This article aims to present the scientific advances that need to be made in cosmology to contribute to the adoption of scientific and technological solutions to prevent the extinction of humanity from the threats that exist in outer space and that may affect planet Earth. Cosmology is the branch of astronomy that studies the structure and evolution of the Universe as a whole, being concerned with both its origin and its evolution. The future of humanity depends on the success achieved in the advancement of knowledge about the Universe, especially on the 10 main cosmological questions that need to be elucidated so that humanity can, with scientific knowledge, adopt measures to protect itself from threats to its survival and seek places in or outside the solar system that are likely to be inhabited by humans.

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HOW TO AVOID THE EXTINCTION OF HUMANITY BY THREATS COMING
FROM OUTER SPACE
Fernando Alcoforado*
This article aims to present the scientific advances that need to be made in cosmology to
contribute to the adoption of scientific and technological solutions to prevent the
extinction of humanity from the threats that exist in outer space and that may affect planet
Earth. Cosmology is the branch of astronomy that studies the structure and evolution of
the Universe as a whole, being concerned with both its origin and its evolution. The future
of humanity depends on the success achieved in the advancement of knowledge about the
Universe, especially on the 10 main cosmological questions that need to be elucidated so
that humanity can, with scientific knowledge, adopt measures to protect itself from threats
to its survival and seek places in or outside the solar system that are likely to be inhabited
by humans.
The threats to the survival of humanity were analyzed in the book of our authorship "A
humanidade ameaçada e as estratégias para sua sobrevivência" (A threatened humanity
and the strategies for its survival) with the subtitle "How to save humanity from the threats
to its extinction" published by Editora Dialética from São Paulo in 2021 [1]. There are
countless threats to humanity's survival coming from outer space today and in the short,
medium and long term future. The threats that exist in outer space are related to: 1)
collision on the planet Earth of asteroids, comets or pieces of comets; 2) collision on the
planet Earth of planets of the solar system; 3) collision on planet Earth of orphan planets
that roam in outer space; 4) cosmic ray emission; 5) catastrophic consequences for the
Earth's environment resulting from the Moon's continuous distancing from Earth; 6) death
of the Sun; 7) collision of the Andromeda and Milky Way galaxies where the Earth is
located; and, 8) end of the Universe. All these catastrophic events, which may occur in
the short, medium and long term, can contribute to humanity being driven to extinction
as a species.
The collision on planet Earth of asteroids and comets or pieces of comets, which threaten
to collide with Earth, requires the adoption of strategies to avoid their collisions with
Earth. To deal with asteroids that could collide with planet Earth, the strategy is to divert
them from their course if they are detected with enough time to launch interceptors. The
same solution must be adopted for comets whose pieces can hit planet Earth. It is very
important that there is a constant monitoring of space to identify not only asteroids, but
also comets or pieces of comets, which can collide with Earth and powerful rockets
capable of diverting them from their paths be developed. Another alternative is to destroy
threatening asteroids and comets with the use of nuclear bombs if they are at great
distances from planet Earth [1].
The collision on the planet Earth of planets in the solar system requires the adoption of
strategies to promote a constant monitoring of space to identify the threat of
destabilization of the solar system by the planet Mercury and other planets and that
research be carried out to identify possible places habitable by humans outside the solar
system to plan their escape, as is the case with the exoplanet "Proxima b" orbiting a star
that is part of the Alpha Centauri system, the closest to the solar system, where space
colonies would be deployed that would require great scientific and technological
advances to make them viable [1]. The collision on planet Earth of orphan planets that
roam in outer space requires constant monitoring of space to identify orphan planets that
may collide with Earth and determine the time of their collision in order to adopt measures

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that indicate the need to plan the escape from humans to other possible habitable places
for humans located in the solar system such as Mars, Titan (Saturn's moon) and Callisto
(Jupiter's moon) with the implantation of space colonies that would require great scientific
and technological advances to make them viable [ 1].
The emission of cosmic rays, especially the gamma rays emitted by supernova stars,
which have the power to annihilate life on Earth, requires the adoption of strategies that
allow: 1) to monitor the explosion of supernovae permanently to assess the possibility of
the Earth being hit by gamma rays so that, before and during the occurrence of its
explosion, the necessary measures are adopted aiming at the escape of human beings to
possible habitable places in the solar system such as Mars, Titan (Saturn's moon) and
Callisto (Jupiter's moon) ; 2) use the Soho satellite that acts in the intermediate position
between the Earth and the Sun to detect explosions on the solar surface and send messages
about the arrival of the cosmic storm to Earth to avoid damage to the networks of
electricity distributors and satellite operators could protect themselves by correcting
satellite courses or turning off their equipment; and, 3) protect human beings from cosmic
radiation in long-term space travel in outer space, promoting scientific and technological
advances in addition to increasing the biological capacity of human beings to perform
space travel and live off Earth [1].
The catastrophic consequences for the Earth's environment resulting from the Moon's
continued departure from the Earth need to be systematically evaluated because the Earth
and Moon are bound together by a strong gravitational bond and affect each other. The
Moon's continued distancing from Earth needs to be better elucidated to assess its impact
on humans and the climate on planet Earth, which could be catastrophic, requiring the
adoption of human escape strategies for possible habitable locations in the solar system,
when necessary (Mars, Titan - moon of Saturn and Callisto - moon of Jupiter). The
evolution of the Sun until its death needs to be better elucidated in order to evaluate its
effects on Earth to propose escape strategies for humans to possible habitable places in
other star systems before the death of the Sun, such as the exoplanet "Proxima b" orbiting
the closest star to the Sun, part of the Alpha Centauri system, which is 4.2 light-years
from Earth, which corresponds to 39.9 trillion kilometers [1]..
The collision of the Andromeda and Milky Way galaxies needs to be elucidated to
evaluate its effects on the solar system and Earth to propose escape strategies for humans
to possible habitable places in other galaxies before the collision of the Andromeda and
Milky Way galaxies, such as the Dwarf Galaxy of the Canis Major located 25,000 light-
years from Earth, which corresponds to 237,500 trillion kilometers away from Earth,
which is a satellite galaxy of the Milky Way located in the constellation Canis Major, or
the Large Magellanic Cloud that is located 163,000 light-years from Earth, which
corresponds to 1,548,500 trillion kilometers away from Earth. The end of the Universe
requires the adoption of escape strategies for parallel universes as it is assumed to exist.
It is necessary to elucidate the fate of the Universe and to prove the existence of parallel
universes to promote the escape of human beings to one of them, as well as to promote
the development of the final theory or theory of everything, that is, of the theory of the
unified field to present possible strategies for humanity to seek its survival in the face of
all threats [1].
In order to elucidate all the issues described above and implement the proposed strategies,
it is necessary to make advances in knowledge about the following 10 main cosmological
questions: 1) The “Oort Cloud” and the “Kuiper Belt” located at the limits of the solar
system where locate, respectively, comets and asteroids; 2) Proof of the existence of

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Nemesis, a brown dwarf star, which with the Sun would constitute a binary star that could
throw, by its gravitational action, asteroids located in the “Kuiper Belt” and comets
located in the “Oort cloud” towards Earth; 3) Detection of gravitational waves aiming at
the development of observational astronomy to probe the first moments of the Universe;
4) Nature of dark matter and dark energy to understand the Universe; 5) Threats on planet
Earth from the collision of celestial bodies and the emission of cosmic rays; 6) Possible
alternative habitable sites for humans in the solar system and beyond; 7) Size of the
Universe to determine whether it is finite or infinite and its shape to determine whether it
is flat or spherical; 8) The destiny of our Universe if there will be contraction initiating a
new Universe, expansion with its thermal death, the end of the Universe as a cold, dark
and empty place or unlimited expansion until its disintegration; 9) The existence or not
of parallel universes; and, 10) The development of the final theory or theory of
everything, that is, of the unified field theory to explain and connect in a single theoretical
framework, all physical phenomena bringing together quantum physics and the theory of
general relativity in a single treatment theoretical and mathematician.
The first question to be clarified concerns the “Oort Cloud” [2] (Figure 1) where comets
are located and the “Kuiper Belt” [3] [4] (Figure 2) where asteroids are located both on
the edge of the solar system. Faced with the threat of collision of comets coming from the
"Oort Cloud" with the planet Earth and the collision of asteroids with the planet Earth
coming from the "Kuiper Belt" it is of fundamental importance to understand the
gravitational forces exerted by the "Oort Cloud" and by the “Kuiper Belt” located beyond
the planet Neptune to assess the possibility of comets and asteroids being thrown in all
directions, many of which could hit Earth, thus causing great extinctions of life on our
planet.
Figure 1- Oort Cloud
Source: http://revistacosmosonline.blogspot.com/2016/07/nuvem-de-oort-e-nuvem-de-hills.html

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Figure 2- Kuiper Belt
Source: https://hypescience.com/o-que-e-o-cinturao-de-kuiper/
The second question to be clarified concerns the proof of the existence of Nemesis [5]
that would constitute with the Sun a binary star, which would be located in a position at
least seventeen times more distant from the Sun than Neptune, the last planet in the solar
system and could throw by its gravitational action asteroids located in the “Kuiper Belt”
and comets located in the “Oort cloud” towards Earth and cause great extinctions of life
on our planet (Figure 3).
Figure 3- Sun and Nemesis
Source: http://decadasdehistorias.blogspot.com/2015/05/nemesis-irma-gemea-do-sol.html
The third issue to be elucidated concerns the detection of gravitational waves [6] aiming
at the development of observational astronomy to probe the first moments of the Universe
(Figure 4). Gravitational waves are a new way of "seeing" what is going on in space. This
is particularly important because light waves cannot penetrate the plasma that occupied
all of space for the first few hundred thousand years following the Big Bang when our
Universe was born, unlike gravitational waves. With the detection of gravitational waves,
it will be possible to use gravity, not light, as a guide to probe the first moments of the
Universe since the Big Bang.

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Figure 4- Gravitational waves
Source: http://www.sbfisica.org.br/v1/home/index.php/pt/destaque-em-fisica/135-entenda-a-importancia-
das-ondas-gravitacionais-com-a-rbef
The fourth question to be elucidated concerns the nature of dark matter and dark energy
[7] [8] to understand the Universe. The Universe is made up of 73% dark matter and 23%
dark energy, while the rest is made up of galaxies, stars, planets, etc. which corresponds
to 4% of the entire Universe (Figure 5). Without knowing the essence of dark matter and
dark energy that corresponds to 96% of the Universe, we will not understand how it
operates in its entirety.
Figure 5- Dark energy, dark matter and the known Universe
Source: https://www.misteriosdouniverso.net/2015/01/o-que-sao-materia-e-energia-escura.html
The fifth question to be clarified concerns the threats to humanity posed by the collision
on the planet Earth of asteroids [9], of comets or pieces of comets [10] (Figure 6), of
planets of the solar system [11] (Figure 7) and from orphan planets [12] that roam in outer
space (Figure 8) and from the emission of cosmic rays [13] (Figure 9). It must be
considered that the extermination of the dinosaurs took place 65 million years ago due to
an asteroid impact with a diameter of 10 km. Earth could be on a collision course with
the planets Mercury, Venus or Mars at least 1 billion years from now [14]. There is also

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the possibility of collision with planet Earth of orphan or wandering planets that could
reach tens of billions and possibly even trillions.
Figure 6- Collision of asteroids and comets with planet Earth
Source: https://br.sputniknews.com/ciencia_tecnologia/2019092114542394-rota-de-colisao-nasa-
rastreia-asteroide-em-direcao-a-terra-neste-sabado/
Figure 7- Collision of planets in the solar system with planet Earth
Source: https://cursoenemgratuito.com.br/sistema-solar/
Figure 8- Collision of orphan planets with planet Earth

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Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=92cO0L1rETU
Figure 9- Cosmic rays
Source: https://www.astropt.org/2015/06/07/a-particula-que-quebrou-um-limite-de-
velocidade-cosmica/
The sixth question to be clarified concerns the identification of possible alternative
habitable places for humans in the solar system and outside it to make it possible for
humans to escape from planet Earth in search of their survival with the implantation of
space colonies in the solar system in possible habitable places such as Mars [16] (Figure
10), Titan - moon of Saturn [17] (Figure 11), Callisto - moon of Jupiter [18] (Figure 12)
or outside the solar system as in the exoplanet Proxima b located in the Alpha Centauri
system [19] (Figure 13). A greater challenge will be to seek humanity's escape to a planet
in a closer galaxy such as the Canis Major Dwarf Galaxy located 25,000 light-years from
Earth. Humanity needs to develop scientific and technological resources to make it
possible to escape to a planet in the solar system, reach the habitable exoplanet, "Proxima
b", orbiting the closest star to the Sun that is part of the Alpha Centauri system, the closest
galaxy like the Canis Major Dwarf Galaxy, and seek a way out to a parallel universe
before the end of our Universe.
Figure 10- Planet Mars
Source: https://olhardigital.com.br/2020/12/18/noticias/nasa-aprova-nova-etapa-de-missao-para-buscar-
amostras-de-marte/
Figure 11- Titan (Saturn's moon)

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Source: https://br.sputniknews.com/20180721/nasa-lua-saturno-tita-fotos-11770990.html
Figure 12- Callisto (moon of Jupiter)
Source: https://pixabay.com/pt/illustrations/j%C3%BApiter-calisto-lua-de-j%C3%BApiter-lua-529959/
Figure 13- Exoplanet Proxima b located in the Alpha Centauri system
Source:https://austria-
forum.org/af/Wissenssammlungen/Essays/Naturwissenschaften/Proxima_Centauri_b
The seventh question to be elucidated concerns the size of the Universe [20] to determine
if it is finite or infinite and its shape to determine if it is flat or spherical. Determining the
size of the Universe is an important and complex task because, until now, we do not know
if there is anything beyond what our most powerful telescopes have already been able to
record. All the cosmological data collected to date fit the idea that the Universe is flat.
There are, however, opponents of the Flat Universe Theory who defend the thesis of a
Spherical or closed Universe. Determining the size and shape of the Universe (flat or
spherical) needs to be elucidated to better understand the Universe (Figure 14).

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Figure 14- Observable universe seen from planet Earth
Source: https://www.facebook.com/decifrandoastronomia/posts/2534658206777733/
The eighth question to be clarified concerns the destiny of our Universe whether there
will be contraction initiating a new Universe, expansion with its thermal death, the end
of the Universe as a cold, dark and empty place or unlimited expansion until its
disintegration [20] [22]. Knowing the future evolution and destiny of the Universe is of
fundamental importance for the formulation of strategies for the survival of humanity.
The ninth question to be elucidated concerns the existence or not of multiverse or parallel
universes [21] [23] because the elucidation of their existence opens the possibility for
human beings to survive with the end of our Universe heading to other parallel universes.
The idea that we live in a “multiverse” made up of an infinite number of parallel universes
has for many years been considered a scientific possibility. The challenge is to find a way
to test this theory. The universes would be, in an analogy, similar to bubbles floating in a
larger space capable of housing them (Figure 15).
Figure 15- Parallel Universes
Source: https://www.epochtimes.com.br/assets/uploads/2013/08/ct-multiverso-dimensoes-energia-
795x447.jpg

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Finally, the tenth question to be elucidated concerns the development of the final theory
or theory of everything [24], that is, of the unified field theory that would seek to explain
and connect in a single theoretical framework all physical phenomena by joining quantum
mechanics and the theory of general relativity in a single theoretical and mathematical
treatment. The unified field theory would collaborate in the sense of science providing
the conditions for humanity to face the threats to its survival that exist in outer space and
would allow verifying the consequences of the use of advanced technologies for the
benefit of humanity. There is yet no accepted unified field theory, and this subject remains
an open field for research.
The top 10 cosmological questions presented in this article need to be elucidated without
delay. The success in elucidating these cosmological questions will provide the conditions
to know the Universe and, consequently, promote the technological advance essential to
the adoption of strategies aimed at the survival of humanity as a species.
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* Fernando Alcoforado, awarded the medal of Engineering Merit of the CONFEA / CREA System, member
of the Bahia Academy of Education, of the SBPC- Brazilian Society for the Progress of Science and of
IPB- Polytechnic Institute of Bahia, engineer and doctor in Territorial Planning and Regional Development
from the University of Barcelona, university professor and consultant in the areas of strategic planning,
business planning, regional planning, urban planning and energy systems, was Advisor to the Vice
President of Engineering and Technology at LIGHT S.A. Electric power distribution company from Rio de
Janeiro, Strategic Planning Coordinator of CEPED- Bahia Research and Development Center,
Undersecretary of Energy of the State of Bahia, Secretary of Planning of Salvador, is author of the books
Globalização (Editora Nobel, São Paulo, 1997), De Collor a FHC- O Brasil e a Nova (Des)ordem Mundial
(Editora Nobel, São Paulo, 1998), Um Projeto para o Brasil (Editora Nobel, São Paulo, 2000), Os
condicionantes do desenvolvimento do Estado da Bahia (Tese de doutorado. Universidade de
Barcelona,http://www.tesisenred.net/handle/10803/1944, 2003), Globalização e Desenvolvimento (Editora
Nobel, São Paulo, 2006), Bahia- Desenvolvimento do Século XVI ao Século XX e Objetivos Estratégicos
na Era Contemporânea (EGBA, Salvador, 2008), The Necessary Conditions of the Economic and Social
Development- The Case of the State of Bahia (VDM Verlag Dr. Müller Aktiengesellschaft & Co. KG,
Saarbrücken, Germany, 2010), Aquecimento Global e Catástrofe Planetária (Viena- Editora e Gráfica,
Santa Cruz do Rio Pardo, São Paulo, 2010), Amazônia Sustentável- Para o progresso do Brasil e combate
ao aquecimento global (Viena- Editora e Gráfica, Santa Cruz do Rio Pardo, São Paulo, 2011), Os Fatores
Condicionantes do Desenvolvimento Econômico e Social (Editora CRV, Curitiba, 2012), Energia no
Mundo e no Brasil- Energia e Mudança Climática Catastrófica no Século XXI (Editora CRV, Curitiba,
2015), As Grandes Revoluções Científicas, Econômicas e Sociais que Mudaram o Mundo (Editora CRV,
Curitiba, 2016), A Invenção de um novo Brasil (Editora CRV, Curitiba, 2017), Esquerda x Direita e a sua
convergência (Associação Baiana de Imprensa, Salvador, 2018), Como inventar o futuro para mudar o
mundo (Editora CRV, Curitiba, 2019) and A humanidade ameaçada e as estratégias para sua sobrevivência
(Editora Dialética, São Paulo, 2021) .