Theories in second language acquisition

1. SLA THEORIES
Part 1
Eda Nur ÖZCAN

2. What is the main of
purpose of theories
of SLA?
The main purpose of theories of
second-language acquisition (SLA) is
to shed light on how people who
already know one language learn a
second language

3. The field of second-
language acquisition
involves various
contributions
● Linguistics
● Sociolinguistics
● Psychology
● Cognitive science
● Neuroscience
● Education
● Linguistic dimensions of SLA
● Cognitive dimensions of SLA
● Socio-cultural dimensions of SLA
● Instructional dimensions of SLA

5. A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE
As second-language acquisition began as an
interdisciplinary field, it is hard to pin down a
precise starting date (Gass, 2008).
The development of modern study of SLA:
Corder, S.P. (1967). The significance of
learner errors. International Review of
Applied Linguistics, 5, 161-169.
Selinker, L. (1972). Interlanguage. IRAL-
International Review of Applied Linguistics in
Language Teaching, 10(1-4), 209-232.

6. A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE
● Error analysis
● Transitional
stages of SLA
● Morpheme
studies
● Input hypothesis
● Comprehensible
Input
● Lexical functional
grammar
● Connectivism
● Interaction
hypothesis
● Output hypothesis
● Noticing hypothesis
● Universal Grammar
● Skill-acquisition
theory
● Processability
● Input Processing
● Sociocultural
Theory
● Research split into
two main camps of
linguistic and
psychological
approaches
1970s 1980s 1990s 2000s
HOW DOES SLA EVOLVE IN TIME?
VanPatten, B., & Benati, A. G. (2015)

7. Behavioral Psychology

8. Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning

9. Skinner’s Operant Conditioning

10. For language, what matters is verbal behaviors

11. How was behaviorism reflected on Second Language Learning/Teaching?
● Powerful influence on
second language teaching,
especially in the North
America, from the 1940s to
the 1970s.
● The influence of
behaviorism on ALM
teaching materials.
● The Army Method

12. Behaviorist Perspective in SLA
● Emphasizes mimicry
● Memorization is important
● Habit formation
● Habits of L1 interferes L2
acquisition
● New habits are necessary for L2
acquisition
● Errors should be directly corrected
to help students develop correct
habits. Larsen-Freeman, D. (2000)

13. Counter-arguments of Behaviorist Theory
● Children’s imitation of structures show evidence of almost no
innovation; moreover children vary considerably in the amount
that they imitate (L.M. Bloom, L. Hood, and P.L. Lightbown, 1974.
● Drills is thought to obstruct the instinctive production of
language.
● The rate of social influence on learning is not satisfactorily
explained.
● It is highly unlikely for learning to be the same for each individual.
● There are intervening variables, which cannot be observed
Human
language is
boundless!

14. Skinner never gave a
formal response to
Chomsky and allowed a
"Chomskyan revolution"
to occur in the field of
linguistics in the 1960s.
Chomsky's main
argument against
behaviorist views of
language acquisition
can perhaps be
summarized by his
quote "if in fact our
minds were a blank
slate we would be
very impoverished
creatures, indeed"
Debate of the Century
"Skinner is nothing
but a stimulus
response
psychologist" or that
Skinner thinks
"people are nothing
more than pigeons"

15. Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis
● A prevalent hypothesis prior to 1980s that
predicted acquisition difficulties.
● Developed by Robert Lado who was researching the
best teaching method for military purposes during
WW2.
● There were similarities between an L1 and an L2,
acquisition would be easier compared with
situations in which there were differences between
the L1 and the L2. VanPatten, B., & Benati, A. G. (2015)

16. Contrastive Error Hypothesis was intimately
tied to a theory of learning called
behaviorism that emphasized learning as
habit formation.

17. Contrastive Error Analysis
Strong Position
● All errors could be predicted by
analyzing the differences.
● The main cause difficulty is in L1-
L2 differences.
● The only problem in SLA is
transfer.
○ Positive transfer means
similarities and sameness.
○ Negative transfer means
differences.
Weak Position
● In 1970s, research showed that
many L2 errors were not the result
of transfer.
● Similarities across languages led
to errors that could persist.
● Some errors predicted by CAH did
not occur.
● The weak position was formulated.
○ emphasizing analyzing
recurring errors.
VanPatten, B., & Benati, A. G. (2015)

18. Creative
Construction
Hypothesis as a
criticism towards
Behaviorism & CAH
● SLA is considered to be very
much like L1 acquisition in that
SLA is a process in which
learners make unconscious
hypotheses on the basis of the
input they get from the
environment.
VanPatten, B., & Benati, A. G. (2015)

19. Error Analysis (EA)
as a reaction to
Behaviorism & CAH
● Error analysis is a research tool
characterized by a set of procedures
for identifying, describing, and
explaining L2 learners’ errors.
● What early EA showed was that not
all errors could be attributed to L1
influence and that L2 learners were
active creators of linguistic system.
● The first scholar was S. Pit Corder
back in the late 1960s.

20. EA or CAH?
● Pedagogical orientation
● Focus on input, practice,
inductive teaching
● Errors of transfer
● Scientific orientation
● Focus on linguistic and
cognitive processes
● Multiple types of errors

21. KRASHEN’S 5
HYPOTHESES ON
SECOND LANGUAGE
ACQUISITION

23. Acquisition versus Learning
Acquisition is a general term in SLA research used to mean the internalization of a linguistic system.
Acquisition
● Acquisition refers to processes by
which learners internalize language
from exposure to input.
Learning
● Learning refers to conscious effort at
learning rules from books and
teachers.
“You need to add an -s to verbs
that refer to someone else. This is
called third-person -s.” and then
practice this rule.”
To acquire third-person -s, learners
would need to hear lots of third-person
verbs in context, as part of the
communication of information. In a
certain sense, Krashen likens acquisition
for L2 learners to acquisition for L1
learners; namely, acquisition happens

24. ● Learning results in _____
system of knowledge while
Acquisition results in ____
system of knowledge.
Implicit
Explicit

25. Krashen’s distinction of Learning vs. Acquisition caused considerable debate...
Today, regardless of the processes involved (learning vs. acquisition), scholars
accept that learners develop an implicit mental representation of language,
which subsumes Krashen’s acquired system At the same time, they accept that
learners may also have explicit knowledge, which subsumes Krashen’s learned
knowledge about language.
VanPatten, B., & Benati, A. G. (2015)

26. Monitor Hypothesis / Monitor Model
● The Monitor is a component of an L2 learner's language processing device that uses
knowledge gained from language learning to observe and regulate the learner's own L2
production, checking for accuracy and adjusting language production when necessary
(Krashen, 1982)
● There are certain circumstances to monitor one’s input:
○ The learner has to know the rule to apply.
○ The learner must have time to apply the conscious rule
VanPatten, B., & Benati, A. G. (2015)

27. THE MONITOR IS VERY LIMITED IN ITS USEFULNESS

28. Input? Intake? Output?

29. Input Hypothesis
● A component of Monitor Theory
● Learners acquire language in only one way: by exposure to input
● Language input should be at the "i+1" level, just beyond what the
learner can fully understand; this input is comprehensible, but
contains structures that are not yet fully understood.

30. Input Hypothesis and Chomsky’s UG

31. Strong Version vs Weak Version of Input Hypothesis
Strong Version
● Rejects any significant role for
formal instruction and negative
evidence
● Claiming that only exposure to
input can cause acquisition to
happen.
Weak Version
● Formal instruction and negative
evidence can be beneficial, but not
necessary.
VanPatten, B., & Benati, A. G. (2015)

32. Natural Order Hypothesis
● Learners proceed in a predictable order of acquisition of grammatical
features of language, regardless of the L1 and regardless of the context in
which they acquire languages.
● Although Monitor Theory itself has fallen out of favor, the idea that
learners follow predictable paths and sequences is an accepted fact of SLA.
VanPatten, B., & Benati, A. G. (2015)

33. Natural Order Hypothesis

34. Affective Filter Hypothesis
● Affective/Affect refers to moods, personal
states of being, attitudes, feelings,
opinions and so on.
● The affective filter is a metaphor that
concerns why input enters or doesn’t
ender the head of the learner.
● High affective filter blocks out language
while low affective filter does not!
● Self-esteem, motivation, inhibition,
anxiety etc.

35. Swain’s Comprehensible Output Hypothesis
● Developed by Merill Swain
● Learning takes place when learners encounter a gap in their linguistic knowledge of L2. By
noticing this gap, learners become aware of it and may be able to modify their input so that
they learn something new about the language.
● Closely related to Noticing Hypothesis
● Swain defines three functions of output
(Swain, M. and Lapkin, 1995)
○ Noticing function
○ Hypothesis-testing function
○ Metalinguistic function

36. Noticing Hypothesis
● Attributed largely to Richard Schmidt
● The input that learners can acquire are those elements that they notice
● There is some level of awareness in learning
● As a reaction to Krashen’s idea of acquisition
● Not universally accepted, remain controversial
● Criticism: the noticing hypothesis should be limited to describing metalinguistic
knowledge and not overall language competence.
VanPatten, B., & Benati, A. G. (2015)
(Truscott, 1998)

37. Interaction Hypothesis
● The development of language proficiency is promoted by F2F
interaction and communication (Johnson & Johnson, 1999)
● The idea existed in the 1980s, but usually credited to Michael
Long
Long, Michael (1996). "The role of
the linguistic environment in
second language acquisition". In
Ritchie, William; Bhatia, Tej (eds.).
Handbook of second language
acquisition. San Diego: Academic
Press. pp. 413–468.

38. Interaction Hypothesis
● According to the Interaction Hypothesis, learners may be led to
notice things they wouldn’t notice otherwise, and this noticing can
affect acquisition.
● Input Modifications: the other speaker adjusts his or her speech
due to perceived difficulties in learner comprehension.
● Feedback: the other speaker indicates in some way that the
learner has produced something non-native-like.

39. Interaction Hypothesis
Strong Version
the interaction itself contributes to
language development.
Weak Version
the interaction is simply the way that
learners find learning opportunities,
whether or not they make productive use
of them.
● (Johnson & Johnson,
1999)

40. Sociocultural Theory
Sociocultural theory
focuses not only how
adults and peers
influence individual
learning, but also on
how cultural beliefs
and attitudes affect
how learning takes
place.

41. Sociocultural Theory
● Parents, caregivers, peers, and the culture at large were
responsible for developing higher-order functions.
● Learning has its basis in interacting with other people.
● The most important cognitive activities in which people
engage are shaped by the environment.
● All learning is context-bound.
● The major construct is mediation (cultural tools, such as
language, literacy, numeracy etc.)

42. Sociocultural Theory

43. Sociocultural Theory
To assist a person to move through the zone of proximal development, educators are
encouraged to focus on three important components which aid the learning process:
● The presence of someone with knowledge and skills beyond that of the learner
(a more knowledgeable other).
● Social interactions with a skillful tutor that allow the learner to observe and
practice their skills.
● Scaffolding, or supportive activities provided by the educator, or more
competent peer, to support the student as he or she is led through the ZPD.

44. Theory of Scaffolding
Introduced by Wood, Bruner and Ross (1976)
Learners complete small,
manageable steps in order to reach
the goal. Working in collaboration
with a skilled instructor or more
knowledgeable peers help students
make connections between concepts.

45. What scaffolding
strategies are used
in a foreign
language class?

46. Functional Approach
● From the purely formal approaches of syntactic theory in that functional
approaches view language as a means to communicate.
● Attempt to relate function to from and form to function.
● Meaning and function influence both language structure and language
acquisition.
● Language is not so much a system of rules as posed by Chomsky, but a
means of performing particular socially communicative functions.
VanPatten, B., & Benati, A. G. (2015)

47. The functionalist theory is based on the work of Michael Halliday
language is a matter of
learning the kinds of
meanings that can be
shared in particular
situations, and that
children learn grammar
based on meaningful
choices rather than formal
rules.
Observed his son for his
functionalist theory

48. The Functionalist Theory
Halliday's functionalist theory are are of the "seven functions of
language," which were designed to reflect the various conversational
interactions that children develop during language acquisition. They
are listed below:
1. Instrumental - "I want"
2. Regulatory - "Do as I tell you"
3. Interactional - "Me and you"
4. Personal - "Here I come"
5. Heuristic - "Tell me why"
6. Imaginative - "Let’s pretend"
7. Representational - "I've got something for you"
(Halliday, 1973)

49. What strategies are
used in a foreign
language class to
foster the
functional theory?

50. Semantic Theory
● Meaning is at the heart of the language.
● There are several types of meanings; lexical,
grammatical, semantic and pragmatic.
○ Lexical meaning: that is stored in our mental
lexicon
○ Grammatical meaning: that is encoded in
inflectional morphology (-ed for past simple)
○ Semantic meaning: word meaning
○ Pragmatic meaning: that depends on context
● According to Slabakova (2010), All the different
meanings contribute to the acquisition of meaning
resulting in the integrated second language
possession.

51. Complex Dynamic Systems Theory
1. Larsen-Freeman (1997) claimed that second language acquisition should
be viewed as a developmental process which includes language attrition as
well as language acquisition.
1. Language is considered to be a system which includes many subsystems
such as linguistic system, phonetic system. Dynamic systems are
interconnected, nonlinear, adaptive, open, sensitive to initial conditions.
Variability is seen as an inherent property of development and it is not
viewed as measurement error, therefore from a dynamic systems
perspective variability in the data is analysed and considered valuable
information.

52. Main characteristics of SL development from Dynamic Systems perspective
● Sensitive dependence on initial conditions
● Complete interconnectedness
● Nonlinearity in development
● Change through internal reorganization (self-organization) and interaction with
the environment
● Dependence on internal and external resources
● Constant change, with chaotic variation sometimes, in which the systems only
temporarily settle into attractor states
● Iteration
● Change caused by interaction with the environment and internal reorganization
● emergent properties

53. According to CDS Theory
SLA can be best captured by applying longitudinal case
study research design rather than cross-sectional
designs.

54. Acculturation Model
Because the model focuses on
relative success of learners, it
does not provide any explanation
or insight into the internal
processes responsible for the
VanPatten, B., & Benati, A. G. (2015)

55. Communication Accommodation Theory
● Developed by Howard Gills
● Communication accommodation theory elaborates the human tendency to
adjust their behaviour while interacting. The reason behind this behaviour is
explained as to control the social differences between the interactants.
● There are two types of accommodation process:
○ Convergence: a process where people tend to adapt the other person’s communication
characteristics to reduce the social differences
○ Divergence: the individual emphasis is on the social difference and nonverbal
differences between the interactants

56. An example of CAT
Mike was a new employee in a
certain organisation. While
understanding about the
environment, he came to know
about his senior officer who
apparently had an interest in
painting from his co-workers.
When mike got an opportunity to
interact with him, he glorified the
beauty of a painting the officer has
been displayed in his office which
pleased the officer. In this situation
mike accommodated his behaviour
according to the situation and thus
could create an impression on his
senior officer.

57. Thank you for listening...

58. References
Corder, S.P. (1967). The significance of learner errors. International Review of Applied Linguistics, 5, 161-169.
Gass, S. M. (2013). Second language acquisition: An introductory course. Routledge.
Halliday, M. A. K. (1973). Explorations in the functions of language.
Krashen, S. (1982). Principles and practice in second language acquisition. Pergamon Press. ISBN 978-0-08-028628-0. Archived from the original on 2011-07-
16. Retrieved 2010-11-25.
Johnson, Keith; Johnson, Helen, eds. (1999). "Interaction Hypothesis". Encyclopedic Dictionary of Applied Linguistics: A Handbook for Language Teaching.
Oxford: Blackwell Publishers. p. 174.
Larsen-Freeman, D. (2000). Techniques and principles in language teaching. Oxford University.
Larsen-Freeman, D (1997). "Chaos/complexity science and second language acquisition". Applied Linguistics. 18 (2): 141–165.
Selinker, L. (1972). Interlanguage. IRAL-International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching, 10(1-4), 209-232.
Long, Michael (1996). "The role of the linguistic environment in second language acquisition". In Ritchie, William; Bhatia, Tej (eds.). Handbook of second
language acquisition. San Diego: Academic Press. pp. 413–468.
Slabakova, R. (2010). "Semantic theory and second language acquisition". Annual Review of Applied Linguistics. 30: 231–247.
Swain, M. and Lapkin, S. (1995). Problems in output and the cognitive processes they generate: A step towards second language learning. Applied Linguistics
16: 371-391, p. 372.
Truscott, John (1998). "Noticing in second language acquisition: a critical review" (PDF). Second Language Research. 14 (2): 103–135. Retrieved 29 October
2012.
VanPatten, B., & Benati, A. G. (2015). Key terms in second language acquisition. Bloomsbury Publishing.
Wood, D., Bruner, J. S., & Ross, G. (1976). The role of tutoring in problem solving. Journal of child psychology and psychiatry, 17(2), 89-100.