights from discussions and
interactions among participants in a group, facilitated by a moderator
- Exchange of ideas among participants
- Focused, but flexibly structured discussion
- Ideal for exploring norms, expectations, values and beliefs and NOT
personal experiences 68
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cont…
When to use FGD
 Focus research & develop relevant research hypotheses
 Formulate appropriate questions for more structure and large scale
surveys
 Help understand and solve unexpected problems in interventions
 Explore controversial topics
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FGD Composition and Selection of Participants
8-10 individuals in a group willing participants NOT individuals
who will dominate the discussion or inhibit the participation of others
in the group
Participants are selected in advance by either random sampling or
by any alternative criteria
The members are homogenous with regarding major social
divisions and/or background characteristics.
Age and sex often considered for assigning participants into different
groups
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cont…
 Inform about the topic of exploration through personal experience
or interest arising from a particular role or position
Date, time and venue of the FGD is fixed in advance.
 A time limit of one and one- half hours is desirable and two hours
is the maximum
Secrecy of the participants is preferred
Members of the research team: a moderator (facilitator), a note-
taker & recorder
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cont…
Guidelines for the FGD Participants
* One participants speak at one time and clearly
* Try gather everyone's perspective/opinion
* Encourage participation
Process of FGDs
o FGD guidelines to be pre-tested in advance
o More than one FGD is to be conducted
o Moderator /note-takers should be trained in advance
o Recruitment of the participants (help from key informant,
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cont…
oShould also be recorded beside note-taking
oIdeally FGD should be of 90 minutes duration
oMake physical arrangements for setting, equipment, food and drinks
oSelection of location and time for FGD
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cont…
Essential steps – starting the discussion
 Collect socio-demographic details informally
 Summarize the purpose of the study
Describe the focus group discussion process
- No right or wrong answers
- All should participate
- All should respect the opinions of others
Make sure everyone understood the informed consent
Ask participants to guard the confidentiality of others in the groups
Begin with warm-up questions
Be aware of who is talking and who is not- avoid dominance of
one or two participant
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cont…
Strengths and Limitations of the FGD
not be used for quantitative purpose
not be very useful on sensitive topics
Evaluator has less control
Groups are often difficult to assemble
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cont…
Role of moderator
• Introduce the session
• Encourage discussion
• Creating a environment for open exchange
- explaining the goal of discussion
- setting ground rules
- encouraging participation by all
• Guiding the discussion
- introducing topics with main questions
- provoking detailed information with follow up questions
- searching meaning of responses
- Should not dominate the discussion
• Keeping the discussion focused
• Encourage involvement of every member
• Monitor involvement & interaction among participants
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cont…
Do’s and Don’ts of the Moderator
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Key Informant Interviews
• Qualitative, in-depth, flexible interviews with persons who know
what is going in the community “experts” (knowledgeable) about a
topic on which we want to get information.”
• is usually not about that person his/herself, but about the topic on
which he/she has information.
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Key Informant Interviews
Choosing Key Informants (KI)
• KI must have first- hand knowledge about community, its residents
and problems you are trying to investigate
• KI can be a wide range of people, agency representatives,
community residents, community leaders, or community business
owners. ex., Religious leaders, government officials, young mothers,
youth, minority population etc.
• Should have a diverse mix of key informants to ensure
variety of perspectives
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CHAPTER 4 (FOUR)
RESEARCH PROPOSAL WRITING
80

4.1.Research Proposal
What is proposal?
 Is a plan employed to solve a given problem
 Is a strategy used by a researcher in search of the solution for the
problem
 Is a communication instrument used to communicate to reviewers
of proposal, the intention of the research.
 Is a plan, which contains steps of what must be done in the areas of
the problem identification, methods of data collection and analysis,
interpretation of result and reporting.
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4.2. Quality of research proposal
Research proposal should not be too long
Clarity, simplicity and parsimony/carefulness should be the motto
of the researcher when preparing a proposal.
Brief and clearly written proposals are more impressive than
voluminous one.
Proposal should not beyond the capacity of researcher
Proposed budget must be reasonable
the researcher must be taking care of in language and style of
writing (e.g. Harvard style)
proposal sentence must be grammatically correct.
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The Purpose of Research Proposals
 Most granting sponsors offer guidelines that indicate what
information they expect in your research proposal. Follow them
exactly.
 The main purposes of writing a research proposal are:
 To convince others that the proposed research is worth
undertaking.
 To enable the researcher to demonstrate his expertise and
competency in the particular area of study.
 To serve as a planning tool for the researcher.

4.3. Components of research Proposal
 The following are the major elements of all research proposals.
1.The title of the proposal
2. Abstract (Optional)
3. Introduction
Background and statement of the problem
Need for the study/Justification
 research question
Objectives of the study
Hypothesis
4. Literature Review
5. Materials and Methods/Procedures/ research methodology
Description of the study and target population
Research Design and Rationale
Data collection methods
Data analysis procedures
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Cont…
6. Time Schedule/ Work plan /Phases
7. Logistics/ budget
 Personnel
 Facilities (Equipment, Supplies)
 Travel (Transportation, Per Diem)
8. References/bibliography
9. Miscellaneous/Appendices

1. Research proposal title
 Title should reflect main issue or question to be addressed ;
 Title should attract attention!
 Title can have a subtitle in which country, or more specific location
can be included
 Use relevant key words, limit number of words to 10 – 15;
 You need a working title to focus on throughout your research.
 It may be that you will improve on the wording later but make sure
the title you begin with means something
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Cont…
 The title should include key terms that readily identify the scope
and nature of the study. Mean that;
 It should tell what the proposal is about.
 It should be informative, specific, clear and concise and
 Is relevant to the intended contents of the proposal.
 The title is usually written in capital letters without the use of
abbreviations.
 The length of the title matters a lot.
– So avoid non-essential information.

Cont…
• Unnecessary words or waste words that say nothing, such as "A Study of
...," “Observation of ....”, “Examination of....”, “A note on...”,
“Investigation on...” etc. should always be avoided.
• Journals or other publishers or research institutions give instructions to
authors as to the length of the title to few words as much as possible.
• For examples:
• Impact assessment of physical soil and water conservation practices in
dawuro zone, SNNPR. This is a wrong title because there is no need to
put both impact and assessment at once. The student may use impact
of…..
• A study of the effect of urea supplementation on the performance of sheep
fed grass hay. A study of is not necessary for this title.

2. The Summary (Abstract)-optional
• The summary sometimes referred to as executives summary or abstract.
• It should be the best-worded, most concise and most appealing part of the
entire proposal.
• If reviewers and staff are limited in the amount of time that they can devote to
each proposal, the summary will be the component they will most likely read
carefully and in its entirety.
• It should summarize all of the key information and convince the reader of the
significance and potential contribution of the proposed research.
• It is strongly recommended that you do not write the summary until you have
completed writing the rest of your document.

3. Introduction
• This section is to establish your credibility and the significance of your research
ideas.
• This introductory section is often intended to provide the overall theoretical
background underlying the issue at hand.
• The theoretical background should cover the importance or significance of the
study, its rationale or justification.
• The background statement must be short, exact and must be devoid of technical
details and confusing arguments.
• The introduction should flow into the statement of problem so the two sections
together make a clear and unambiguous statement about the significance of the
research.

cont…
Introduction should describe the nature and purpose of your research
 The problem – what is the key issue? And what would be your main research
question?
Explain what we know already and why you think your research question is worth
investigating, why is it important for the academic field?
 Why would your research create valuable and useful knowledge?
 What is the societal relevance?
 Indicate what you hope to achieve.
 Include a few key references
 Max 1,5 – 2 pages
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Cont…
 Introduction should address the following issues;
What is the situation?
What is the problem?
What do we know about the issue or problem?
Why is it important to address this problem?
What do you intend to do about it? And
What do you intend to achieve?
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3.1.Background
The back ground statement must be short, exact and clear.
Rationale (underlying reasons) of stated problem
State of the art related to: international academic debate,
methodologies associated with topic, and local situation of case study
(e.g., in Ethiopia, in district / village)
Find the gaps in knowledge which in turn leads to the research
questions covered in next section
Through your research you aim to close these gaps by answering
the research questions and in doing so provide a contribution to
knowledge
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3.2. Research questions, aims, objectives and
hypotheses
primary focus of research is usually expressed in terms of research
questions, aims, objectives and hypotheses
 Research Question: what is to be studied?
 Research Aim: describes what you want to achieve
 Research Objective: how you are going to achieve the aim or how
the (overall) research question will be addressed
 Research Hypothesis: gives more specific predictions about the
nature and direction of the relationships between variables to be
investigated
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Cont…
Research Question
– Starting point
– Clearly framed
– Justified (important, original, answerable)
Research Aim:– in most cases combined with statement of the
problem
• what you hope to achieve in the end:– intention or aspiration
• is a statement of intent, written in broad terms
• is to answer the research question
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Cont…
Research Objective
 Explains how you will achieve it or how the aim or research
question will be addressed
 Objectives use specific statements which define measurable
outcomes.
 Objectives should be S.M.A.R.T
Specific – be precise and clear about what you are going to do
Measureable –when you have reached your goal
Achievable – don’t attempt too ambitious
Realistic – possible to do with the available resources
Time constrained – sufficiently well-defined/focused for you
to do the research implied within an appropriate time frame
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Cont…
 Specifies exactly what researcher intended to do
 it is the desired end result of the proposed research
 it may be too broad or too narrow for the intended purposes
 Revisiting the objectives before under taking the project is very
important.
There are two kind of objectives
1. General Objectives
2. Specific objectives
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Cont…
1. General Objectives:
 Is specifies the over all objectives of the project
 it states what researchers expect to achieve by the study in
general terms.
2. Specific objectives:
 lists the detailed aim of the project
 they are the sub division of the general objectives.
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 Use strong positive statements which use strong verbs and avoid
weaker verbs.
Objectives starts with phrases (Strong verbs) like:
To asses………
 To quantify…
 To measure….
 To identify…..
 To synthesize….etc.
Objectives starts with phrases (Weak verbs) like:
To know…
To see…
To observe….
To listen….etc. 99
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Cont…
 Research Hypothesis
– Tentative explanation for observation, phenomenon, or scientific
problem that can be tested by further investigation
– Specific predictions about the nature and direction of the
relationships between variables
Type of hypothesis:
 Null hypothesis: there is no difference in the variables
 Alternative hypothesis - there is difference in between variables
100
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Quiz (5%)
1. Develop proposal title with its objective on
your interest area or subject matter

4. Literature review
102
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Cont…
What is literature review ?
 analytical explanation of what has been published on a topic by
accredited scholars and researchers
 tell an interesting "story" which leads up to how and why you are
doing your investigation
 should comparing, contrasting and evaluating previous literature
 literature review is not:
– a simple summary of existing literature on a topic
– chronological description of what was discovered field
– presenting a story like one thing after another "descriptive" 103
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Cont…
Why write a literature review?
 discoveries is build upon the findings of previous experiments and
investigations
 Thus it;
 Shows how your investigation fits/ relates to previous research
 Puts your research into context
 Establishes whether your research is original and relevant
Reveals the contribution that your investigation makes to your
field of research
Explains how your investigation may help answer some of the
questions or gaps in your area of research
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Cont…
provides evidence to help explain/ contextualize your findings at
a later stage of your research
 conveys to the readers of your thesis what knowledge, ideas,
concepts, theories have been established on a topic, what their
strengths and weaknesses are but also similarities and differences
105
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Cont…
106
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Cont…
Literature review: approaches
Inverted triangle:- start out broad and then become more specific
107
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Cont…
 There are three different ideas about literature review:
1. The review should show how the researcher is an expert in that
area by demonstrating mastery of relevant literatures.
2. It should identify relevant previous work to find out where the
gaps are the gaps of knowledge which call for research
intervention
3. There is no need to spent more time in literature review
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Cont…
Literature is required for researches:
To evaluate some method or to check the new hypothesis
To know new significance research findings
To easily understand methodology we will follow
It helps to know what is already done in your area of interest
It avoid redundancy of researches
It could act as guide
Provide relevant information to proposal reviewer
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Cont…
In quantitative research, literature is important to identify variables
and their relationships.
In qualitative research, literature is important to enable the
researcher, to develop intellectual insight, ability to understand and
give meaning to data and interpret result.
What is variables? – is anything that can assume d/t values.
Variables are classified as :- dependent variable
:- independent variable
:- Confounding variable
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Cont…
Dependent variable:- is the variable that changes in response to
that manipulation.
Independent variable:- is one that, when manipulated, causes a
change in another variable.
Confounding variable:- is any thing other than the independent
variable of interest that may affect the dependent variable.
Therefore a change in dependent variable is due to a change in a
confounding variable.
111
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Cont…
Key features of literature review:
It must:
Be organized around and related directly to your research
objective(s) and the questions
Synthesize results concerning what is known and what is not known
(research gaps)
Identify areas of disagreement in the literature
Formulate questions that need further research
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Cont…
How do you get start literature review?
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Cont…
Start with;
 What research has already been done on this topic?
 What are the sub-areas of the topic you need to explore?
 Are there specific methodological approaches in your research
field that needs innovation?
 What other research might be relevant to your investigation?
 How do these sub-topics and other research overlap with your
investigation?
114
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Cont…
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Cont…
Searching for literature /sources
 Searching Google will give you thousands of hits, few of them
authoritative, and you will waste time sorting through them
• Focus on:
Authoritative texts - academic books, journal articles, research
reports, government publications
Review articles - very useful to identify relevant sources but you
need to go back to the original texts and develop your own critical
analysis
Electronic databases of internationally recognized institution
(like CSA)
reliable online tools like Google Scholar
116
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Cont…
Some practical guidelines;
 Allow adequate time for your initial literature search and keep up-
to-date always
 The first job of your literature review is to inform your research
design and objectives
 Once you have enough information to do that with confidence, it is
time to switch to other activities (e.g., Data gathering)
 Don't waste time on unfocussed and irrelevant reading before you
start reading note down all your initial views on the topic.
117
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Cont…
I have too much information, How can I organize it?
Use mind mapping
Useful to get an overview of what you have read
Show connections between ideas
Help break down larger topic of your investigation into sub-topics
A simplified picture of complexity
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Cont…
119
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Cont…
 Consider what to include. How much information?
 What kinds of information, and at what level?
 Be selective – include only the literature which is relevant and
helps you understand more about your research
 Avoid list all the material published on the topic
 You want to synthesize and evaluate it according to the guiding
concept of your research
120
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5. Material and Method (Research Methodology)
 The method section: refers to as the “materials and methods” to
emphasize the two distinct areas that must be addressed.
 What are the difference between materials and methods?
Material:- referred to what was examined;
e.g. Plants, animals, human, tissue preparation
:- and also various tretmeants
e.g. lime fertilizer, drugs, etc
:- istrunments
e.g. plowing materials, GPS, … which is used in the study
121
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Cont…
Methods:-referred to how subjects or objects where
manipulated(control) to answer the experimental question;
:- how measurements and calculations were made,
:- how the data were analyzed
 to avoid confusion and ambiguity, the writing of the method must
be clear and orderly.
122
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Cont…
Methods section includes:
 Description of the study area (location, population, climate,
economic activates,..Etc.)
 Source of data ( primary and secondary data)
Sampling techniques
method of data collection
 Method of data analysis
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6. Work Plan
 This part contains list of activities that are conducted during the
research
It shows the year that the experiment would be run
Helps supervisor to assess whether the achieved results are in
accordance with the planned course of study.
 Work plan will help you delineate what – how – when:
 what you intend to do,
 how you intend to do it, and by
 what date you intend to have it done
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7. Budget
Is the component of research proposal that describes about the total
budget required to carry out the experiment.
 it should be reasonable
 it should be prepared carefully
 it should be stratified in to;
 Labor cost
 Stationary cost
 Maintenance cost, etc.
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8. References
Is a component of research proposal that should contain all the cited literatures.
It should be present alphabetically
If more than one reference per author occurs, references should then be listed
chronologically starting with the oldest date and distinguish with a letter affixed to
the end of the year of publication (eg. 2006a, 2006b, etc.).
References should be inserted within the text giving the author’s name and year of
publication in parentheses, e.g: (Roberts,1999).
If a specific quotation is taken from a text, the pages numbers
should in addition be indicated, eg.: (Roberts, 1999: 77-78).
126
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Reasons why research proposals fail?
 The most common errors of research proposal developing & writing are the
following.
 Deadline for proposal submission not met.
 Guidelines for proposal content, outline, and length were not followed exactly.
 Proposals are not well organized.
 Proposed research question, research design and/or research methods were
completely traditional.
 In literature review or background section, the proposal writer showed he/she
did not know the area of his or her subject matter.
• For example, sources cited were out of date, or the proposal writer
overlooked important reference materials or previous studies and
projects.

Cont…
 Proposed project appeared beyond the capacity of the individual or
institution to carry out.
 Method for conducting the research or carrying out the project was
not explained or seemed unsuited to the projects.
 Budget was too high. Budget was too low.
 Costs appeared greater than the benefits, or it was unclear who
would benefit.
 Work plans are too vague. They lack specifics on what activities are
to be done, why, how, when, in what sequence, and by whom.

Cont…
 Management responsibility and capability are not clearly
demonstrated in terms of
 planning activities,
 budgeting funds,
 providing commodities,
 keeping records, and
 writing reports.
 The quality of the writing is poor.
The proposal is hard to read, uses sweeping generalizations and
jargon, is excessively repetitive, and too long.
 Proposal contains an unreasonable number of mechanical errors
(for example; typos, pages upside down or out of place) showing an
inattention to detail and quality of work.

Things to Remember When Writing Proposals:
1. Clearly defining your project (impact/outcomes)
2. Knowing your purpose and determining what you need
3. Identifying the right funding source
4. Locating and studying the guidelines
5. Contacting the funder’s program officer
6. Knowing the submission deadlines for all materials
7. Updating your timeline as you develop your proposal
8. Starting early if you need letters of support, authorizations,
supporting documents, etc.
9. Asking for help

4.4. Report Writing
Research results have no value, unless they are summarized in the
form in which others can use them.
The out come of the research must be available for the users.
Transfer of knowledge can be acquired if and only if there is the
research report.
Knowing the rule and regulation of report writing helps the
researcher to write;
A better thesis
Dissertation and
Journal articles
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Cont…
 writing a report is an important skill, which every researcher must
possessed.
Report is act as vehicles that carries information from the researcher
to user.
Report submitted to academics and research organization must use
scientific terms
Report submitted to donors, managers, etc, must be short and
concise.
Report must concentrate on major outcomes and their implication
132
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Cont…
Since proposal and Report share very common features, a well-
written proposal save time and effort required to write the report.
The only difference between report and proposal is the result and
discussion, and conclusion and recommendation part.
What is the Objectives of Report?
To express the result of the research to the user
How ever the nature of the report varies according to their purpose
and requirement to the user.
133
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Cont…
 TYPE OF REPORT
There are two types of report;
1. Progress report
2. Terminal report
 What is the difference between progress and terminal report?
1. Progress report
Is a type of report that contained the description of what has been
done and what remain to be done and state weather the research
plan and targets will be achieved as foreseen in the project
document.
It may discuss any problem encountered, how these where
overcome or how they affect the research project and findings.
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Cont…
it should include work to be done
It may be prepared quarterly, six months or in annual basis.
2. Terminal report
 Is the end of project report
 Is more or less complete document that describes what was done
during the period of the project implementation and what was
obtained as an output.
 It must be contain all the out puts.
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Cont…
In long project the report has two volume;
 1st volume contains:- introduction
:- objectives and
:- methodology
 2nd volume contains :- results and discussion
:- conclusion and recommendation
136
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Cont…
 General format of research report;
1. Preliminary section and
2. Body of the report
1. Preliminary section
 Title page
 Preference/ acknowledgement
 Table of content
 List of table
 List of figure
 List of abbreviation
 Abstract
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Cont…
2. Body of the report
 Introduction
 Objective
 Literature review
 Methodology
 Result and discussion
 Conclusion and recommendation
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Cont…
Common research reports components
 Abstract: statement of the problem, objective, method, result,
conclusion and recommendation, Key words: 3-5
 Introduction
 Objective
 Literature review
 Methodology
– study site description: biophysical, socioeconomic
– Methods: sampling design, sample size, data
collection method, laboratory analysis method, statistical analysis
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Cont…
 Result and discussion:–
result is your data /finding and its meaning while
discussion is comparison of your finding with pervious findings
Conclusion and recommendation:–
 conclusion is scientific implication of your finding while
 recommendation is what should be done in future based on your
findings
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Individual Assigmnent (20pt)
1. Prepare Research proposal (writing and
Presentation) on your interest area or
subject matter.
Assignment Submission date Dec.25/12/2018
Presentation date January 08/01/ 2019
Evaluation methods
A. Proposal document preparation (10pt)
B. Presentation (10 pt)

Research method presentation ppt 2021 by gemechu fufa arfasa

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