UNIT_I_INTRODUCTION_TO_PHARMACOGNOSY.pptx

UNIT I
INTRODUCTION TO PHARMACOGNOSY,
CLASIFICATION OF CRUDE DRUGS,
QALITY CONTROL OF CRUDE DRUGS OF NATURAL ORIGIN
1
Prepared by: Ms. Divya Kanojiya
Assistant Professor in Pharmacognosy
Sumandeep Vidyapeeth Deemed to be University

 INTRODUCTION TO PHARMACOGNOSY:
→ DEFINITION, HISTORY, SCOPE AND DEVELOPMENT OF PHARMACOGNOSY
→ SOURCES OF DRUGS – PLANTS, ANIMALS, MARINE AND TISSUE CULTURE
→ ORGANIZED DRUGS, UNORGANIZED DRUGS( DRIED LATEX, DRIED JUICES, DRIED EXTRACTS,GUMS
AND MUCILAGES, OLEORESINS AND OLEO-GUM-RESINS)
 CLASIFICATION OF CRUDE DRUGS:
→ ALPHABETICAL CLASSIFICATION,
→ MORPHOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION,
→ TAXONOMICAL CLASSIFICATION,
→ CHEMICAL CLASSIFICATION,
→ PHARMACOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION,
→ CHEMO TAXONOMICAL CLASSIFICATION AND
→ SERO TAXONOMICAL CLASSIFICATION
 QALITY CONTROL OF CRUDE DRUGS OF NATURAL ORIGIN:
→ ADULTERATION OF DRUGS OF NATURAL ORIGIN.
→ EVALUATION BY ORGANOLEPTIC, MICROSCOPIC, PHYSICAL, CHEMICAL AND BIOLOGICAL METHODS
AND PROPERTIES.
2
C ONT E NT:

INTRODUCTION
 Pharmacognosy is the branch of science which deals with the study of
crude drugs from natural source like plant, animal and mineral kingdom.
The term was first used by German Scientist known as Seydler in 1815 in
his book "Analecta Pharmacognostica".
 The term is derived from two Latin words
1) Pharmakon-means drug
2) Gignosco - means to have knowledge
3

 In pharmacognosy a systemic complete study of crude drug is done by following
parameters:
1) Common name
2) Botanical source/Biological source
3) Family
4) Geographical source
5) Cultivation, Collection & Preparation
6) Morphological studies
7) Microscopic studies
8) Phytoconstituents
9) Therapeutic use
10) Adulterant
11) Allied drugs
4

 Common name: It gives the general idea about the crude plants.
 Botanical Source- It is the official source of the crude plants.
 Family- It gives the idea about the plant family.
 Geographical Source- It gives the idea about habitat or place where the plant is found.
 Cultivation, Collection & Preparation-Cultivation play major important role in the growth
of the plant. Growth of the plant is affected by various factors which are as follows:
1. Altitude
2. Climate
3. Rainfall
4. Soil & Soil fertility
5. Fertilizer
6. Pest & pest control
 Collection of crude plant also play important role because content of phytoconstituent differ
from time to time.
5

 Morphological characters- It is not necessary that whole part of the plant is
important, it may happen only some part of the plant is important. These
parts may vary in nature. The various morphological parameters are as
follows-
1. Shape
2. Size
3. Color
4. Odour
5. Taste
6. Extra feature
6

 Microscopic Characters- It gives the idea about the histological tissue and
cells content present in particular part of the plant. Hence it is also known as
histological studies. It is done with the help of microscope
 Phytoconstituents- These are the chemical substance present in plant. These
chemical substances can be identified by general chemical test or micro-
chemical test. Thin Layer Chromatography (TLC). Paper Chromatography,
High Performance Thin Layer Chromatography (HPTLC) & High
Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC). Therapeutic use- It gives the
idea about the pharmacological action and use of the drug.
7

 Adulterant- An adulterant is the drug which resemble the original drug or
drug but inferior in quality and purity.
 Evaluation of drug- Means to determine their identity, purity & quality of
drugs. There are five methods by which drug can be evaluated which are as
follows
1) Morphological/Macroscopic/Organoleptic
2) Microscopic method
3) Physical method
4) Chemical method
5) Biological method
8

HISTORY OF PHARMACOGNOSY
1. In India knowledge of medicinal plant is very old and medicinal properties are described in
Rigveda and Atharveda from which Ayurveda was developed.
2. Ayurveda include 'Charak Sanhita' deals mostly with plant and 'Sushrata Sanhita‘ deals with
surgery.
3. Hippocrates (460-370 B.C) called as father of medicine.
4. Aristotle (384-322 B.C), a student of Plato, was a philosopher. He is known for writing
animal kingdom.
5. Theophrastus (3 80-287 B.C) is a student of Aristotle known for writing plant kingdom.
6. Behtham and Hooker's (1862) have developed plant classification.
7. Berg (1865) he was known for writing anatomical atlas of crude drug.
8. Voehl and Tschrich: They wrote an anatomical atlas of powder crude drug. That was very
great importance during adulterants. 9

9. Greenish and Collin (1904): They compile the anatomical atlas of vegetable drug.
10. Dioscorides: A physician describes some medicinal plant like Belladonna, Opium, Ergo
and Colchicum.
11. Pliny: He wrote 37 volume of natural crude drug.
12. Galen(131-200 A.D): He revised method for preparation of plant drug which known as
Galenicals.
13. Le'mary reported importance of extraction method and alcohol to be used as best solvent.
14. Derosene (1803) extracted or isolated alkaloid Narcotine from Opium.
15. Sertuner (1806) isolated Morphine from Opium.
16. Other important discovery during the period were isolation of nicotine from tobacco by
scientist Reimann. Isolation of Ergometrine, Reserpine, Quinine and Quinidine, are the
significant discovery of 20th century.
→ In the 19th century the term Materia Medica was used for the subject which is now known
as Pharmacognosy.
10

SCOPE AND DEVELOPMENT OF PHARMACOGNOSY
 Pharmacognosy is an applied science, which play crucial role in the
development of different discipline of science. A pharmacognosist should
have sound knowledge of plant taxonomy, plant pathology, plant breeding
and plant genetics. This is helpful in the development of cultivation
technology for medicinal and aromatic plant. Phytochemistry is concerned
with variety of substance, which are synthesized and accumulated by plant
and deal with structural elucidation of this substance.
11

 Technology, involving extraction, purification and characterization of
pharmaceuticals obtained from natural sources, significant contribution to
the advancement of natural and physical science. We can say that
Pharmacognosy is an important link between Pharmacology and medicinal
chemistry. It is a vital link between Allopathic and Ayurvedic system of
medicine.
 The development of modem Pharmacognosy took place during 1934 to
1960. by application of organic chemistry, biochemistry, pharmacology and
analytical chemistry. The substance from the plant were isolated their
structure where elucidated and pharmacology of active constituents was
studied during this period. The development was mainly due to the
following four events:
12

1) Isolation of penicillin in 1928 by William Fleming and large scale
production in 1941 by Florey and Chain.
2) Isolation of reserpine from Rauwolfia roots and confirming its hypotensive
and tranquilizing properties.
3) Isolation of Vinca alkaloids, especially vincristine and vinblastine.
Vincristine was found useful in the treatment of leukemia. These alkaloids
also have anticancer properties.
4) Steroid hormones like progesterone were isolated by partial synthesis from
diosgenin and other steroid saponins by Marker's method. Form progesterone
by chemical and microbial reaction cortisone and hydrocortisone are
obtained.
13

SOURCES OF DRUGS
 Plants
 Animals
 Marine
 Tissue culture
14

 A drug may be defined as an intended for use in diagnoses, cure, mitigation,
prevention or treatment of disease in man or other animal, or indented to
alter a body function or structure of man or other animals.
 Classify sources of Drugs
1. Biological source
a) Higher plants
b) Microbes
c) Animals
2. Marine sources
3. Mineral source
4. Plant tissue culture
15

1. BIOLOGICAL SOURCE
• Higher plants a source of drugs Plants have been used in the treatment of
various diseases from time immemorial. The traditional Indian systems of
medicine.
• Ayurveda, Siddha, Unani systems are based on the use of plants & other
natural substances. There are 200,000 to 250,000 species of flowering
plants growing on earth, which belong to 10,500 general and about 300
families. These genera are source of drugs and are distributed among plant
families like:
16

 Solanaceae: Datura, Belladona, Hyocyamus etc.
 Cruciferae: Mustard
 Scrophulariaceae : Digitalis
 Leguminaceae: Senna
 Labitae: Tulsi, Pudina etc.
 Rutaceae: Lemon
 Rubiaceae: Cinchona
 Umbelliferae Fennel, Coriandes, caraway etc.
 Apocynaceae: Rauwolfia, Vinca
 Liliaceae: Scilla
 Graminae: Wheat rice and maize starch
 Papaveraceae Opium Dioscoreaceae: Dioscorea
 Spermatophytes:
 Angiosperms (Flowering plants): They are useful sources of glycoside, voltaile
oil and alkaloids like cinchona, belladonna, Ipecacunha, etc.
 Gymnosperms (Non flowering plants) They are useful source of oil, resin and
alkaloids such as Ephedra.
17

 Drugs consisting of entire plant or some plant of it are often designated
as crude drugs. Generally only that part of the plant, which contains the
maximum amount off aejive constituents is collected and marked.
 Thus a crude drug may consist of seeds, fruits and leaves, flowers, roots
and barks of stem or root. Many of the plant products are important
therapeutic agents like alkaloids cardiac glycosides, anthraquinones,
flavonoids, mucilage and enzymes. Plant product like steroid sapogenins
is important raw material for the synthesis of steroidal hormones and
related drugs.
18

MICROBES AS A SOURCE OF DRUGS
 The microbes are microscopic organism which include viruses, bacteria
and reckettsiae.
 These micro-organisms are source of many immunizing biological.
 Viral Vaccine
 Rickettsial vaccine
 Bacterial Vaccine
 Toxoids
19

 A. Viral Vaccine:
A. Small pox vaccine: Contains living virus of vaccinia (cow pox) which has
been grown in the skin of a vaccinated bovine calf.
→ It is used as immunizing agent and prophylactic against small pox infection as
well.
B. Rabies vaccine, is a sterile preparation of killed, fixed virus of rabies,
obtained from duck embryos, which have been infected with fixed rabies
virus. It is available in dried forms.
C. Influenza virus vaccine, is a sterile aq. solution of suitably inactivated
influenza virus.
D. Poliomyelitis vaccine, is of two types, poliovirus vaccine inactivated and
poliovirus vaccine live oral. 20

→ Later the preparation of one or a combination of strains of live, attenuated
polioviruses, these are used as active immunizing agent poliovirus.
E. Measles virus contains live attenuated rubeola and rubella viruses. The
viruses are grown on cultures of other birds embryo tissue or human diploid
cell tissue.
F. Yellow fever vaccine, yellow fever vaccine is an attenuated strain of living
yellow virus as well selected for high antigenic activity and safety. It is
prepared by culturing the virus in the living embryo of the domestic fowl.
G. Hepatitis virus vaccine, it is composed of chemically inactivated hepatitis B
surface antigen (HBsAg) particles obtained from the plasma of healthy
chronic HBsAg carriers by plasmapheresis, separated from the infectious
Dane particle by density gradient, centrifugation and absorbed on aluminium
hydroxide.
21

 B. Rickettsial vaccine:
 These are a group of very small gram negative microorganism,
intermdiate in size between the average bacteria and the large virus.
Rickettsia can't be grown in artificial media and like virus require chick
embryo or monkey kidney tissue as well, for their growth.
 Rickettsial vaccine is exemplified by only one preparation that is typhus
vaccine produced in America. It is used for producing active immunity,
against typhus fever.
22

 C. Bacterial Vaccine:
1. Typhoid vaccine, it in a sterile suspension containing killed selected strain of
typhoid bacilli, salmonella typhi. It is used for producing immunizing agent
typhoid fever.
2. BCG vaccine, is a dried, living culture of the bacilus calmette Guerin strain of
Mycobacterium tuberculosis var bovis. This vaccine is an active immunizing
agent against T.B.
3. Pertusis or whooping cough, is caused by the organism bordetella pertusis.
Pertusis vaccine is used as an immunizing agent against this disease. This
vaccine is sterile suspension of killed bordetella pertusis of a strains or strains
selected for high antigenic efficiency.
23

4. Plague vaccine: Which is used to produce immunity against the
disease, is a sterile suspension of killed selected strain of plague
bacillis, yarsinia pestis.
5. Cholera vaccine: is a sterile suspension of killed cholera, vibrio. In
saline or other suitable diluents. It is an active immunizing agent for
producing immunity against cholera.
D. Toxoids: Tetanus toxoid and diptheria toxoid.
24

ANIMAL AS SOURCE OF DRUG
 Certain animal parts and animal products are used as drug in therapeutic.
The major group of animal products used in medicine is hormone,
enzymes, animal, extractives organs and bile acids as well.
25

HORMONES:
1. Thyroid : It is a modified preparation of thyroid gland of sheep and
pigs. It is given orally to treat patients suffering from thyroid
insufficiency. It contains the hormone thyroxine and liothyronine.
2. Conjugated oestrogens are an amorphous preparation containing water
soluble conjugated forms of mixed oestrogens obtained from urine of
pregnant mares.
3. Insulin, is a polypeptide hormone secreted by the beta cells of the islets
of langerhans, situated in the pancreas of all vertebrates.
26

4. Gonadotropins, are mucoid hormones secreted by the anterior lobe of the pituitary
gland. These hormones are prepared commercially from either horse serum or from
the urine of pregnant woman.
5. Vasopressin, is also a peptide hormone obtained from the posterior lobe of pituitary
hormonal gland of healthy pigs and cattles. It is used in the treatment of intestinal
paralysis.
6. Oxytocin, is a polypeptide hormone secreted by posterior pituitary gland. It causes
constraction of uterine muscles and also stimulate the ejection of milk in lactating
mothers as well. It also can be prepared by synthesis. Oxytocin is used to induce
labour in full term pregnant women and to stop hemorrhage after child birth.
7. Epinephrine, is a hormone produced adrenal medulla in man. It is found in other
animals also, because of its simple structures as well, all of epinephrine medicines are
used in medicine today and is prepared by synthetic means as well.
27

ENZYMES:
 Pancreatin:
 Is a preparation which contains enzymes of the pancreas and is prepared
commercially from pig pancreas. It is used in the treatment of pancreatitis
condition resulting from a deficient production of these enzymes by the
body.
 Pepsin: is the main proteolytic enzyme of gastic juice, it is produced
commercially by grandular layer of fresh pig stomach.
 Fibrinolysin: is prepared from profibrynogen, which is isolated from human
plasma. It is activated to fibrinolysin by streptokinase. It is employed in the
treatment of venous thrombosis.
28

 Trypsin: is a proteolytic enzyme prepared commercially from an extract of
ox pancreas. It is used by topical application for the treatment of wounds,
ulcers, fistulas etc.
 Chrymotrypsin: is also proteolytic enzyme produced by the pancreas in the
form of inactivate chrymotrypsinogen. It is obtained commercially from the
pancreas of Ox.
 Bile: is a natural secretion of the liver which passes into the intestinal tract
and aid in the digestion of fats by emulsifying them and promoting their
absorption.
 Animal extractives and organs, liver, stomach preparations and bile are
examples of this group. Liver and stomach derived from healthy and
domesticated animals and converted into suitable preparations, which are
used as replacement therapy in pernicious anemia. 29

MARINES AS A SOURCE OF DRUGS
 It is a sub-branch of pharmacognosy, which is mainly concerned with the naturally occuring
substances of medicinal value from marine.
 During the last 30-40 years numerous levels of novel compounds have been isolated from
marine organisms having biological activities such as antiviral, antibacterial, antiparasitic,
anticoagulants, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory and cardiovascular active products.
 Classification
1. Antimicrobial agents & antibiotics
2. Antiviral compounds
3. Antiparasitic compounds
4. Cardiovascular agents
5. Anticancer agents
6. Anticoagulant agents
7. Antiinflammatory & antispasmodic agents
30

ANTIMICROBIAL AGENTS
1. Cephalosporin: It is obtained from the marine fungus. Cephalosporium
acrimonium Cephelothin sodium, used as antibiotic against microbes
insensitive to penicillin and ampicillins
2. Ircinin, is obtained from Iricin oros
3. Variabilin, is obtained from Tricinia variabilis.
4. Eunicin is obtained from the Eunicia mammosa.
5. Halotoxin A, B, C is obtained from the stichopus japonirus (sea cucumber).
6. Thelpin, is obtained from the Thelepsus setosul (annelide).
31

ANTIVIRAL COMPOUNDS
1. Ara-A: It is obtained from the sponge, tethya crypta.
2. Avaral & Avarone: It is obtained from the sponge. Disides avara, have high
therapeutic activity of crossing BBB (blood brain barrier) used in the
treatment of AIDS.
3. Eudostomin-A obtained from the Eudostoma olivaceum.
4. Patellazole-B is obtained from ascidian lissocilium patella.
5. Oppositol: It is obtained from the laurencia suboppostia.
32

ANTIPARASITIC COMPOUNDS:
1. Domoic acid : It is obtained from red algae chondria armata, is used as
antihelmintic.
2. a-Kainic acid: It is obtained from the red algae, digenia simplex, is used
broad spectrum anthelmintic, it is effective against parasitic round worm,
whip worm and tape worm.
3. Cucumme chinoside-F, is obtained from sea cucumber used as antiprotozoal
activity.
4. Bengamide-F: It is obtained from the sponger nudibranch and a zoanthid
5. Laminine, is obtained from the Laminaria angustata, is used as an
anthelmintic as well as smooth muscles relaxants. 33

ANTI-CANCER AGENTS
1. Sinularin, is obtained from Sinularia flexibilis.
2. Tocotrienal, is obtained from the brown algae; Sargassum tortile.
3. Aplidine, is obtained from a marine organism, mediterranean tunicate
Aplidium albicans, used in medullary thyroid carcinoma.
4. Asperidol, is non lactonic cembranoids obtained from gorgonian coral
as well.
5. Aplysistatin, is obtained from the sea hare Aplysia angasia.
6. Halitoxins, is obtained from helieloma viridis.
34

ANTICOAGULANTS AGENT
1. Carrageenan is obtained from the chondrus, Euchauma, Gigrtin a.
2. Fucoidan, is obtained from the Fucus vesiculosus and Polyides
rotundus.
3. Galaxtan sulphuric acid, is obtained from the Iridaca laminariodes
35

CARDIOVASCULAR & NEUROVASCULAR AGENTS
1. Eledoisin is obtained from the Eledone moschata (Cephalapod). It is a
powerful hypotensive compound.
2. Laminine, is obtained from the Laminaria, angustata. It is used as
hypotensive agent.
3. Saxitoxin, is obtained from the Saxidomus gigantens, Mytilus
californionus, and Gouaulax catenella, used as hypotensive agent.
4. Tetramine, is obtained from the Naptunca antique. It is show curare like
effect.
36

ANTI-INFLAMMATORY & ANTISPASMODIC AGENTS
1. Manocalide. It is obtained from the Luffariella variabilis. It is act by direct
inactivation of phospholipase A2, which is present in some neurotoxins,
also having analgesic and selective anti-inflammatory activity.
2. Tetradoxins is obtained from the puffer fishes Spherides rubripes (liver &
ovaries) used as strong antispasmodic.
3. Dendalone-3-Hydroxy butyrate: is obtained from the Phyllospongia dendy
used as anti-inflammatory agent.
4. Flaseibilide, it is a diterpenoid obtained from the sinularia flexibilis.
37

PLANT TISSUE CULTURE AS SOURCE OF DRUGS
 Culture is term generally used for artificial growth. This refers to growth of the
plants, cells, tissue and organ on artificial nutrient media. Tissue culture is an
experimental technique through which a mass of cells is produced from
explant tissue.
 Requirement for tissue culture laboratory:
1. Washing & storage facilities.
2. Media preparation & storage room.
3. Transfer area for aseptic manipulations.
4. Culture room or inoculators for maintanance of cultures under controlled
conditions of temperature, light and humidity.
5. Observation or data collection area
38

 Wash ing & Sto r ag e f acilities
 Cleaning glassware: The glassware is soakeed in a detergent solution for 16 hrs
and then rinsed first in tap water followed by a second rinse in distilled water.
further cleansing involved a 5 minutes rinse in hot water, 3 minutes rinse in
deionized water and a final hand rinse in distilled water.
 Plastic Lab Ware: Presterilised disposable polystyrene culture container
(falcon, corning) are available and used in place of glass ware in order to
dispense with washing.
 Plastic ware may be washed with a mild non-abrasive detergent and rinse with
tap water & distilled water.
39

 Tr an sf er ar ea :
 Plastic box: This can be sterilized with an ultraviolet (UV) light and by
swabbing the floar surface with 95% ethyl alcohol when in operation.
 Wooden hood
 Laminar airflow cabinet: A small motor blows air into the units first through
a coarse filter, where large dust particles are separated and subsequently
passes through a 0.3mm HEPA filter as well, the air is directed either
downward/(vertical flow unit) or outward (horizontal flow unit) over the
working surface.
40

 M e d i a p r e p a r a t i o n r o o m :
 The media preparation room should be separate and away from the working laboratory. This
area to be utilized for the preparation of culture media. The room should be equipped with
 1. Glassware
 2. Culture vessels
 3. pH meter
 4. Hot plates
 5. Balance
 6.Water bath Bunsen burner
 7. Bunsen burner
 8. Autoclave
 9. Refrigerator
 10.Microwave oven
41

Ch aracteristics o f in cu b ato rs an d g ro wth ch amb ers ;
 Temperature range 2-400C
 Temperature control +0.50C
 Safety high & low temperature limits
 Continuous temperature recorder
 24 hours temperature and light programming
 Adjustable fluoroscent lighting up to 10,000 use
 Relative humidity range 20-98%
 Relative humidity control: ± 3%
 Uniform forced air distributation
 Capacity upto 0.7m3 of 0.5m2 shelf space.
42

 D ata co llectio n ar ea :
 The growth of development of tissues cultured invitro are incubators
where they have been maintained under controlled environmental using
conditions. Data based observations under aseptic conditions may be
collected using a laminar airflow cabinet.
43

P L AN T T I S S U E C U LT U R E AS S O U R C E O F D R U G S
44
Sr.no. Secondary
metabolites
Plant source Types of culture
1. Reserpine Rauwolfia
serpentina
Suspension
culture
2. Artimisinine Artemisia
scopararia
Suspension
culture
3. Luteolin Datura pinnata Callus culture
4. Vinblastin Catharanthus
roseus
Cell culture

45
5. Quercetin a.Weightii Callus culture
6. Nicotine Nicotina tobacum Suspension
culture
7. Atropine Atropa belladonna Hairy root culture
8. Quinine and quinidine C.Ledgeriana Root culture
9. Digoxin Digitalis lanata Suspension
culture
10. Caffeine Coffee arabica Cell culture
11. Morphine Papaver
somniferum
Suspension
culture
12. Hyoscyamine Hyocyamus niger Suspension
culture

46
13. Diosgenin Dioscorea
compositae
Cell culture
14. Tropane alkaloids Datura innoxia Suspension
culture
15. Cardenolides Digitalis purpurea Suspension
culture
16. Salasonine Solanum
xanthocarpum
Callus culture

ORGANIZED DRUGS,
UNORGANIZED DRUGS
(DRIED LATEX, DRIED JUICES, DRIED
EXTRACTS,GUMS AND MUCILAGES, OLEORESINS
AND OLEO-GUM-RESINS)
47

INTRODUCTION:
 Either single or various parts of the same plant can be used as source of drug
and hence it becomes necessary to know various parts of a plant
scientifically. Natural drugs may either constitute cellular or acellular organ
of the plant. Cellular drugs are broadly known as organised crude drugs
whereas acellular drugs as unorganised crude-drugs.
 Before dealing with the drugs in details, one should know how to distinguish
clearly between organised (cellular) and unorganised (acellular) crude drugs.
48

TABLE: DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ORGANISED AND UNORGANISED DRUGS
49
Organised crude drugs Unorganised crude drugs
As the term indicates these are 'organs' of
plants or animals and are made up of
cells or definite structure. These drugs are
named as flowers, seeds, fruits, insects
etc.
These are derived from parts of plant or animal by
some process of extraction and followed by
purification, ifj necessary, e.g. juices, extracts, resins
etc.
These are solid in nature. These are solid, semisolid or liquids in nature, e.g., oils
and balsams.
Botanical or zoological terminology can
be used to describe these drugs.
Such terminology is inadequate to describe them, but
one has to look for their physical characters, such as
the solubility in various solvents, density, optical
rotation, refractive index, whichever is applicable.
Microscopic characters are one of the
important criteria for the identification of
organised drugs.
Examples Digitalis, cinchona, clove,
fennel, jalap, ephedra, cochineal etc.
Chemical tests and physical standards are
confirmatory tests for identification of these drugs.
Examples: Aloe, agar, colophony, opium, castor oil,
bees-wax, pepsin etc.

CLASSIFICATION OF ORGANIZED AND UNORGANIZED DRUGS
Organized drugs:
 Woods: Quassia, Sandalwood and Red Sandalwood.
 Leaves: Digitalis, Eucalyptus, Gymnema, Mint, Senna, Spearmint, Squill,
Tulsi, Vasaka, Coca, Buchu, Hamamelis, Hyoscyamus, Belladonna, Tea.
 Barks: Arjuna, Ashoka, Cascara, Cassia, Cinchona, Cinnamon, Kurchi,
Quillia, Wild cherry.
 Flowering parts: Clove, Pyrethrum, Saffron, Santonica, Chamomile.
 Fruits: Amla, Anise, Bael, Bahera, Bitter Orange peel, Capsicum, Caraway,
Cardamom, Colocynth, Coriander, Cumin, Dill, Fennel, Gokhru, Hirda,
Lemon peel, Senna pod, Star anise, Tamarind, Vidang. 50

 Seeds: Bitter almond, Black Mustard, Cardamom, Colchicum, Ispaghula,
Kaladana, Linseed, Nutmeg, Nux vomica, Physostigma, Psyllium,
Strophanthus, White mustard.
 Roots and Rhizomes: Aconite, Ashwagandha, Calamus, Calumba,
Colchicum corm, Dioscorea, Galanga, Garlic, Gention, Ginger, Ginseng,
Glycyrrhiza, Podophyllum, Ipecac, Ipomoea, Jalap, Jatamansi, Rauwolfia,
Rhubarb, Sassurea, Senega, Shatavari, Turmeric, Valerian, Squill.
 Plants and Herbs: Ergot, Ephedra, Bacopa, Andrographis, Kalmegh, Yeast,
Vinca, Datura, Centella.
 Hair and Fibres: Cotton, Hemp, Jute, Silk, Flax
51

Unorganized drugs
 Dried latex: Opium, Papain
 Dried Juice: Aloe, Kino
 Dried extracts: Agar, Alginate, Black catechu, Pale catechu, Pectin
 Waxes: Beeswax, Spermaceti, Carnauba wax
 Gums: Acacia, Guar Gum, Indian Gum, Sterculia, Tragacanth
 Resins: Asafoetida, Benzoin, Colophony, copaiba Guaiacum, Guggul,
Mastic, Coal tar, Tar, Tolu balsam, Storax, Sandarac.
52

 Volatile oil: Turpentine, Anise, Coriander, Peppermint, Rosemary,
Sandalwood, Cinnamon, Lemon, Caraway, Dill, Clove, Eucalyptus,
Nutmeg, Camphor.
 Fixed oils and Fats: Arachis, Castor, Chalmoogra, Coconut, Cotton
seed, Linseed, Olive, Sesame, Almond, Theobroma, Cod-liver,
Halibut liver, Kokum butter.
 Animal Products: Bees wax, Cantharides, Cod-liver oil, Gelatin,
Halibut liver oil, Honey, Shark liver oil, shellac, Spermaceti wax,
wool fat, musk, Lactose.
 Fossil organism and Minerals: Bentonite, Kaolin, Talc.
53

 Dried Latex:
→ Latex is an emulsion or a suspension the continuous phase of which is a
aqueous solution of mineral salts, proteins, sugars, tannins, alkaloids etc. and
the suspended particles are oil droplets, resin, gum, proteins, starch, etc.
→ This turbid fluid is often white in color as in opium but may be red or
yellow.
→ It occurs in the plants in special structures named as Latiuferous tissues.
→ Latiuferous tissues are of three types viz. Latiuferous cells, Latiuferous tubes
& Latiuferous vessels.
54

 Synonyms: Crude Opium; Raw Opium; Gum Opium; Afim.
 Biological Source: Opium is the air dried milky latex obtained by incision
from the unripe capsules of Papaver somniferum Linn, or its variety P.
album Decand., belonging to family Papaveraceae. Opium is required to
contain not less than 10% of morphine and not less than 2.0% of codeine.
The thebaine content is limited to 3%.
 Geographical Source: It is mainly found in Turkey, Russia, India,
Pakistan, Iran, Afghanistan, China, Burma, Thailand and Laos. In India,
Opium is cultivated in M.P. (Neemuch) and U.P. for alkaloidal extraction
and seed production.
57

 Cultivation-The cultivation and other aspects of opium are under the control
of government of the respective countries.
→ In India the cultivation, production etc of opium is done under the control of
Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Act. 1985.
→ Opium is obtained from poppy plant.
→ Poppy plant is an annual herb about 50 cm to 1.5 meters in height.
→ It bears bluish white or purple colored flowers.
→ Leaves are linear, oblong or ovate oblong with dentate or serrate margin.
→ The different types of varieties viz P. somniferum var album, P. somniferum
var glabrum and P. somniferum var nigrum are described here.
58

→ The plants are cultivated by sowing the seeds in the month of November.
Seeds are sown by mixing them with 3 or 4 parts of sand.
→ The distance maintained between two plants is about 25cm. Soil required
for opium poppy should be fertile, well drained loamy with fine sand and
the pH should be around 7.
→ The thinning of the plants is done periodically and are kept free from weeds
and insects. Farmyard manures and fertilizers are added for better growth
and high quality yield.
59

 Collection and Preparation –
→ After 3-4 months of sowing the plant bears the flowers and these are
converted into capsules. Each plant bears about 5-8 capsules.
→ When the capsules are green or just show a tint of yellow incisions are
made by knives which vary in shape in different countries.
→ In India the incisions are made vertically in afternoon by a instrument
known as "nustur". It penetrates about 2mm into the capsules.
60

→ By this latex exudes out and is partly dried which is scrapped and collected
in next morning by "charpala". This incising operation is repeated on each
capsule three or four times at interval of two or three days.
→ The latex is collected in plastic containers.
→ For next propagation capsules are dried in sun and seeds are collected by
beating. The average yield of opium varies from 20-30 kg per hectare.
→ After collection of opium by the cultivators it is brought to the weightment
centers and from there it is transferred to the factory at Ghazipur (UP)
where the opium is further processed.
61

 Macroscopic Characters -
→ Odour - Strong and Characteristic
→ Taste - Bitter
→ Indian opium - It occurs in cubical pieces, weighing about 900gms.and is
dark brown in colour.
→ It is enclosed in tissue paper and is plastic in nature.
→ It is also exported in 5 kg to 10 kg of blocks. Powder form of the drug is
also available. This opium contains 9-12% of morphine.
62

→ Natural Turkish or European opium-
→ It occurs in more or less rounded or conical, frequently some what flattened
masses weighing between 250gms. to 1kg, and is brown or dark brown in
colour. It is covered with poppy leaves.
→ It is soft when fresh but on keeping it becomes hard and brittle.
→ Manipulated Turkish Opium-
→ It occurs in oval masses with flattened upper and lower surface weighing
usually about 2000gms. and is chocolate-brown in color.
→ It is covered with broken poppy leaves and is moderately plastic when fresh
but it become brittle after some time.
→ This opium contains 10 to 15% of morphine.
63

→ Manipulated European opium - It occurs in elongated masses with rounded
ends weighing about 160 to 500gms. and internally dark brown in colour. It is
hard and brittle.
→ Persian or Iranian opium - It occurs in brick shaped masses and is dark reddish
brown in colour. It is covered with red paper. This opium contain 10 to 12.5%
of morphine and is brittle in nature. It is available in 400-500 gms of masses.
→ Chemical Constituents –
→ Opium contains more then 25 alkaloids which belongs either to phenanthrene ring
system or of benzylisoquinoline ring system.
→ Morphine (10 to 20% ), codeine (0.3 to 4%) and thebaine (0.2 to 0.5%) belongs to
phenanthrene system and are strong bases where as papaverine, narcotine and
narceine belongs to isoquinoline ring system and are weak bases.
64

→ Morphine (C17 H19 NO3, H₂O) is in colourless crystals and is slightly
soluble in cold water but readily soluble in caustic alkalies or alkaline earths.
It is insoluble in cold ether, chloroform or benzene. Morphine is a powerful
hypnotic.
→ Codeine (C18 H21 NO3) or methyl morphine is in rhombic crystals soluble
in 80 parts of water and readily soluble in chloroform.
→ Narcotine (CH23 NO) is in rhombic prisms or needles. It is soluble in 160
parts of ether.
→ The alkaloids of opium are in combination with meconic acid and sulphuric
acid. Other constituents like mucilage, wax, sugar and salts of calcium and
magnesium are present in small quantities. Starch, oxalic acid and tannins
are not present in opium.
65

→ Chemical Tests:
→ 1. Aqueous extract of Opium with FeCl3 solution gives deep reddish
purple colour which persists on addition of HCl. It indicates the
presence of meconic acid.
→ 2. Morphine gives dark violet colour with conc. H2 SO4 and
formaldehyde.
68

 Uses:
1. Opium and morphine have narcotic, analgesic and sedative action and
used to relieve pain, diarrhoea dysentery and cough.
2. Poppy capsules are astringent, somniferous (sleep inducing),
soporific(sleep inducing), sedative (CNS depressants) and narcotic
and used as anodyne and emollient.
3. Codeine is mild sedative and is employed in cough mixtures.
4. Noscapine is not narcotic and has cough suppressant action acting as
a central antitussive drug.
5. Papaverine has smooth muscle relaxant action and is used to cure
muscle spasms. Opium, morphine and the diacetyl derivative heroin,
cause drug addiction. 69

ALOES
 Biological source: Aloe is the dried juice collected by incision,
from the bases of the leaves of various species of Aloe. Aloe perryi
Baker, Aloe vera Linn or Aloe barbadensis Mil and Aloe ferox
Miller., belonging to family Liliaceae.
 Geographical Source:
 Aloes are indigenous to East and South Africa, but have been
introduced into the West Indies and into tropical countries, and will
even flourish in the countries bordering on the Mediterranean.
71

MORPHOLOGY:
72
Form Colour Odour Taste Fracture
Curacao
Aloe
Opaque
masses
Brownish
black
Strong and
pleasant
Disagreeable
bitter taste
Uneven and
wax like
Socotrine aloe Opaque Reddish black
to brownish
black
Slight and
disagreeable
Disagreeable
bitter taste
Conchoidal
Cape aloe Trasparent and
glassy
Dark brown or
greenish
brown
Sour but
distinct odour
Bitter taste Smooth even
and glassy
Zanzibar aloe Opaque Liver brown
color
Pleasant like
myrrh
Bitter Smooth and
even fracture

 Chemical constituents:
1. Aloe is the major sources of anthraquinone glycosides.
2. The chief constituent of aloe is aloin (10-30%) which is a mixture of barbaloin, 3-
barbaloin and Iso barbaloin.
3. Resin containing aloesin and its esters with ferulic, p-coumaric and cinnamic acids.
4. Aloe also contains aloesone, aloetic acid, chrysophanic acid, chrysamminic acid,
choline, saponin and coniferyl alcohol.
 Uses:
1. It is used as cathartic, anti-inflammatory agent in treatment of burns and in disturbed
menstrual function.
2. Cosmetic uses:
3. It is used as protective in manufacturing of hair shampoos and conditioners.
4. Ointment of aloe gel is used in sun burns, radiation burns and skin irritations.
73

DRIED EXTRACT
 Pale catechu
 Black catechu
74

PALE CATECHU
 Synonyms: Gambier, pale catechu, catechu.
 Biological Source: Gambier or pale catechu is a dried aqueous extract
produced from the leaves and young twigs of Uncaria gambier Roxburgh.,
belonging to family Rubiaceae.
 Geographical Source: It is cultivated in Indonesia, Malaysia, Sumatra,
Bornea, and Singapore at elevation up to 150 m. The plant is used mostly
for the production of the drug, which is marketed through Singapore.
75

MORPHOLOGY:
76
Size Pale catechu comes in the form of cubes or rectangular
blocks of 2 to 4 cm length
Shape Regular cubes or as rectangular blocks.
Shape (powder) Strips, flakes or coarse powder
Colour Dull reddish brown colour externally and pale brown to buff
colour internally.
Odour Odourless
Taste At first it is bitter and astringent but later it is sweet

 Chemical Constituents:-
 The active phyto constituent present in pale catechu is condensed tannins
in the form catechins (7- 33%), catechu- tannic acid (22-30%), catechu
red. It is also contain Quercetin & Gambler fluorescin.
 Uses:-
1. As an astringent, diarrhole.
2. Used in the preparation of lozenges & sublingual tablets.
3. Used in dyeing & tanning industry. 4) Used for the protecting fishing
net.
77

BLACK CATECHU
 Synonym: Cutch, black catechu, kattha.
 Biological Source: Black catechu is the dried aqueous extract prepared
from the heartwood of Acacia catechu Willdenow, belonging to family,
Leguminosae.
 Geographical Source: India and Myanmar.
78

MORPHOLOGY:
79
Size Irregular mass
Extra features Outer surface is firm and brittle. When broken the fractured
surface appears glassy with small cavities
Colour Black or brownish black mass
Odour Odourless
Taste Astringent and subsequently sweet taste

 Chemical Constituents:
1. It contains 10% of Acacatechins which is also known as Acacia catechins,
Acacatechins undergoes oxidation in the presence of water to catechinic acid.
Quercetin.
2. Black catechu does not contain chlorophyll and Gambier Fluorescin. Which are
present in Pale catechu.
 Uses:
1. As astringent.
2. In cough & diarrhoea.
3. Has cooling & digestive property.
4. Externally used for boils, skin eruption & ulcer.
5. Used in dyeing & colouring.
6. As a protecting agent for fishing net.
7. In the manufacturing of ion-exchange Resin. 80

 C LA SSIFIC ATION OF C R U D E D R U GS:
1. ALPHABETICAL CLASSIFICATION,
2. MORPHOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION,
3. TAXONOMICAL CLASSIFICATION,
4. CHEMICAL CLASSIFICATION,
5. PHARMACOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION,
6. CHEMO TAXONOMICAL CLASSIFICATION AND
7. SERO TAXONOMICAL CLASSIFICATION
82

 The most important natural sources of drugs are higher plant, microbes and
animals and marine organisms. Some useful products are obtained from
minerals that are both organic and inorganic in nature. In order to pursue (or to
follow) the study of the individual drugs, one must adopt some particular
sequence of arrangement, and this is referred to a system of classification of
drugs. A method of classification should be: a) simple, (b) easy to use, and (c)
free from confusion and ambiguities.
 Because of their wide distribution, each arrangement of classification has its
own merits and demerits, but for the purpose of study the drugs are classified in
the following different ways: 1. Alphabetical classification 2. Taxonomical
classification 3. Morphological classification 4. Pharmacological classification
5. Chemical classification 6. Chemotaxonomical classification 7.
Serotaxonomical classification 83

ALPHABETICAL CLASSIFICATION:
 Alphabetical classification is the simplest way of classification of any
disconnected items.
 Crude drugs are arranged in alphabetical order of their Latin and English names
(common names) or sometimes local language names (vernacular names).
 Some of the pharmacopoeias, dictionaries and reference books which classify
crude drugs according to this system are as follows:
 1. Indian Pharmacopoeia 2. British Pharmacopoeia 3. British Herbal
Pharmacopoeia 4. United States Pharmacopoeia and National Formulary 5.
British Pharmaceutical Codex 6. European Pharmacopoeia.
84

 In European Pharmacopoeia these are arranged according to their names in
Latin where in United States Pharmacopoeia (U.S.P.) and British
Pharmaceutical Codex (B.P.C.), these are arranged in English.
 Merits:
1. It is easy and quick to use.
2. There is no repetition of entries and is devoid of confusion.
3. In this system location, tracing and addition of drug entries is easy.
 Demerits:
1. There is no relationship between previous and successive drug entries.
 Examples:
 Acacia, Benzoin, Cinchona, Dill, Ergot, Fennel, Gentian, Hyoscyamus,
Ipecacuanha, Jalap, Kurchi, Liquorice, Mints, Nux vomica, Opium,
Podophyllum, Quassia, Rauwolfia, Senna, Vasaka, Wool fat, Yellow bees
wax, Zeodary
85

MORPHOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION
 In this system, the drugs are arranged according to the morphological or
external characters of the plant parts or animal parts, i.e. which part of the plant
is used as a drug, e.g. leaves, roots, stem, etc.
 The drugs obtained from the direct parts of the plants and containing cellular
tissues are called as organized drugs, e.g. rhizomes, barks, leaves, fruits, entire
plants, hairs and fibres.
 The drugs which are prepared from plants by some intermediate physical
processes such as incision, drying or extraction with a solvent and not
containing any cellular plant tissues are called unorganized drugs.
 Aloe juice, opium latex, agar, gambir, gelatin, tragacanth, benzoin, honey,
beeswax, lemon grass oil, etc., are examples of unorganized drugs. 86

 Organized drugs
 Woods: Quassia, Sandalwood and Red Sandalwood.
 Leaves: Digitalis, Eucalyptus, Gymnema, Mint, Senna, Spearmint, Squill,
Tulsi, Vasaka, Coca, Buchu, Hamamelis, Hyoscyamus, Belladonna, Tea.
 Barks: Arjuna, Ashoka, Cascara, Cassia, Cinchona, Cinnamon, Kurchi,
Quillia, Wild cherry.
 Flowering parts: Clove, Pyrethrum, Saffron, Santonica, Chamomile.
 Fruits: Amla, Anise, Bael, Bahera, Bitter Orange peel, Capsicum, Caraway,
Cardamom, Colocynth, Coriander, Cumin, Dill, Fennel, Gokhru, Hirda,
Lemon peel, Senna pod, Star anise, Tamarind, Vidang.
87

 Seeds: Bitter almond, Black Mustard, Cardamom, Colchicum, Ispaghula,
Kaladana, Linseed, Nutmeg, Nux vomica, Physostigma, Psyllium,
Strophanthus, White mustard.
 Roots and Rhizomes: Aconite, Ashwagandha, Calamus, Calumba,
Colchicum corm, Dioscorea, Galanga, Garlic, Gention, Ginger, Ginseng,
Glycyrrhiza, Podophyllum, Ipecac, Ipomoea, Jalap, Jatamansi,
Rauwolfia, Rhubarb, Sassurea, Senega, Shatavari, Turmeric, Valerian,
Squill.
 Plants and Herbs: Ergot, Ephedra, Bacopa, Andrographis, Kalmegh,
Yeast, Vinca, Datura, Centella.
 Hair and Fibres: Cotton, Hemp, Jute, Silk, Flax.
88

 Unorganized drugs
 Dried latex: Opium, Papain Dried Juice: Aloe, Kino Dried extracts: Agar,
Alginate, Black catechu, Pale catechu, Pectin
 Waxes: Beeswax, Spermaceti, Carnauba wax
 Gums: Acacia, Guar Gum, Indian Gum, Sterculia, Tragacenth
 Resins: Asafoetida, Benzoin, Colophony, copaiba Guaiacum, Guggul, Mastic,
Coal tar, Tar, Tolu balsam, Storax, Sandarac.
 Volatile oil: Turpentine, Anise, Coriander, Peppermint, Rosemary,
Sandalwood, Cinnamon, Lemon, Caraway, Dill, Clove, Eucalyptus, Nutmeg,
Camphor.
 Fixed oils and Fats: Arachis, Castor, Chalmoogra, Coconut, Cotton seed,
Linseed, Olive, Sesame, Almond, Theobroma, Cod-liver, Halibut liver, Kokum
butter.
89

 Animal Products: Bees wax, Cantharides, Cod-liver oil, Gelatin, Halibut
liver oil, Honey, Shark liver oil, shellac, Spermaceti wax, wool fat, musk,
Lactose.
 Fossil organism and Minerals: Bentonite, Kaolin, Kiesslguhr, Talc.
 Merits:
1. Morphological classification is more helpful to identify and detect
adulteration.
2. This system of classification is more convenient for practical study
especially when the chemical nature of the drug is not clearly
understood. 90

 Demerits:
1. The main drawback of morphological classification is that there is
no correlation of chemical constituents with the therapeutic actions.
2. Repetition of drugs or plants occurs.
91

TAXONOMICAL CLASSIFICATION
1. All the plants possess different characters of morphological,
microscopical, chemical, embryological, serological and
genetics.
2. In this classification the crude drugs are classified according
to kingdom, subkingdom, division, class, order, family,
genus and species as follows.
92

 Class:
1. Angiospermae (Angiosperms) are plants that produce flowers and
Gymnospermae (Gymnosperms) which don’t produce flowers.
 Subclass:
1. Dicotyledonae (Dicotyledons, Dicots) are plants with two seed leaves;
Monocotyledonae (Monocotyledons, Monocots) with one seed leaf.
 Superorder:
1. A group of related plant families, classified in the order in which they are
thought to have developed their differences from a common ancestor.
2. There are six superorders in the Dicotyledonae (Magnoliidae, Hamamelidae,
Caryophyllidae, Dilleniidae, Rosidae, Asteridae), and four superorders in the
Monocotyledonae (Alismatidae, Commelinidae, Arecidae, and Liliidae).
3. The names of the superorders end in –idae.
93

 Order:
1. Each superorder is further divided into several orders. The names of the
orders end in –ales.
 Family:
1. Each order is divided into families. These are plants with many botanical
features in common, and are the highest classification normally used.
 Subfamily:
1. The family may be further divided into a number of subfamilies, which
group together plants within the family that have some significant botanical
differences.
2. The names of the subfamilies end in –oideae. 94

 Tribe:
1. A further division of plants within a family, based on smaller botanical differences, bin
still usually comprising many different plants.
2. The names of the tribes end in –eae.
 Subtribe:
1. A further division based on even smaller botanical differences, often only recognizable
to botanists.
2. The names of the subtribes end in –inae.
 Genus:
1. This is the part of the plant name that is most familiar; the normal name that you give a
plant—Papaver (Poppy), Aquilegia (Columbine), and so on.
2. The plants in a genus are often easily recognizable as belonging to the same group.95

 Species:
1. This is the level that defines an individual plant. Often, the name will
describe some aspect of the plant— the colour of the flowers, size or shape
of the leaves, or it may be named after the place where it was found.
2. Together, the genus and species name refer to only one plant, and they are
used to identify that particular plant.
3. Sometimes, the species is further divided into subspecies that contain
plants not quite so distinct that they are classified as varieties.
4. The name, of the species should be written after the genus name, in small
letters, with no capital letter.
96

 Variety:
1. A variety is a plant that is only slightly different from the species plant,
but the differences are not so insignificant as the differences in a form.
2. The Latin is varietas, which is usually abbreviated to var.
3. The name follows the genus and species name, with var. before the
individual variety name.
 Form:
1. A form is a plant within a species that has minor botanical differences,
such as the colour of flower or shape of the leaves.
2. The name follows the genus and species name, with form (or f.) before
the individual variety name.
97

 Cultivar:
→ A cultivar is a cultivated variety—a particular plant that has arisen either
naturally or through deliberate hybridization, and can be reproduced
(vegetatively or by seed) to produce more of the same plant.
→ The name follows the genus and species name.
→ It is written in the language of the person who described it, and should not
be translated.
→ It is either written in single quotation marks or has cv. written in front of
the name.
98

99
Kingdom Plants
Subkingdom Tracheobionta—Vascular plants
Superdivision Spermatophyta—Seed plants
Division Magnoliophyta—Flowering plants
Class Magnoliopsida—Dicotyledons
Subclass Asteridae
Order Asterales
Family Asteraceae—Aster family
Genus Tridax L.—tridax

 Merits:
1. Taxonomical classification is helpful for studying evolutionary
developments.
 Demerits:
1. This system also does not correlate in between the chemical
constituents and biological activity of the drugs.
100

CHEMICAL CLASSIFICATION
1. Depending upon the active constituents, the crude drugs are classified.
2. The plants contain various constituents in them like alkaloids,
glycosides, tannins, carbohydrates, saponins, etc. Irrespective of the
morphological or taxonomical characters, the drugs with similar
chemical constituents are grouped into the same group.
3. The examples are shown in this table:
101

102
Sr.no. Chemical constituent group Examples
1. Alkaloids Cinchona, Datura, Vinca, Ipecac Nux
vomica
2. Glycosides Senna, Aloe, Ginseng, Glycyrrhiza,
Digitalis
3. Carbohydrates and its derived
products
Acacia, Tragacanth, Starch, Isabgol
4. Volatile oil Clove, Coriander, Fennel, Cinnamon,
Cumin
5. Resin and Resin combination Benzoin, Tolu Balsam, Balsam of peru
6. Tannins Catechu, Tea
7. Enzymes Papain, Caesin, Trypsin
8. Lipids Beeswax, Kokum butter, Lanolin

 Merits:
 It is a popular approach for phytochemical studies.
 Demerits:
 Ambiguities arise when particular drugs possess a number of
compounds belonging to different groups of compounds.
103

PHARMACOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION
1. Grouping of drug according to their pharmacological action or of most
important constituent or their therapeutic use is termed as
pharmacological or therapeutic classification of drug.
2. This classification is more relevant and is mostly a followed method.
3. Drugs like digitalis, squill and strophanthus having cardiotonic action
are grouped irrespective of their parts used or phylogenetic relationship
or the nature of phytoconstituents they contain.
104

105
Sr.no. Pharmacological category Example
1. Drug acting on G.I.T. :
Bitter
Carminative
Emetic
Antiamoebic
Laxative
Purgative
Cathartic
Cinchona, Quassia, Gentian
Fennel, Cardamom, Mentha
Ipecac
Kurchi, Ipecac
Agar, Isabgol, Banana
Senna, Castor oil
Senna
2. Drug acting on Respiratory
system:
Expectorant
Antitussive
Bronchodilators
Vasaka, Liquorice,
Ipecac Opium (codeine)
Ephedra, Tea

106
3. Drug acting on Cardiovascular
system:
Cardio tonic
Cardiac depressant
Vasoconstrictor
Antihypertensive
Digitalis, Strophanthus, Squill
Cinchona, Veratrum
Ergot
Rauwolfia
4. Drug acting on Autonomic
nervous system:
Adrenergic
Cholinergic
Anticholinergic
Ephedra
Physostigma, Pilocarpus Datura,
Belladonna
5. Drug acting on Central
nervous system:
Central analgesic
CNS depressant
CNS stimulant
Analeptic
Opium (morphine)
Belladonna, Opium, Hyoscyamus
Tea, Coffee
Nuxvomica, Camphor, Lobelia

107
6. Antispasmodic Datura, Hyoscyamus, Opium, Curare
7. Anticancer Vinca, Podophyllum, Taxus
8. Antirheumatic Aconite, Colchicum, Guggal
9. Anthelmintic Quassia, Vidang
10. Astringent Catechu, Myrobalans
11. Antimalarial Cinchona, Artemisia
12. Immunomodulatory Ginseng, Ashwagandha, Tulsi
13. Immunizing agent Vaccines, Sera, Anti toxin
14. Drug acting on skin
membrane
Beeswax, Wool fat, Balsam of Tolu,
Balsam of Peru

108
15. Chemotherapeutic Antibiotics
16. Local Anesthetic Coca

 Merits:
1. This system of classification can be used for suggesting
substitutes of drugs, if they are not available at a particular place
or point of time.
 Demerits:
1. Drugs having different action on the body get classified separately
in more than one group that causes ambiguity and confusion.
2. Cinchona is antimalarial drug because of presence of quinine but
can be put under the group of drug affecting heart because of
antiarrhythmic action of quinidine.
109

CHEMOTAXONOMICAL CLASSIFICATION
1. This system of classification relies on the chemical similarity of a
taxon, i.e. it is based on the existence of relationship between
constituents in various plants.
2. There are certain types of chemical constituents that characterize
certain classes of plants.
3. This gives birth to entirely a new concept of chemotaxonomy that
utilizes chemical facts/characters for understanding the
taxonomical status, relationships and the evolution of the plants.
110

4. For example, tropane alkaloids generally occur among the
members of Solanaceae, thereby, serving as a chemotaxonomic
marker.
5. Similarly, other secondary plant metabolites can serve as the basis
of classification of crude drugs.
6. The berberine alkaloid in Berberis and Argemone, Rutin in
Rutaceae members, Ranunculaceae alkaloids among its members,
etc., are other examples.
7. It is the latest system of classification that gives more scope for
understanding the relationship between chemical constituents,
their biosynthesis and their possible action. 111

SEROTAXONOMICAL CLASSIFICATION
1. The serotaxonomy can be explained as the study about the application
or the utility of serology in solving the taxonomical problems.
2. Serology can be defined as the study of the antigen–antibody reaction.
3. Antigens are those substances which can stimulate the formation of
the antibody.
4. Antibodies are highly specific protein molecule produced by plasma
cells in the immune system.
5. Protein are carriers of the taxonomical information and commonly
used as antigen in serotaxonomy. 112

6. It expresses the similarities and the dissimilarities among different
taxa, and these data are helpful in taxonomy.
7. It determines the degree of similarity between species, genera,
family, etc., by comparing the reaction with antigens from various
plant taxa with antibodies present against a given taxon.
8. Serology helps in comparing nonmorphological characteristics,
which helps in the taxonomical data.
9. This technique also helps in the comparison of single proteins from
different plant taxa.
113

 QALITY CONTROL OF CRUDE DRUGS OF NATURAL
ORIGIN:
→ ADULTERATION OF DRUGS OF NATURAL ORIGIN.
→ EVALUATION BY ORGANOLEPTIC, MICROSCOPIC, PHYSICAL,
CHEMICAL AND BIOLOGICAL METHODS AND PROPERTIES.
114

ADULTERATION OF DRUGS OF NATURAL ORIGIN
 Definition: The term adulteration is defined as substituting original crude
drug partially or wholly with other similar-looking substances. The substance,
which is mixed, is free from or inferior in chemical and therapeutic property.
 Types of Adulterants:
1. Adulteration in simple terms is debasement of an article.
2. The motives for intentional adulteration are normally commercial and are
originated mainly with the intension of enhancement of profits.
3. Some of the reasons that can be cited here are scarcity of drug and its high
price prevailing in market. The adulteration is done deliberately, but it may
occur accidentally in some cases. 115

4. Adulteration involves different conditions such as deterioration, admixture,
sophistication, substitution, inferiority and spoilage.
5. Deterioration is impairment in the quality of drug, whereas admixture is
addition of one article to another due to ignorance or carelessness or by
accident.
6. Sophistication is the intentional or deliberate type of adulteration.
7. Substitution occurs when a totally different substance is added in place of
original drug.
8. Inferiority refers to any substandard drug, and spoilage is due to the attack
of microorganisms.
116

Unintentional Adulteration
 Unintentional adulteration may be
due to the following reasons:
1. Confusion in vernacular names
between indigenous systems of
medicine and local dialects
2. Lack of knowledge about the authentic
plant
3. Non-availability of the authentic plant
4. Similarity in morphology and or aroma
5. Careless collection
6. Other unknown reasons
117
Intentional Adulteration
 Intentional adulteration may be due to
the following reasons:
1. Adulteration using manufactured
substances
2. Substitution using inferior commercial
varieties
3. Substitution using exhausted drugs
4. Substitution of superficially similar
inferior natural substances
5. Adulteration using the vegetative part of
the same plant
6. Addition of toxic materials
7. Adulteration of powders
8. Addition of synthetic principles

UNINTENTIONAL ADULTERATION
 Unintentional adulteration may be due to the following reasons:
1. Confusion in vernacular names between indigenous systems of
medicine and local dialects (Name confusion):
→ In ayurveda, ‘Parpatta’ refers to Fumaria parviflora. In siddha,
‘Parpadagam’ refers to Mollugo pentaphylla. Owing to the similarity in the
names in traditional systems of medicine, these two herbs are often
interchanged or adulterated or substituted.
→ Because of the popularity of siddha medicine in some parts of south India,
traders in these regions supply M. pentaphylla as Parpatta/Parpadagam and
the north Indian suppliers supply F. parviflora.
118

→ These two can be easily identified by the presence of pale yellow to mild
brown-coloured, thin wiry stems and small simple leaves of M.
pentaphylla and black to dark brown-coloured, digitate leaves with narrow
segments of F. parviflora.
→ Casuarina equisetifolia for Tamarix indica and Aerva lanata for Bergenia
ciliata are some other examples of adulterations due to confusion in
names.
119

2. Lack of knowledge about authentic source:
→ ‘Nagakesar’ is one of the important drugs in ayurveda.
→ The authentic source is Mesua ferrea. However, market samples are
adulterated with flowers of Calophyllum inophyllum.
→ Though the authentic plant is available in plenty throughout the Western
Ghats and parts of the Himalayas, suppliers are unaware of it.
→ There may also be some restrictions in forest collection. Due to these
reasons, C. inophyllum (which is in the plains) is sold as Nagakesar.
→ Authentic flowers can be easily identified by the presence of two-celled
ovary, whereas in case of spurious flowers they are single celled.
120

3. Lack of authentic plant:
→ Hypericum perforatum is cultivated and sold in European markets.
→ In India, availability of this species is very limited. However, the abundant
Indo-Nepal species H. patulum is sold in the name of H. perforatum.
→ Market sample is a whole plant with flowers, and it is easy to identify them
taxonomically.
→ Anatomically, stem transverse section of H. perforatum has compressed thin
phloem, hollow pith and absence of calcium oxalate crystals.
→ On the otherhand, H. patulum has broader phloem, partially hollow pith and
presence of calcium oxalate crystals.
121

4. Similarity in morphology and or colour/aroma:
→ It is well known that in course of time, drug materials get changed to or
substituted with other plant species. ‘Ratanjot’ is a recent-day example.
→ On discussion with suppliers and nontimer forest product (NTFP)
contractors, it came to be known that in the past, roots of Ventilago
madraspatana were collected from Western Ghats, as the only source of
‘Ratanjot’. However, that is not the practice now. It is clearly known that
Arnebia euchroma var euchroma is the present source. Similarity in yielding
a red dye, A. euchroma substitutes V. madraspatana.
→ The description to identify these two is unnecessary because of the absence
of V. madraspatana in market. Whatever is available in the market, in the
name of Ratanjot, was originated from A. euchroma.
122

123
⸙ Similarity in morphology:
→ Mucuna pruriens is the best example for unknown authentic plant and
similarity in morphology.
→ It is adulterated with other similar papilionaceae seeds. M. utilis (sold as
white variety) and M. deeringiana (sold as bigger variety) are popular
adulterants.
→ Apart from this, M. cochinchinensis, Canavalia virosa and C. ensiformis
are also sold in Indian markets.

5. Careless collections:
→ Some of the herbal adulterations are due to the carelessness of herbal
collectors and suppliers.
→ Parmelia perlata is used in ayurveda, unani and siddha.
→ It is also used as grocery.
→ Market samples showed it to be admixed with other species (P. perforata
and P. cirrhata). Sometimes, Usnea sp. is also mixed with them.
→ Authentic plants can be identified by their thallus nature.
124

6. Unknown reasons:
→ ‘Vidari’ is another example of unknown authentic plant.
→ It is an important ayurvedic plant used extensively.
→ Its authentic source is Pueraria tuberosa, and its substitute is Ipomoea
digitata. However, market samples are not derived from these two. It is
interesting to know that an endangered gymnosperm Cycas circinalis is
sold in plenty as Vidari. The adulterated materials originated from Kerala,
India.
→ Although both the authentic plant and its substitute are available in plenty
throughout India, how C. circinalis became a major source for this drug is
unknown.
125

IN TE N TI ON AL A DULTE RATI ON
 Intentional adulteration may be due to the following reasons:
1. Adulteration using manufactured substances:
→ In this type of adulteration the original substances are adulterated by the
materials that are artificially manufactured. The materials are prepared in a
way that their general form and appearance resemble with various drugs.
→ Few examples are cargo of ergot from Portugal was adulterated with small
masses of flour dough moulded to the correct size and shape and coloured,
first using red ink, and then into writing ink.
→ Bass-wood is cut exactly the required shape of nutmegs and used to adulterate
nutmegs.
126

→ Compressed chicory is used in place of coffee berries.
→ Paraffin wax is coloured yellow and is been substituted for beeswax, and
artificial invert sugar is used in place of honey.
2. Substitution using inferior commercial varieties:
→ In this type, the original drugs are substituted using inferior quality drugs that
may be similar in morphological characters, chemical constituents or
therapeutic activity.
→ For example hog gum or hog tragacanth for tragacanth gum, mangosteen fruits
for bael fruits, Arabian senna, obovate senna and Provence senna are used to
adulterate senna, ginger being adulterated with Cochin, African and Japanese
ginger.
→ Capsicum annuum fruits and Japanese chillies are used for fruits of C.
minimum. 127

3. Substitution using exhausted drugs:
 In this type of substitution the active medicaments of the main drugs are
extracted out and are used again.
 This could be done for the commodities that would retain its shape and
appearance even after extraction, or the appearance and taste could be made
to the required state by adding colouring or flavouring agents.
 This technique is frequently adopted for the drugs containing volatile oils,
such as: clove, fennel etc. After extraction, saffron and red rose petals are re-
coloured by artificial dyes.
 Another example is balsam of tolu that does not contain cinnamic acid. The
bitterness of exhausted gentian is restored by adding aloes.
128

4. Substitution of superficially similar inferior natural substances:
 The substituents used may be morphologically similar but will not be
having any relation to the genuine article in their constituents or therapeutic
activity.
 Ailanthus leaves are substituted for belladona, senna, etc. saffron admixed
with saff flower; peach kernels and apricot kernels for almonds; clove
stalks and mother cloves with cloves; peach kernel oil used for olive oil;
chestnut leaves for hamamelis leaves and Japan wax for beeswax are few
examples for this type of adulteration.
129

5. Adulteration using the vegetative part of the same plant:
→ The presence of vegetative parts of the same plant with the drug in
excessive amount is also an adulteration.
→ For example, epiphytes, such as mosses, liverworts and lichens that grow
over the barks also may occur in unusual amounts with the drugs, e.g.
cascara or cinchona.
→ Excessive amount of stems in drugs like lobelia, stramonium, hamamelis
leaves, etc. are few example for this type of adulteration.
130

6. Addition of toxic materials:
→ In this type of adulteration the materials used for adulteration would be
toxic in nature.
→ A big mass of stone was found in the centre of a bale of liquorice root.
→ Limestone pieces with asafetida, lead shot in opium, amber-coloured
glass pieces in colophony, barium sulphate to silvergrain cochineal and
manganese dioxide to blackgrain cochineal, are few examples in this
adulteration.
131

7. Adulteration of powders:
→ Powdered drugs are found to be adulterated very frequently.
→ Adulterants used are generally powdered waste products of a suitable
colour and density.
→ Powdered olive stones for powdered gentian, liquorice or pepper; brick
powder for barks; red sanders wood to chillies; dextrin for powdered
ipecacuanha, are few adulterants.
132

8. Addition of synthetic principles:
→ Synthetic pharmaceutical principles are used for market and therapeutic
value.
→ Citral is added to lemon oil, whereas benzyl benzoate is added to balsam
of Peru.
→ Apart from these, the herbal products labelled to improve sexual
performance in men, when analysed, contained sildenafil.
→ Brand names included Actra-Rx, Yilishen, Hua Fo, Vinarol and Vasx,
Sleeping Buddha containing estazolam, Diabetes Angel containing
glyburide and phenformin are few examples under this category.
133

THANK YOU
134
PLANT YOUR DREAMS AND LET THEM GROW

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