Intro to visual art 2 online

1
A Lucky Break
Given the choice between luck and skill…
Ancient Egyptians used a form of writing called hieroglyphics, where pictures replace words written with letters. The Egyptian
writing could not be translated until the discovery of the Rosetta Stone in 1799. This stone is engraved with text in ancient Greek,
Coptic (an early Christian language), and Egyptian hieroglyphics. Since the Greek and Coptic could be read, and both said exactly
the same thing, it was assumed that the Egyptian “picture writing” was also the identical text and was thusly translated.

3
Terminology
Canon: A rule or law.
Egyptian canons in art:
Twisted Perspective
Hierarchical Scale
Idealization

4
Pallette of Narmer c. 3000 BC
The Pallette of Narmer (Slide 7) is a commemorative relief sculpture fashioned in the shape of an Egyptian cosmetic palette. The
ancient Egyptians used a lot of make-up, both men and women, and the palettes that inspired the The Pallette of Narmer were used
for mixing the various rouges and eye colorings they used.
The front of the The Pallette of Narmer shows the victorious king Narmer who unified Egypt. He looms over his defeated enemy,
clutching the beaten king’s crown in his left hand while his right hand holds aloft a stone war-hammer. It seems clear that Narmer
is preparing to dispatch his opponent but the question arises; are we seeing a depiction of combat, where the two kings met on the
field of battle, or is this an execution? There are some clues that suggest this is a ritualistic killing.
The defeated king is shown kneeling. This is a posture of defeat, subjugation and disempowerment. Behind Narmer stands a
servant holding the victorious king’s sandals and a pot or basket. The fact that Narmer has removed his shoes indicates that this
activity likely is ritualistic in nature since it was common to remove one’s foot wear when participating in a religious ceremony and
the execution of a king, even a defeated enemy king, would be a very serious matter requiring the approval of the gods, making the
execution a religious event. The container held by the servant probably holds holy oil for appropriate anointing, another clue that
the scene depicts a ritual and not combat.
That the gods had been consulted and approved of Narmer’s actions is represented in the avian figure seen in the upper right corner
of the front of the palette. This is Horus, the hawk god, and he stands on top of an acanthus plant with one foot raised in a mirror
image of Narmer as he holds one hand above his head. The acanthus would symbolize Lower Egypt since the plant grows in the
delta regions of Lower Egypt so the implication seems to be that Horus dominates Lower Egypt just as Narmer stands over the
defeated king of that country. The fact that Narmer is seizing the doomed king’s crown symbolizes that he is grabbing the power
and territory from him as the spoils of war.
There are several canons (rules or conventions) of Egyptian art. The most obvious to most casual observers is the use of twisted
perspective, which is when artists render a subject so that it appears as though we are seeing it from multiple angles simultaneously.
A good example of this technique can be seen the faces in Egyptian paintings. The faces of Egyptian figures are often shown in
profile, but the eyes look as though the viewer is staring the figure’s face straight-on. We see the face from the side while the eye is
a full-face view.
The Egyptians also avoided celebrating their opponents. Unlike the Mesopotamians who depicted their enemies as powerful and
worthy to make their accomplishment in defeating them even more glorious, the Egyptians preferred to ridicule their enemies and
make them look worthless and weak. Below Narmer’s feet are the bodies of the enemy soldiers killed in battle. They appear
broken and crushed rather than defiant and strong. (Text continued Slide 6)

5
Pallet of Narmer c. 3000 BC
Continued
This theme of insulting the enemy is continued on the back of The Pallette of Narmer where in the top register
(a panel of separated images in a single piece) we see the victorious Narmer contemplating the army he has just
defeated. The dead soldiers are rendered as small and puny with their bodies stacked like firewood. A closer
examination reveals that the dead soldiers have been beheaded, with their severed heads placed between their
knees. Mutilation of fallen enemies is a practice that is seen in many warrior cultures throughout history.
Trophies of the battle are sometimes taken in the form of scalps or whole heads. In some cultures enemies’
bodies were mutilated to prevent their souls from achieving paradise. Whatever the purpose for the Egyptian’s
desecrations, it is clear that they are not celebrating their fallen enemy.
Egyptian art also make extensive use of the technique known as hierarchical scale. Hierarchical refers to one’s
position within an organization and scale means relative size. So hierarchical scale means to show the subject’s
importance by how large he is compared to other figures in the composition. On the front of The Pallette of
Narmer king for whom the piece is named stands much taller than the defeated king or Narmer’s servant, who is
very small in comparison. On the back of the palette, the army King Narmer leads appears to consist of very
tiny men. Of course, Narmer’s men were actually normal sized. The artist is simply conveying the relative
importance of Narmer by making him appear huge by comparison.
The bottom register on the back of the palette shows a bull trampling and goring his enemies. The bull is a
powerful symbol, suggesting power, savagery and masculinity, all qualities that a warrior king would want to
associate with himself. The bull is probably meant to represent Narmer, and serves as a warning to any
potential enemies of the pharaoh or of Egypt that they will be trampled beneath the pharaoh’s might should they
dare challenge him. Once again the pharaoh’s enemies are depicted as puny and weak. On the front of the
palette Narmer wears a bull’s tail hanging from his waist to emphasize this association with the powerful and
dangerous bull. The modern version of this warning is “Mess with the bull; get the horn.”

7
Queen Tiye c. 1350 BC
A question that often sparks fierce debate amongst
academics is what race were the ancient Egyptians?
Egypt is an African country, so many social historians
maintain that they were dark-skinned African people. But
Egypt is located in North Africa, between Libya and
Saudi Arabia, both of which are usually considered
Middle Eastern countries.
Because of its location, Egypt has always been a
crossroad for the ancient world, and people of many races
made their way there. Today Egypt has a very mixed
population and it was likely the same in ancient times.
Reviewing the art of ancient Egypt reveals portraits that
appear to depict people of differing racial heritage. The
queen at left is thought to have had a Chinese mother. It
may be incorrect to assign any specific race or ethnicity as
being correct for all Egyptians.

8
Nebamun Hunting c. 1400 BC
The celebration of the pharaoh (meaning king and god as the pharaoh was considered divine) in art continues throughout Egyptian
history. In the painted image of the pharaoh Amenemheb hunting birds we see the usual canons of Egyptian art, like the use of
twisted perspective and hierarchical scale.
As with the Assyrian Lion Hunting Tablets we’ve already seen, the image of the king hunting is one that remains popular
throughout history, including ancient Egypt. There is a message in this painting intended for the pharaoh’s subjects. The pharaoh
holds several birds captive in his right hand. Birds are often used to symbolize the concept of freedom since they can fly and
breaking the bonds of gravity may be seen as the ultimate expression of liberty. But these birds are not free, they are held firmly in
the pharaoh’s grasp.
A grasping hand might be viewed as a representation for control. Whoever does the grasping and holding is generally the one in
control. In this case it’s the pharaoh who is in control, and it’s his subjects who are held tightly. This painting seems to tell the
Egyptians that they may think that they are free, but they are not. The pharaoh is firmly in control and he holds their lives in his
hand.
The woman seen standing behind the pharaoh is likely his wife (or one of them since the pharaoh could have as many wives as
pleased him). She is depicted as physically much smaller than her husband and although it is not impossible for a married couple to
be this much different in height the odds are we are seeing the hierarchical scale in use to indicate the relative importance of the
figures.
A child (generally thought to be the pharaoh’s daughter although the child’s sex isn’t absolutely known) kneels between the
pharaoh’s legs. The fact that the child is touching the pharaoh’s leg confirms that the child is a close relative because nobody else
would be allowed to make physical contact with him.

10
Stepped Pyramid of Zoser by Imhotep c, 4600 BC
This is an early attempt
at pyramid building. The
ancient Egyptians
weren’t the only people
to build pyramids, but
they are famous for doing
so. This stepped
structure resembles the
Mesopotamian ziggurat
and is significant as the
first piece of art in
history where the artist’s
identity is known. The
architect was Imhotep, a
physician who apparently
dabbled in designing
pyramids. The next slide
depicts a small sculpture
of the artist.

12
The Bent Pyramid
Slide 15 & Slide 16
There are several explanations for why this pyramid was built with the walls being bent rather than straight as is customary. One
theory that seems quite popular is that the structure suffered instability and damage as it was being built and was shortened to
reduce the stress on the foundation. The problems with this explanation is that the Egyptians don’t really seem to have had any
problems in building pyramids and none of the others show signs of distress. Also, if they were having such severe trouble, why is
it still standing nearly 5,000 years later? If the builders were having difficulty with the foundation, would “bending” the walls have
helped? This would surely have caused greater stress since the angled supporting walls would not be able to withstand as much
weight as would straight ones.
Another theory being circulated is that the angles of the angles of the form a mathematical formula that corresponds to the exact
longitude and latitude of the structure’s location. This assumes that the ancient Egyptians used the same system of global
positioning that is currently in use.
Another possibility is that the project was completed in a hurry and the angle of the walls decreased to facilitate a quick completion.
It’s possible that the pharaoh died suddenly and his tomb needed to be ready with the required time frame for burial. The king
wasn’t buried here but rather he was entombed in a smaller pyramid nearby. Perhaps they didn’t get this one done in time. Interior
painting shows signs of great haste with a mistake in the text being crossed out instead of erased and properly rewritten.
Slide 16 gives an indication of the size of this pyramid (344’ in height). Notice the man riding a camel to the lower left of the
structure.

13
The Bent Pyramid c. 2600 BC

15
The Great Pyramids 2530-2470 BC
The pyramids were meant to serve as tombs for the pharaohs. The Egyptians believed that whatever one wanted to have in the next
life needed to be buried with the body when departing this one. Objects entombed with the dead are called “grave goods” and this
is not an usual practice, being found around the world in many cultures. However, the ancient Egyptians took it to an extreme
level.
The pharaoh, being not only king but divine (pharaoh means “king and god”), would be entombed with many useful and
extravagantly expensive items. This proved to be too tempting for thieves to resist and the royal tombs were routinely looted for
the treasures contained within. The pyramids were designed to be fortress tombs, to protect the pharaoh’s goods. It didn’t work as
every royal tomb discovered to date had been plundered at some point.
It’s almost cliché to describe the Great Pyramids as marvels of engineering, but that’s what they are. They were built using superior
knowledge of mathematics and engineering along with a great deal of manpower, What the Egyptians lacked in tractors, trucks and
motorized cranes that are associated with modern construction techniques they made up for in sheer numbers of laborers. A
thousand men pulling on ropes can transport a 10-ton block of stone just as well as can a 300 horsepower truck. Well, maybe the
men can’t get up to freeway speed, but they can certainly move the stone (see Slide 19 to appreciate the size of the blocks used in
the construction)..
One common misconception regarding the building of the pyramids is that it was done using slave labor. While the ancient
Egyptians did practice slavery, it was free men hired as work crews who built the pharaoh’s tomb. Slaves would be unworthy to
touch anything used by the pharaoh.
The exteriors of the pyramids were originally covered with polished limestone but most of this façade has been stripped away over
the centuries. The names of the pharaohs associated with the Great Pyramids, Chefron, Mycerinus and Cheops are actually Greek
names. They were changed when a Macedonian family, the Ptolemy family, ruled Egypt following the Greek conquest. Cleopatra
was a Ptolemy and as such had not one drop of Egyptian or African blood. She was Greek and totally Caucasian despite how
Hollywood tends to portray her or what some revisionist historians want us to believe. She was also not beautiful as is widely
thought, but was described by contemporary authors as “ugly as a mud hen.” She used sex to scheme her way into increased power
and when her plan failed she killed herself. Hardly a hero.

16
The Great Pyramids at Giza 2530-2470 BC
Chefron, Mycerinus and Cheops

18
Boat Museum
The unattractive modern
structure in front of the
pyramid is a museum built to
house a large boat recovered
from a pharaoh’s tomb. It is
not known why anyone
would think that building
this thing right in front of the
pyramid was a good idea.

19
What’s in a Name?
Chefron =
Khafre
Cheops =
Khufu
Mycerinus =
Menkaure

20
Colossus of Ramses II c. 1275 BC
Also known as the Colossus at Abu
Simbel this structure features four
statues of Ramses II, who ruled for 67
years and is best remembered as the
Biblical pharaoh contending with
Moses. The monument was carved in a
single piece and has a tunnel between
the central figures that goes back into
the hill some 100 yards. At sunrise on
the Summer Solstice the sun would
align with this passageway and the
entire length would be illuminated.
Slide 16 shows the memorial after it was
relocated 1964-68. The Egyptian
government built the Aswan dam on the
Nile and the original location of this
artifact is now under 200 feet of water
due to the reservoir that was created.
About $40,000,000 was raised from
around the world through private
donations to pay for cutting the
monument into sections and moving it
up the hill.

21
This is how it now looks.
The engineers tried to
duplicate the alignment of
the tunnel with the
Summer Solstice sunrise
but failed to accomplish
what the ancient Egyptians
had done.
Slide 24 shows the statues
being dissected for
moving.
Slides 25 and 26 show the
monument today. Gauge
the size by the visitors
seen in the photo.
Slide 27 shows the interior
of the tunnel and its
sculpture of the pharaoh.

26
Apparently visitors to historic sites have always had difficulty in refraining from vandalism. Note the graffiti that is
well over 100 years old.

27
Historic sites and monuments are often
threatened by the encroachment of modern
development. For many years it seemed the
modern Egyptians had no interest in protecting
and preserving ancient artifacts. Note how
this apartment complex is literally built around
this colossal sculpture. Such indifference is
not indicative of a people concerned with
maintaining their heritage and culture.
Colossal sculpture of Ramses II

28
The pharaoh Hatshepsut was not particularly popular and
following the death of the pharaoh many of the royal portraits
were destroyed. See Slide 31 for a more recent photograph of
this artifact.
Hatshepsut was entombed in a large structure carved in one piece
from the side of huge boulder. See Slide 33 and note the visitors
seen standing around the funerary temple to appreciate its size.
There were several reasons for Hatshepsut’s unpopularity. First
of all, ancient Egypt was a patriarchal society, dominated by men
and many of them were uncomfortable with this pharaoh because
she was a woman. Did you realize Hatshepsut was female by
looking at the sculpture? The portrait deliberately obscured her
femininity while enhancing her image as pharaoh. Many of her
subjects also did not appreciate the way she came to power.
The daughter and wife of pharaohs, she certainly had royal blood.
When her husband died young leaving a 5-year old son
(Tutmosis II) Hatshepsut offered to serve as regent, ruling in her
son’s name until he was old enough to assume full authority. It
wasn’t long, however, before Hatshepsut donned the pharaoh’s
garb and proclaimed herself absolute ruler. Despite having many
enemies, she managed to rule for 18 years. Then she died
suddenly and under mysterious circumstances.
Perhaps Tutmosis II was weary of waiting?
The Pharaoh Hatshepsut c. 1470 BC

29
This photo was taken by the instructor in 2006 during a
visit to the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York
City. It is the same statue seen in the previous slide.

30
Rock Cut Tomb of Hatshepsut c. 1458 BC
Hatshepsut’s tomb is not a pyramid although it is an above-ground structure. Note the size of the people visiting the monument for
an idea of its scale. It is not a tradition “construction” but rather is actually akin to sculpture, being carved in one piece from the
huge stone that makes up the hill behind it.
Slide 34 shows some of the wall decorations that would be found in a pharaoh’s tomb. Slides 35 - 37 show other surviving
sculpture of Hatshepsut. Not many examples are available. Being unpopular, many of her portraits were destroyed after her death.
The best way to destroy a sculpted image is to smash off the face rendering the statue unrecognizable. This is where we get the
term “deface.”

31
Rock Cut Tomb of Hatshepsut c. 1458 BC

32
Hatshepsut Temple Wall painting

35
Cleopatra was one of Egypt’s most famous rulers. She
was not really Egyptian by blood, but Greek. She was
the descendant of Ptolemy, one of Alexander the
Great’s generals who was given Egypt to rule. His
family ruled Egypt for about 300 years. Despite what
some now claim, Cleopatra was not black; nor was she
African or even Egyptian except that she was born
there. Her lineage was pure Greek.
She was also very plain looking, to the point where
some who knew her called her rather homely.

36
Khafre
Longevity was paramount to the Egyptians. They believed in an afterlife and
eternity is a long time so the portraits of the pharaoh had to be designed to
last forever. Unlike Greek or Roman sculpture where the figures often have
arms and legs protruding into space, Egyptian statues are more contained,
and are therefore less likely to suffer damage such as broken limbs. But it
does make the subject appear less dynamic.

37
Menkaure and Wife
In addition to longevity, formality was high on the list with Egyptian
artists. The pharaoh must always appear regal, and in control. Even an
intimate moment between a husband and wife assumes an air of rigid
formality in Egyptian art.

38
Rohtep and Nofret
Perhaps the most interesting aspect of the this
portrait sculpture is the fact that the man is wearing a
mustache. Facial hair was virtually unknown
amongst the men of Ancient Egypt.

39
Akhenaten
Akenaten never wanted to be pharaoh. He was so far down the line in
the order of succession that he figured he never would assume the
throne. But it worked out that he did and his reign was interesting.
Akenaten wasn’t much impressed by the power and majesty of the office
and continued to act as he always had, like a “regular guy.” See Slide 42
for a relief sculpture showing Akenaten relaxing at home with his wife,
Nefertiti, and their three daughters. Nefertiti was said to have been very
beautiful and a famous portrait bust of her can be seen in Slide 44.
But most ancient Egyptians didn’t approve of this casual attitude in their
pharaoh. They disliked his portrait at left that doesn’t appear to have
been idealized, a technique where the subject is made to look better than
he actually was. Egyptians were polytheistic (worshipped many deities)
and they rebelled against his order that only Aten, the sun god, could be
worshipped and all other temples had to be closed. In fact. Akhenaten’s
name was changed from Amenhotep IV to Akhenaten to reflect his
devotion to Aten.
Given the strong public sentiment against Akenaten, it’s not surprising
that some historians believe he died suddenly and under mysterious
circumstances.
NOTE: There is great disagreement among historians about the exact
relationships and histories of many ancient Egyptian rulers and their
families. Always read with caution any author making definitive
statements regarding who was related to whom and other personal
information. Mostly we have theories and not hard fact about the rulers
of ancient Egypt.

41
Royal Daughters
This painting, as well as the
relief sculpture in the previous
slide, depict the pharaoh’s
daughters as having grossly
elongated heads. This may be
evidence of head-binding, where
a string or ribbon is tied around a
baby’s head while the skull is
still not fully formed in order to
reshape it. This practice was
popular amongst some African
cultures until stamped out by
Christian missionaries in the 20th
century. It causes no harm to the
individual, it merely shapes the
head to look long and narrow.
They did it because they found it
aesthetically pleasing.

42
This is a famous portrait bust of Akenaten’s wife, Nefertiti. In the
debate regarding the race of the ancient Egyptians, some members
of the royal family do seem to exhibit characteristics of sub-Saharn
African people. But Nefertiti looks Middle Eastern in this portrait.

43
Tut and Ankhesenamun
Following Akhenaten’s untimely death he was succeeded by
his nephew, Tutankhamen. King Tut as he is commonly
called, came to power at around the age of 13 and only ruled
for about 5 years. About the only thing Tut is known for doing
is undoing what his uncle had decreed. Note the differences in
Tut’s relief at right compared to the much more casual and
familial scene of Akhenaten and his family.
It was always held that he was a sickly boy suffering numerous
debilitating ailments likely cause by so much inbreeding in the
royal family. However, recently the Egyptian government has
issued reports that Tut was normal and healthy and disputes
earlier evidence to the contrary. Some suspect they are
idealizing the dead pharaoh to improve his marketability.
Tut also died suddenly and under mysterious circumstances
and his widow pleaded with the king of the Hittites to send a
prince to marry her or she would be forced to marry Ay, an
advisor to Tut whom some suspect murdered the young
pharaoh in a power grab. The Hittite prince never made it to
Egypt, disappearing somewhere along the road. It’s likely that
he also died suddenly and under mysterious circumstances as
there was a lot of that going around at that time. The records
indicate that Queen Ankhesenamun was married to Ay in a
public ceremony, then simply vanished never to be or heard
from again.
She probably died suddenly and under mysterious
circumstances.

44
The relief seen in detail on Slide 45 is the back of a golden
chair from Tut’s tomb. Discovered in 1922 by British
explorer and adventurer Howard Carter, it contained many
treasures because it had been restored after being looted by
thieves almost immediately following Tut’s entombment.
No pharaoh’s tomb has been located to date that had not
been pillaged. Tut’s was also looted but the items were
restored and was undisturbed until 1922.

45
This is the sarcophagus of Tutankhamen, the
innermost of three that contained his body. This one
is made of solid gold and weighs nearly 300 pounds.
The beard is not really the pharaoh’s own facial hair.
It is held on with a string. The pharaohs routinely
wore the bear as a symbol of office. Even the few
women pharaohs would wear them.
If the portrait of the pharaoh was done while he (or
she) was still living, the beard was depicted as
straight. If the image was created post-mortem, then
the beard has a small curl and the bottom to indicate
that the pharaoh was deceased.

46
Tut’s Mummy Case
A full length view of Tut’s golden sarcophagus. .

47
This view better reveals the details of the mask and
the use of lapis lazuli to create the contrasting gold
and blue.
Being a minor pharaoh whose reign was short and
relatively uneventful, Tut’s treasure was mostly
gold. Gold was cheaper in Egypt than was silver
which needed to be imported and thus cost more.
A major pharaoh, like Ramses II, would have had
his tomb filled with silver.

48
Temple at Karnak
Located north of Luxor, this complex covers 247 acres, making it one of if not the largest religious sites in the world. It
was built over a 1300 year span with some 30 pharaohs contributing to the development.

49The complex is now in a generally poor state of condition due to neglect over the centuries. It remains Egypt’s second
most popular tourist site.

50
Many pharaohs included their portraits at Karnak. This one happens to be Ramses II.

51
Karnak relief of the Pharaoh
“The king is the land and the land is the king” is a common concept. The
ancient Egyptians believed the divine pharaoh needed to ensure the fertility
of the crop land by blessing it with his own seed. So once each year the
Pharaoh participated in a ceremony at Karnak that included him
masturbating onto the ground.
That would explain the engraved image at right. Male fertility figures are
not as common as females, but when you do encounter one it is usually quite
dramatic and unmistakable as to purpose.
We can see why they made this guy pharaoh… or maybe it’s just some
idealization going on?

52
Palace at Knossos
The Palace at Knossos is all that
remains of a culture once found on
the island of Crete. When the ruins
were discovered by the ancient
Greeks they thought the sprawling
structure was the palace of the
mythical King Minos who is famous
for constructing the labyrinth to
imprison his monstrous grandson,
the Minotaur. The Minotaur was
half man and half bull and was the
result of a relationship between the
king’s daughter and a bull.
Because the Greeks thought this was
the home of Minos they dubbed the
long lost culture the Minoans. We
do not know what they actually
called themselves.
An artist’s concept of the original
structure can be seen on Slide 55.

54
The columns used in the Palace at
Knossos are unique in that they
feature a reverse taper. They are
larger at the top than at the bottom
and this is not found anywhere else.

55
Queen’s Megaron
Megaron means “big room”
and this one features a wall
painting of fish and dolphins.
But the painting is a
reconstruction, done from a
very small surviving piece so it
may not be accurate. That’s
always the problem with
reconstructions. Always be
cautious with reconstructions
because we often don’t know
how accurate they are to the
original.
The Octopus Jar in Slide 61 is
another example of Minoan
decorative arts with a sea life
theme.

56
Queen’s Megaron
Another view that better shows
the wall painting. Compare this
image to the photo in the next
slide to illustrate how different
objects can appear in photos due
to lighting and other variables.
Looking at photos of art is really
an awful way to see it but
sometimes we have no choice.

58
Octopus Jar from Crete c. 1500 BC

59
This is a bathtub. The Palace at Knossos is the
earliest known building that is plumbed and featured
running water. There were even flush toilets.
A popular decorative theme with the Minoans was sea
life as can be seen on the tub in Slide 63.
Slide 64 shows some of the terra cotta (fired clay)
pipes that carried the water and Slides 65 to 67 show
the system of waste water removal using gravity to
force the used water to flow down open channels and
away from the palace.

61
Exposed plumbing at Knossos.
The pipes are made of fired
clay, called “terra cotta.”

62
This slide and the following two illustrate how waste water
was carried away from the Palace at Knossos. No electric
pumps were available so gravity was used to channel waste
water down the hill out and away from the building where
it dumped into a large sump.

65
Bull-Leaping “Fresco”
This is actually a wall painting in the Palace at Knossos and not a true fresco. A fresco is painted on wet plaster that has been
applied to the wall or ceiling but this was dubbed a “fresco” when discovered and the name stuck.
The painting depicts some sort of activity involving athletes and a bull. Two men and one woman are seen engaged in either a sport
or ritual. The men are shown as darker colored and this is typical in art. Even in modern motion picture production the actors use a
darker tone of make-up than do the actresses. We can only speculate as to which type of event is taking place (ritual or game) but
being coeducational a game might be more likely than a religious ceremony which tended to be segregated by sex.
Of course, there’s always the possibility that this event never occurred at all, and is merely a product of the artist’s imagination. If
this were the only depiction of such activity known we would be guessing but it is not the only such depiction. Slide 72 shows a
small bronze sculpture of a woman leaping a bull and Slide 73 depicts a ring with a similar scene displayed and Slide 74 is a
painted diagram detailing the bull-leaping process. With so many depictions of bull-leaping it’s likely that they really did this.
Note that both women and the man in the painting are dressed the same. They all wear only a short skirt. It’s important later to
recall that Minoan women apparently always went topless.

70
This young man is obviously a participant in the bull-leaping sport or
ritual (as the case may be). His elaborate headdress signifies his
status, but whether it is as a competitor, or an initiate, is unknown at
this time.
We presume there is a bull tethered at the other end of the rope he
holds.

71
Cycladic sculpture c. 2500-1100 BC
The name Cycladic comes from the circular nature of the island chain located in
the Aegean Sea. From a long lost culture once there are these sculptures that were
likely used for ceremonial purposes although we don’t know exactly how they
were used or for what purposes.
These figures will vary in size from about 12” to around 5’ in height. At 5’ it is
technically considered life size and thus becomes the earliest known life size nude
statutes in history. Slide 77 shows how many of these figures are very similar in
appearance. The figure in Slide 78 is radically different, almost having an
“African feel” to the design.
Most of them seem to depict young females so a possible use in initiation rites for
young women comes to mind. But there are other figures that defy this conclusion.
Slide 79 shows a similar figure except she is very obviously pregnant (which
would not fit with the initiation ceremony notion). Slide 80 depicts a pregnant
looking figure with a child perched atop her head. Very odd. Slide 81 is
interesting because the figure appears to be wearing polka-dot bikini bottoms.
There is still great debate and disagreement over the interpretation of the Cycladic
figures. Some argue the seated harpist is female. Others say it’s a fertility god and
the harp is actually an enormous phallus (your instructor disagrees with both
interpretations). The culture that produced this art left no written language and few
clues to help us.

77
Mesopotamian Figure
Often cultures will influence one another in creating art, and
sometimes two cultures will independently develop
similarities. There are certainly some resemblance between the
Cycladic figures and this Mesopotamian statuette.

78
Slide 84 shows male musician figures. One plays a harp while seated and the other stands to blow on a flute. These musician figures are
always male and are always found in a broken state suggesting that they may gave been deliberately broken. Perhaps they were smashed as
part of the ritual or maybe they were seen as one-time use objects and were broken after being used once. Slide 85 is a detail of the harpist
figure.
It was once thought that all male Cycladic figures were musicians but some differing statues have come to light. The taller figure in Slide 86
is clearly male and plays no instrument. The other figure seems like an older female. The male figure in Slide 87 doesn’t appear to be a
musician, but instead seems to be enjoying a beverage. Obviously we don’t have all the answers to how these statuettes were used.

82
Cycladic Male Figure Offering Toast

84
Minoan Snake Goddess
The snake is an old and powerful fertility symbol. The snake is somewhat
phallic shaped; often lives in a hole in the ground (womb associations);
reproduces masses of offspring; and sheds its skin giving it the aura of
regeneration and healing in addition to its fertility associations. This is why
snakes are a part of the symbol for the medical arts.
This figure is called a goddess but that’s just the name applied to it. We do
not know for sure that she is supposed to represent a deity. She may be a
priestess or an initiate. She wears a goat-skin skirt and the goat was another
popular and common fertility symbol amongst ancient people due to the high
frequency of their breeding (the goats, not the ancient people).
A house cat is perched atop the “goddesses” head. There are no known
fertility associations with cats so the meaning behind its inclusion is not clear.
The figure is overdressed for being Minoan. Depictions in art of Minoan
women invariably show them as topless and it’s assumed this was normal
dress for them. Yet this figure is completely garbed except that the bodice is
cut away to reveal the breasts. This is surely to direct the viewer’s attention
to this area and remind us that she is showing her breasts as a fertility
reference. This is not case of casual nudity, it is deliberate and intentional
exposure.

85
Why the Snake as Fertility Figure?
• Phallic Shape
• Lives in a Burrow
• Sheds its Skin
• Produces Masses of Offspring
• Why is the Cat a Fertility Symbol?
• I have no Idea

86
Another Snake Goddess figure (the snakes are wrapped around her upper
arms rather than held in her hands), this one cups her exposed breasts in
her hands while gazing down at them. This is no doubt a deliberate
attempt to direct our attention to her breasts as a means to separate this
symbolic nudity from the casual habit of Minoan women to go topless on
a regular basis.

87
Terminology
• Phases or Periods of Greek Art:
Archaic (Older than 480 BC)
Classical (c. 480 BC – 325 BC)
Hellenistic (Post 325 BC)

88
Definitions
Geometric is angular and not natural.
Oriental is borrowed from Eastern styles.
Archaic is somewhat crude.
Classical is refined but not totally natural.
Hellenistic is natural and shows emotion.

89
Terminology
Greek pottery came in many styles for many different uses. Each style of vase or bowl
had a specific name.
Painters and potters were not the same. Usually only the potter signed the piece.
Two common types of Greek vases are
Black Figure Ware (black figures on a reddish background)
and Red Figure Ware (red figures on a black background)
Or Black Ware and Red Ware for short.

90
Styles of Greek Pottery
Amphora: Double-handled storage jar with narrow neck and wide mouth.
Krater: Large storage jar.
Kylix: Shallow drinking bowl with two handles.

91
Phases of Greek Sculpture
Geometric – Very simple forms made from basic geometric shapes. Dates c. 900 - 700 BC
Oriental – Influenced by Eastern styles. Dates 700 – 600 BC
Archaic – Stiff and formal with unrealistic, angular features. Dates c. 600 - 480 BC.
Classical – More natural looking but not quite realistic with the total lack of emotion. Dates c. 480-325 BC.
Hellenistic – Very realistic form with great expression of emotion. Dates from c. 325 BC.

92
Dipylon Vase. 42” ht. Geometric grave marker C. 540 BC
All right, scholars, what style of pottery is this?
If you responded “krater” you are correct.

93
Dipylon Vase detail.
Large vases or even life-sized sculpture could have been used as grave markers. The painting on this vase depicts a
funeral scene suggesting such a use.

94
Dionysus in the Boat c. 540 BC
Dionysus was the Greek god of the vines; the
grapes; wine and drunken orgies. The story goes
that he was kidnapped by pirates as he slept off a
wild party. He awoke onboard their ship and
caused grape vines to grow all over it. The pirates
jumped overboard in their panic and Dionysus
turned them into dolphins. He then steered the boat
for home so he could look for another party. This
theme is perfect for a kylix from which wine would
be consumed.
The Greeks did not portray their gods as perfect
beings. Rather, they embodied all the foibles and
failings that beset humans.
This is an example of black ware, with black figures
on a reddish background.

95
Herakles Strangling the Nemean Lion amphora 525 BC Psiax
Another black ware vase, this one depicts the
demigod (half human and half god) Herakles
strangling a huge lion with his bare hands.
Never heard of Herakles? Perhaps you know him
better by his Roman name, Hercules. The
Romans took all the Greek gods and heroes and
renamed them.
After killing the lion Herakles skinned it and
wore the hide as one of his attributes (a thing that
allows us to identify an individual). His other
primary attribute was his great club which he
preferred over a sword or spear.

96
Red Figure Ware
This is red ware, with red figures on a dark
or black background. This scene shows
Artemis, the Greek goddess of the hunt,
slaying Actaeon for having spied on her
while she bathed in a stream.

97
Erotic art has been popular in many cultures
from many different times and places. The
ancient Greeks and Romans both produced
sexually explicit art in large quantities. As the
Roman city of Pompeii was excavated, numerous
houses with pornographic (from the Greek porno
for prostitute and graphic for writing or
drawing) paintings on the walls were uncovered.
Initially, these were identified as brothels, with
the paintings meant to display what services were
available. But eventually archaeologists
concluded that there simply couldn’t be so many
brothels in a town the size of Pompeii and they
realized that these were private homes. The
Romans just liked their porn so much they
decorated their homes with it.
Of course, many erotic art pieces didn’t survive
the Christian rule when offensive art was
destroyed. The paintings in Pompeii were spared
due to being buried since 79 AD. But many
painted object as well as vases and urns with
sexually suggestive scenes were hidden from the
Christians and are still with us. This relief
sculpture on a Grecian urn is one of the milder
images the instructor has observed and may be
the only one he is comfortable presenting to
students. Most of these depictions are extremely
graphic.

98
Psykter (vase for cooling wine). 520 BC
The ancient Greeks drank wine almost as casually as we drink water.
Indeed, most of Europe considers wine to be a daily consumable and
even small children grow up drinking it on a regular basis. Vases for
storing and cooling wine are common from many ancient cultures.
The Greeks had a specific name for these vases.
Scenes of warriors and warfare are frequently encountered although
the instructor is unaware of the significance of warriors riding
dolphins.

99
Achilles and Ajax Playing a Dice Game c. 520BC Andokides (painter)
This slide and the next depict two sides of the same vase. Look at both
and see if you can figure out what is rather unusual about this vase.

100
Achilles and Ajax Playing a Dice Game c. 520BC Andokides (painter)

101
Greek Sculpture
Kouros = Youth
Kore = Maiden
The vast majority of Greek sculpture was originally in bronze. When we have a Greek
sculpture in marble in most cases it is actually a Roman copy of the Greek original.
The Romans so admired the Greeks they stole all of their architecture; gods; and art.
Many Roman artists were kept busy copying Greek art for Roman patrons. Wealthy
Romans wore Greek clothing, taught their children to speak Greek, and filled their
homes with Greek art.

102
Phases of Greek Sculpture
A reminder.
Geometric – Very simple forms made from basic geometric shapes. Dates c. 900 - 700 BC
Oriental – Influenced by Eastern styles. Dates 700 – 600 BC
Archaic – Stiff and formal with unrealistic, angular features. Dates c. 600 - 480 BC.
Classical – More natural looking but not quite realistic with the total lack of emotion. Dates c. 480-325 BC.
Hellenistic – Very realistic form with great expression of emotion. Dates from c. 325 BC.

103
Kore figure 650 BC limestone 24.5”
This figures bears a striking resemblance to those from Egypt and the
Middle East. This is an example of the Oriental Period. Notice the
similarity to the Egyptian queen seen below.
A female figure is called a kore, meaning maiden.
These early figures are of stone, but the Greek artists would eventually
come to prefer cast bronze as their material of choice.

104
Kouros, or youth, is the male figure. This example is dates from c. 600
BC and would be seen as the Oriental Period. Note how the left foot is
slightly forward. Now go back to the previous slide and compare this
figure to image of the pharaoh.
One difference noted between the kore and kouros figures is the
manner of dress. In the vast majority of cases the kore will be fully
clothed while the kouros will be nude. Female nudity in Greek art is
fairly rare while nude male figures are actually the norm rather than
the exception. The ancient Greeks worshipped physical fitness,
exercise and sport (they did invent the Olympics, remember) so the
image of the ideal male physique, muscular and athletic, becomes what
is called the warrior/athlete ideal. Their thinking was that if you had a
body that looked this good why would you want to cover it up?
In fact, the original Olympic games featured the athletes competing
nude. The word gymnasium is from the Greek gymnos, meaning
naked so gymnasium literally means “place to get naked” which to a
Greek would mean a place to exercise and play sports. Similarly,
gymnastics means “naked activities.”

105
Kouros from Anavysos 525 BC marble 6’4”
This kouros figure begins to depart from the Eastern influence
(although the posture still bears a striking resemblance to Egyptian
sculpture) and starts to establish the Greek ideal. Notice that the
figure is more naturalistic looking than any of the previous kouros
and kore figures we have seen. As Greek sculpture matures, gets
closer to the present time, the figures become increasingly realistic
looking.
This piece has moved beyond the Oriental Period. Into which
period would you assign it?
Any sculpture between 4’ and 7’ in height is considered life-sized.
But at 6’4” this youth would have been a giant to the ancient
Greeks. Due largely to the lack of meat protein in their diet, the
Greeks did not get very large. The average Greek man was only
5’2”. Yjay was the average, mind you, meaning many grown men
were well under 5’ in height. It is shocking at first to see the
clothing and armor from ancient Greece in museums because they
look like they are for children rather than adult warriors.

106
Peplos Kore detail 530 BC
This is called the Peplos Kore due to the garment
the figure wears. It’s a style of dress called a
peplos. Note the remnants of red paint on the
statue. We tend to think of all Greek sculpture
and architecture in terms of the clean, white
marble as it now appears after centuries of wear.
But originally all the statues and buildings were
painted, usually in bright, polychromatic (more
than one) colors. These things would appear
somewhat garish to our eyes, but that’s the way the
Greeks preferred them.

107
Kritios Boy. 480 BC
The Kritios Boy is generally accepted as the first use of contrapposto,
where the body is shown in a more natural posture with more weight
being borne on one leg. Prior to this development standing figures
were much more rigid and looked forced and unnatural.
Although Archaic in design, the Kritios Boy starts to show us the more
natural form that would became standard in the Classical period.

108
Discus Thrower 450 BC Myron
This statue is in the basement of the Vatican Museum. It’s
an example of Classical period sculpture. Indeed, it’s what
is called “5th
century Greek” by art historians to denote its
date of creation as in the 5th
century BC. Greek sculpture
from this period appeals to many historians who generally
consider this art style to be the pinnacle of Western art.
This is a Roman copy of the Greek original. Greek artists
preferred to work in bronze while Roman sculptors favored
marble. After Rome conquered Greece they looted all the
art they could ship back to Rome as it was popular with the
upper class Romans. Greek artists were put to work for
Roman patrons and Roman artists were employed making
copies of Greek originals.
The Vatican Museum basement is where the second-rate
material is stored more than actually displayed. Even a
copy of a 5th
century Greek sculpture would be a prize to
any collector or museum so there must be some reason why
this piece is treated so shabbily. There is.
When found, the head was separated and the neck smashed
and lost. A reconstructed neck was made and the head
reattached. Unfortunately, later discoveries of other copies
of this figure revealed that the head was on incorrectly. The
next slide shows one of the later versions that was found
with the head in place.

109
When working in marble it’s necessary to support
the legs on a standing figure because marble is both
heavy and easily broken, which is a bad
combination. Note the tree stump holding up the
discus thrower’s left leg. Any marble statue of a life-
size human will require such a support and allows
quick assessment of the material when viewing a
photograph.
Bronze sculpture, being hollow, is lighter than
stone and stronger. No such support mechanism is
needed with bronze.
Despite the superior strength and durability of
bronze far fewer bronze statues have survived from
antiquity than have marble figures. The reason is
because unlike stone, metal can be recycled. Every
time some king declared a war the soldiers would go
around with wagons collecting bronze statues to be
melted and used to make swords or cannonballs.

110
This view illustrates just how much the figure relies on
the support element by the leg. Marble is simply too
heavy and too brittle to allow life-sized figures to freely
stand their own feet. The ankles would snap under the
weight.

111
Charioteer of Delphi 470 BC
This is a life-size bronze statue from the 5th
century BC. The Greeks preferred to
sculpt in bronze while Roman artists favored marble. These life-size Greek statues
from the 5th
century (BC is implied) are amongst the most valuable and sought-after
pieces in the art world. Many art historians consider the 5th
century Greek pieces to
be the pinnacle of ancient art. Up until 1972 only two such statues were known to
exist.
Bronze is sturdier and more durable than marble yet far fewer bronze works have
survived from antiquity. The reason is because unlike stone, metal can be recycled.
Every time a king declared war the soldiers would go around in wagons collecting
bronze statues for melting into swords or cannonballs. This one survived only
because the owners buried it in the backyard, hiding it from the soldiers. They
couldn’t save the chariot and team of horses that were a part of the original
composition.
This may have been used as grave marker.
The next slide gives us a closer look at the figure from a slightly different angle.

112
Charioteer of Delphi detail

113
Zeus/Poseidon c. 450 BC
This is the other 5th
century Greek bronze
known to have survived prior to 1972. It
depicts either Zeus or Poseidon but we cannot
say for sure which.
Note how the figure stands on its feet without
any support built into the sculpture. This can
only be done with the lighter and stronger
bronze. A figure like this in marble would
break its ankles because of the great weight of
stone combined with its inherent brittleness.

114
This is why we cannot accurately identify the figure. His
attribute is missing. Zeus would have held a lightning bolt
(and in sculpture it was rendered as round in shape) while
his brother Poseidon would have wielded the trident.
In Greek tri means three and dent means teeth. Thus
trident is Greek for “three teeth” and is a perfect
description of the item.

115
Herakles 460 BC
This small statuette is identified as Herakles
(Hercules). Why do you think the instructor might
question this identification? Click for the answer.
You gave up too quickly. Think about it some
more. Look at the figure and think about what we
know of Herakles. Why does the statuette not
seem to fit the description?
Hopefully you noticed that the figure appears to
have once held a shield in his left hand. Herakles
wielded a great club as a weapon and didn’t carry a
shield.

116
Riace Warrior c. 5th century BC
Stefano Mariottini was on vacation at Riace when during a scuba dive
on August 16, 1972 he discovered not one but two 5th
century Greek
life-sized bronzes. They are warriors bearing shields and weapons
(lost while under the sea) and may have been intended to serve as gate
guardian figures. They were dubbed Warrior A (pictured) and
Warrior B. Collectively they are known as the Riace Warriros.
The Italian government gave Mariotti a $10,000 reward which is really
a pittance compared the value of the statues. They spent $10,000,000
cleaning the pieces after 2,500 years at the bottom of the ocean and in
today’s market they would likely fetch $500,000,000 (half a billion
dollars) or more each!
See the next slide for front and rear views of Warrior A..

118
The Warrior A figure features bone and glass inserts for
the eyes, copper lips and nipples, and silver dental
coverings. This was an effort to introduce some color to
the pieces.

119
Warrior B
Warrior B is clearly not a mirror image of the other
figure. Although similar, they are not exactly alike. The
next slide offers a side by side comparison.

121
Of course, every museum in Italy wanted to display the Warriors, but the people in the Riace region insisted
they stay put. People responded by saying there was no museum there. But the people of Riace said that they
would build one. So they did. See the next slide.

122
The Riace Warriors on solitary display
Being so far out of the way in Riace, the Warriors stand alone as the sole display in the small museum with few
visitors coming to see them. It might be better if the Warriors were displayed where more people could have the
chance to see them.

123
Commemorative Sculpture from Pergamon
Information on these two statues can be confusing and inconclusive. Various authors claim that they are original Greek marbles
while others insist they are Roman copies. If reproductions they show the skill of a very talented copy artist.
The figures celebrate a victory by the Greeks over the Gauls. There is mention in the literature of three pieces in the
commemorative set but only two are ever pictured with no mention of the location or fate of the missing piece.
The first one pictured, The Dying Gaul, shows a mortally wounded warrior contemplating the wound in his side as well his own
death. See Slide 60. The figure is rendered as strong and athletic. Even as he dies he is depicted as a virile and powerful fighting
man, a worthy opponent, indeed. Not all cultures celebrated their enemies in art. The ancient Egyptians pictured their enemies as
weak and helpless.
In Slide 61 we see the Gaul Chieftain and his wife. The Greeks are closing in on the leader of the defeated Gaul force and rather
than be taken prisoner, he has killed his wife and now takes his own life in a last act of defiance before his enemies. A warrior
culture would respect and admire such personal bravery and dedication and indeed Slide 34 illustrates how powerful and muscular
the figure appears.
Note the struts supporting the Chieftain’s cape, and other struts bridging between the male and female figures. Certainly the artist
would prefer to not include such distractions in the composition but they are necessary for support given the fragile nature of
marble.

124
Dying Gaul 240 BC Epigonos

125
Gaul Chieftain and Wife
Certainly this Gaul Chieftain looks athletic and powerful,
something the Greeks would have admired. His actions,
choosing death over the dishonor of capture would also have
appealed to a warrior culture like the ancient Greeks.
As we saw previously with the Venus of Laussel, sculpture can
appear quite different depending on lighting and the angle
from which it is viewed. The next slide is a photo of this same
sculpture but features lighting that dramatically illustrates
just how heroic the Greek artist rendered the subject.

126
This photo reveals how huge and muscular the
Chieftain really is and puts to rest any notion
that the artist intended the warrior to look
worthless and weak.
In fact, the Chieftain has been sculpted in what
art historians call heroic proportions. The
typical human is about 5 & ½ heads high. If you
measure your head, you will find that you are
about 5.5x your own head in overall height.
When artists want to make a subject look more
powerful, they will depict them as six heads in
height, or even more. The comic book heroes
are routinely drawn as six heads in height, and
the Gaul Chieftain has been rendered as 6 & ½
heads high. At some point the figures cease to
look realistic when they get too tall.
Notice the struts supporting the cape and other
parts of the sculpture. This is not needed with
bronze.

127
Laocoön Group 150 BC
This sculpture depicts the murder of a seer and
his two adult sons by a god who favored the
attackers in the battle for troy. Laocoön foresaw
the dangers in the “Trojan Horse” and tried to
warn the other residents of the city to reject the
offered gift. To silence him before he could spoil
the plan a giant snake was sent to kill the three
men.
This statue clearly shows the romanticism
evident in Hellenistic Period work. In all of the
periods before Hellenistic, figures showed no
emotion no matter what was happening. In the
Hellenistic works we see joy, fear, pain, anguish,
etc. Also note the increasing naturalism of the
figures. In the Hellenistic the figures begin to
look like real people.
The next slide shows how the sculpture
originally appeared before being damaged and
Slide 65 shows this piece on display in the
courtyard of the Vatican Museum.

130
Seated Boxer 100 BC Apollonius
This bronze piece shows a professional fighter. His hands are
wrapped with leather straps as was the custom and his battered
and scarred face show the effect of years in the ring.
Although powerful and physically fit, the boxer is not a young
man. He likely remains in this line of work out of necessity,
lacking training and education to pursue another career.
The figure looks up, as if engaged in conversation with someone
standing nearby. Perhaps he is being asked to fight another
match. His expression reveals his weariness and lack of
enthusiasm for another fight.

131
No padded gloves back then.
Hands and forearms were
wrapped with leather and the
fighters would punch and club
one another into submission.
There were no “rounds” as in
modern boxing. Once the match
started, it continued until one
contestant was unable to
continue, surrendered or was
dead.

132
This view makes the muscular subject look almost
pathetic. He is tired and really doesn’t want to fight
another bout.

133
Clearly showing the effect of age and
physical abuse.

134
His nose has been broken many times. The battered
and disfigured ears and scarred face betray the
violence this man has known.
Why doesn’t he just retire? Why subject himself to
this continued abuse? Isn’t he well beyond the
typical retirement age for a professional fighter?
What are his options? He isn’t wealthy from years
of boxing, it didn’t pay much back then. He never
went to college. He is likely illiterate. What else can
he do to earn a living?
This piece can symbolize anyone trapped in a job or
other situation that they don’t like but from which
they cannot escape.

135
The Scraper by Lysippos c. 350-330 BC
I hope you described it as a Roman copy of a Greek original. You should
have noted that the material is marble but that the original was in bronze.
You ought to have mentioned that this is from the Classical Period of Greek
art.
Now for the tough question. What museum holds this statue? I know that
you are asking yourself “How the Hell am I supposed to know which
museum owns this?” but I wouldn’t ask if you couldn’t tell me based on
what you see.
This is an athlete who has rubbed himself with cleansing oils and is now
using a scraper to remove the oil. OK scholars, how would you formally
describe this sculpture?
Note that there was a support strut running from the figure’s right knee
up to his right forearm to support the arm. Of course this would have
been unnecessary in bronze and the original had so such strut. Ironically,
the arm is still present but the strut has been broken off and lost.
This is in the Vatican Museum. How can we tell?

136
Nike of Samothrace c. 200 BC
This statue is of Nike (victory in ancient Greek
and pronounced knee-kay). She is alighting on
the prow of a ship. The rendering of her garment
whipping about her body in the breeze is
testimony to the naturalness of the Hellenistic
Period.

137
Some of the missing pieces from the Nike
of Samothrace are displayed in the
Lourve. The fragmented hand would be
mush interesting if the intact finger had
happened to be the next one over.

138
Aphrodite of Melos 2nd
C BC
Another original Greek marble (there appears to be more of
these than some people would have us believe) this one is
world famous and better known by the Roman version of
her name.
Do you know the Roman interpretation of this statue’s
name?

139
Venus de Milo 2nd
century BC
Of course, Venus is the Roman goddess of love and beauty who is
counterpart to the Greek Aphrodite. This sculpture was found on the
island of Melos in 1820 and in Latin that name becomes Milo.

140
The instructor took this photo in 1989.
Rarely do books show sculpture from the
rear so such images are collected when
possible. You can also see the crowds one
encounters in the great museums of the
world.

141
Aphrodite and Pan c. 100 BC
Here Aphrodite fends off the unwanted sexual
advances of Pan, the best known of the Satyrs.
Her son, Eros, helps by grabbing Pan’s horns in
the effort to repel him. This is very symbolic as
horns are sexual signals in nature and were
associated with fertility by Pagans.
She slaps at him with her sandal, which in some
cultures is considered to be an insult.

142
Greek Architecture
There are three styles, or orders, of Greek architecture which are most readily identified by the types of columns. Slide 89 shows all
three in side by side drawings. The Doric column (see Slide 90) is the shortest of the three and is the simplest with no decorative
element at the top, or capital. The Ionic column (see Slide 91) is taller than the Doric and has a capital that looks like a scroll that
is unrolling and falling off the top. The Corinthian column (see Slide 92) is the same height as the Ionic but features a plant-like
form as the capital.
This plant represents the acanthus, found in the delta region of the Nile River in Egypt. Since the Egyptians invented the
architectural column the Greeks may have been making reference to this fact and acknowledging the origins of this important
element in Greek architecture.

143
Architectural Orders
Doric Ionic Corinthian

147
At Paestum, Italy is found a pair of Greek temples built side-by-side (Slide 94). Such a thing is not found anywhere else.
The taller of the two is the newer by about 100 years. As a general rule in architecture newer is taller as people have a
tendency to go taller with buildings over time. Dedicated to the goddess Hera, who watched over wives and mothers,
modern Italian women will still make a pilgrimage to this temple on their wedding days to have their photos taken on the
steps of the temple for good luck. Old habits die hard.
Slides 95-98 are various views and Slide 99 shows a portion of Roman road made from stone filled with concrete.
What style of columns do we see on the Temple of Hera at Pasetum?
Hera was the patron goddess of married women. If you go to Paestum on a Saturday morning many women in their
wedding gowns will be here having their pictures taken on their wedding day standing on the steps of the temple for good
luck. Why would 21st
century women, most of whom are Roman Catholic, pay homage to an ancient Greek goddess?
Old habits die hard.

148
Temple of Hera at Paestum 550-460 BC

149
Temple of Hera at Paestum 550-460 BC

154
Parthenon in Athens 460 BC
The Parthenon was built on a hilltop overlooking the city of Athens. It was built during the Classical period and is of the Doric Order.
The ancient Greeks were obsessed with mathematics and the Parthenon was designed around the concept of the “Golden Section,”
which is a rectangle with a ratio of 1.66/1 and the Greeks considered this to be the perfect shape and the most aesthetically pleasing
rectangle.
The Parthenon was part of a complex of buildings located on the Acropolis. In Greek acropolis means “high part of the city” (acro =
high and polis = city) and every Greek city had an are so named. Like many cultures, they preferred to build their temples on the
highest point. “The Acropolis” usually refers to the most famous one in Athens.
The Turks occupied and controlled Greece from 1458 when the Turks captured Athens until 1829 when a unified Europe threatened
Turkey with war if they didn’t free the Greeks. On March 25, 1821 Greeks rose up against Turkish rule which resulted in violent
reprisals by the ruling sultan. Stories of mass killings at places like Chios swayed other nations into action against Turkey.
On September 26, 1687 the Parthenon was struck by an artillery shell during a battle between the Ottoman forces and attacking
military units from the Venetian city-state. Munitions stored inside the structure detonated leaving the building in ruins.
Thomas Bruce, Earl of Elgin (called Lord Elgin) was Britain's ambassador to the Ottoman Empire from 1799 – 1803. In 1801 he
sought permission from the sultan to remove sculpture from the Parthenon complex. Between 1801 and 1812 his people removed
about half of the art work from the Parthenon as well as other items from surrounding buildings and shipped them to England. The
British government purchased the material from Lord Elgin and these items are now in the British Royal Museum in London. Since
regaining independence in 1829 the Greeks have been seeking the return of the material taken from Athens by Lord Elgin. So far,
these attempts have been unsuccessful.

155
The Parthenon is the most important and characteristic monument of the ancient Greek civilization and still remains its
international symbol. It was dedicated to Athena Parthenos, the patron goddess of Athens.
It was built between 447 and 438 B.C. and its sculptural decoration was completed in 432 B.C. The construction of the monument
was initiated by Perikles, the supervisor of the whole work was Pheidias, the famous Athenian sculptor, while Iktinos and
Kallikrates were the architects of the building.
The Parthenon was built using what the Greeks called the “Golden Section.” This is a rectangle with a ration of 1.66:1 and is
considered to be the most perfect of designs.
The columns are tilted slightly inward at the top to compensate for the optical illusion that makes them appear to lean outwards as
one looks up at them.
At some point iron grates were added between the columns as wealthy Athenians stored their valuables in the building, turning it
into a bank.
Slide 103 shows a reconstruction of the original Parthenon complex. Note the date on the slide. On that date a Phoenician warship
fired a cannon ball into the Parthenon detonating gun powder stored there by the Turkish army. Up until that moment the
building was in pretty good shape. The resulting explosion left it as we see it now.

156
Parthenon in Athens 460 BC

157
Parthenon prior to September 26, 1687.

158
The Athenian government spent so much
money on the Parthenon, like for this 38’ tall
gold-covered statue of Athena (artist’s concept
of original at right), that it left the city
bankrupt. When attacked by another city
there was no money to raise and equip an army
and the city was conquered.

159
The Parthenon as it appears today. The modern structure at the lower left of the complex area is a museum
housing the remaining artworks associated with the Parthenon.

160
The Acropolis
Acro = High
Polis = City
Acropolis literally means “high part of the city” and this is where
the Greeks built their temples.

161
From around 1500 until 1832 Greece was under the control of Turkey, being part of the Ottoman Empire. In
1821 Greeks began rebelling and many European nations, feeling more kinship towards Greece than to Turkey,
supported them militarily. Finally, Europe delivered an ultimatum to the Turkish Emir, demanding Greece’s
independence under the threat of war against a united Europe.
Once Greece regained its independence, among the first orders of business was to demand that England return
the art that Lord Elgin had looted years earlier. Great Britain’s response was to say… no. They have been
arguing over this matter ever since.
The following slides show what little sculpture remains attached to the Parthenon and some of the pieces
currently displayed in the British Royal Museum in London that are the subject of debate between England and
Greece.

162
The only remaining sculpture on the Parthenon following the explosion. Slide 109 shows more Parthenon sculpture in
the British Royal Museum.

164
Erectheum
The Erctheum is one of the structures in the Parthenon complex. The rear of the building has an interesting feature called The
Porch of the Maidens. You will see why it’s called this.
A column sculpted in a male form is called an Atlantian Figure after Atlas, who supposedly bore the Earth upon his powerful
shoulders. A support column sculpted in female form is called a caryatid. The caryatids are always relaxed and show no strain of
holding up the weight while the Atlantians are always straining and struggling under the weight.

166
Erectheum- Porch of the Maidens. 421-405 BC
The Erectheum featured six support columns sculpted in the
form of women. Such columns are called caryatids and Lord
Elgin removed one of the figures and sent it to England along
with the other material looted from the Parthenon and other
buildings in the complex.
When the caryatid in the Britisih Royal Musem was compared to
those remaining on the Erectheum a few years ago it was noted
that the one in London showed far less wear and damage. It was
determined that the severe air pollution in Athens was causing
“acid rain” which was eroding the soft marble of the statues.
The original caryatids were relocated inside a museum and
fiberglass replicas were installed. The missing caryatid was not
replaced by the Greek authorities, who instead placed a sign at
the location reading “the figure that belongs here was stolen by
the English.”

167
Erectheum- Porch of the Maidens. 421-405 BC

168
Caryatid in British Museum

169
Temple of Athena Nike c. 420 B.C. by the architect Kallikrates
“The Temple of the Victorious
Athena” is another structure in
the complex.
Which order is this building?

170
The monumental gateway of the Acropolis was designed by the architect Mnesikles and constructed in 437-432 B.C.
It comprises a central building and two lateral wings. The colonnades along the west and east sides had a row of
Doric columns while two rows of Ionic columns divided the central corridor into
three parts.
The Propylaea

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