FIELDWORK IN RURAL PERU

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FIELDWORK IN RURAL PERU
AN ANTHROPOLOGIST’S HANDBOOK
DANIELLE S. KURIN

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Contents
PART I: AN INTRODUCTION TO THE REPUBLIC OF PERU ....................................5
FAST FACTS ON PERU.......................................................................6
Country Profile ..............................................................................10
Peru’s Geography ..........................................................................11
Climate Characteristics...................................................................11
Notable Topography.......................................................................12
Rivers and Lakes ...........................................................................12
Peru Today ........................................................................................13
Lima: Capital City ..........................................................................13
History and Politics ........................................................................13
The Economy ................................................................................15
Andean Society ..................................................................................16
Ethno-Racial Groups ......................................................................16
Ethno-Linguistics...........................................................................17
City Living .........................................................................................17
Urbanization .................................................................................17
Working Conditions........................................................................18
Healthcare in Peru .........................................................................18
Education and Schooling.................................................................19
Restaurants and Mealtimes .............................................................19
Markets and Goods ........................................................................20
Traffic and Transportation...............................................................20
Crime Rates and Trends..................................................................20
Country Living....................................................................................21
Land Distribution ...........................................................................21
Subsistence Economy.....................................................................21
Transportation in the Provinces........................................................22
Village Healthcare..........................................................................22
Campo Education.................................................................. 22
Daily Life inthe Andes ....................................................................23
Systems of Belief ................................................................................23

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Religion and Creed.........................................................................23
Religious Holidays/Festivals ............................................................24
A Note on Behavior at Places of Worship............................................25
Local Traditions ..................................................................................25
Communal Values..........................................................................26
Codes of Politeness ........................................................................26
Male-Female Interaction ................................................................. 26
Hospitality and Gift Giving...............................................................27
Types of Food and Eating Habits.......................................................27
Dress Codes inthe Highlands...........................................................28
Local Celebrations .........................................................................28
Family Life .........................................................................................28
Family Structure............................................................................29
Male/Female Interaction ................................................................. 29
Status of Children ..........................................................................29
Marriage, Divorce, and Birth............................................................29
Rites of Passage .................................................................................30
Lay Baptism (Unuchakuy) ...............................................................30
Haircutting Ceremony (Chuckcha Rutuy)...........................................30
Weddings .....................................................................................30
Funerals.......................................................................................31
Naming Conventions ......................................................................31
PART II: BEING MINDFUL........................................................................... 32
General Behavior Guidelines.................................................................32
Participant Conduct........................................................................32
Cultural Forays and Folly.................................................................33
Philosophy on Discipline..................................................................35
Conduct and Misconduct ......................................................................35
Understand Mixed Signals ...............................................................36
Personal Boundary Perceptions........................................................36
Improper Behavior inCivil Society....................................................37
Back-and-Forth Communication ......................................................37
Maintain Situational Awareness .......................................................38

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If You Experience Misconduct ..........................................................39
If You Are Accused of Misconduct .....................................................40
Consequences of False Reporting .....................................................40
Cultural Immersion Expectations...........................................................40
Culture Shock and Burnout .............................................................41
Cultural Sensitivity ........................................................................42
Ethnicity, Class, and Race ...............................................................42
Queer Participants andReligious Minorities........................................44
Interpersonal Issues ......................................................................... 46
Euro-Americans as theExotic Other............................................................................ 47
Final Reflections to Keep in Mind ......................................................47
PART III: FIELD WORKING ON RESEARCH PROJECTS ................................48
Guiding Principle ...........................................................................48
Project Basics................................................................................48
Customs and Immigration ................................................................ 48
Getting to Town: Taxis at the Lima International Airport.......................49
Getting from the Town to Airport......................................................50
Departing from theLima Airport ......................................................50
Services at Lima International Airport ................................................. 50
Border Crossing and Checkpoints .....................................................51
Getting Around Town .....................................................................51
Money in Peru ...............................................................................52
Wellbeing in the Field .....................................................................54
Constitutional Guarantees...............................................................56
Preparing for Fieldwork: .................................................................57
Things You Should TOTALLY Bring into the Field..................................58
Gear that MakesLife Easier:............................................................58
Suggested Toiletries & Sanitary/Medical Supplies ...............................58
Gear Every Professional (Bio)Archaeologist Should Have in the Field.......58
A Pre-Departure Checklist...............................................................59
ASampleShoppingListforFieldWorkinthePeruvianSierra(toinspireyou)60
.................................................................................................................................... 60
More Frequently Asked Questions ....................................................62

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Understanding Risk........................................................................66
In the Laboratory................................................................................66
Intellectual Property ....................................................................... 67
Archaeology as a Process................................................................67
Working with Human Remains and Cultural Material............................67
Community Outreach .....................................................................69
Exploring Ayacucho and Apurimac....................................................69
Social Etiquette and Safety .............................................................69
Safety in the City ...........................................................................69
Alcohol in Peru ..............................................................................70
Sexual Relationships ......................................................................70
The Barfs andthe Poops .................................................................70
Helpful Resources..........................................................................71

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PARTI:ANINTRODUCTION TOTHEREPUBLICOFPERU
This handbook, a guide for fieldworkers embedded in the south-central Peruvian
Andes, was created, piecemeal style, from almost two decades of praxis and
applied research drawn from notes, news clippings, pamphlets and printouts, as
well as the most up-to-date notes from official Peruvian and USA sources. The
information herein was developed by practicing anthropologists, folks from the
Peace Corp, State Department and CDC, university study abroad programs,
and even different missionary groups, among other sources and specialists.
The aim of this handbook is to inform and help in your preparation for field
research abroad. Indeed, to adapt successfully to a new culture and research
climate, it helps to know what to expect from both the foreign environment and
what to expect of yourself. Now is your chance to absorb as much as possible
about Peru and to keep up with the latest news. So, before departure, read this
guide—and anything else you can find-- to learn about your new host country
and city (and address perennial issues such as where to travel, what to expect in
terms of transportation expenses, how to shop in a market, what the weather is
like, how to meet locals, health and safety risks, etc.). It’s up to you to, as Prof.
Malinowski said, to get out of the armchair, and “step off the verandah.”
So, begin your research as soon as possible. Learn about the local culture and
the academic culture in which you are to be immersed. A basic google search
will bring up Peruvian newspapers and periodicals, basically endless resources
with country information. Most importantly, understand that Peru is a land of
striking contrasts, both geographic and cultural. Yes, there will be challenges (as
in all fieldwork), but hard work yields rich rewards. One of the most important
lessons of field work is that acceptance that while you may not be able to
control every situation and its outcome, you do have agency and control over
your attitude and your reactions.In these experiences, we either make ourselves
miserable,orwemake ourselves strong.The amountofwork isthe same.During
your time in Peru, I challenge you to decide what you want, create a feasible
plan, and work on those goals. Every. Single. Day. And when life puts you in
tough situations –a missed flight, a bout of the barfs, a purloined wallet—don’t
bemoan, “why me?” Instead, proclaim, “try me!” Be mindful that tough times
don’t last, but tough people do. So, at the end of the day, will this experience
be easy? Nope, not at all. But will this experience be worth it? Yes. Absolutely.
DanielleS.Kurin,Ph.D.
Apurimac, Peru, 2018

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FAST FACTS ON PERU
Location:
WesternSouthAmerica,borderingtheSouth
Pacific Ocean, between Chile and Ecuador
Area:
total: 1,285,216 sq km
land: 1,279,996 sq km
water: 5,220 sq km
Area - comparative:
As tall as the US West Coast and as wide as
the distance between the Pacific to the
Rockies
Land boundaries:
total: 7,062 km
coastline:2,414km
borders: Bolivia 1,212 km, Brazil 2,659
km, Chile 168 km, Colombia 1,494 km,
Ecuador 1,529 km; sharescontrolofworld's
highestnavigable lake, Titicaca,withBolivia.
Climate:
varies from tropical in east to dry desert in west; temperate to frigid in Andes
Terrain:
western coastal plain (costa), high and
rugged Andes in center (sierra), eastern
lowland jungle of Amazon Basin (selva)
Elevation:
lowest point: Pacific Ocean 0 m; highest
point: Nevado Huascaran 6,768 m;
Ayacucho and Andahuaylas elevation ranges
are 1800 m to 4500 m.
Land use:
agricultural land: 18.8%; arable land 3.1%;
permanentcrops1.1%;permanentpasture
14.6%; forest: 53%; other: 28.2%

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Natural hazards:
earthquakes,tsunamis,flooding,landslides,mildvolcanicactivity in the Andes
Mountains - most active volcano; other historically active volcanoes
include Ubinas (5,672 m), El Misti, Huaynaputina, and Sabancaya
Environment - current issues:
deforestation - illegal logging & overgrazing – leads to soil erosion;
desertification;airpollutioninLima;pollutionofriversandcoastalwatersfrom
municipal and miningwastes
Population: 30,741,062; growth rate: 0.96%
Ethnic groups:
Amerindian 45%, mestizo (mixed Amerindian and white) 37%, white 15%, black,
Japanese, Chinese, and other 3%
Languages:
Spanish (official) 84.1%, Quechua (official) 13%, Aymara (official) 1.7%,
Ashaninka 0.3%, other native languages (mostly Amazonian languages) 0.7%,
other (includes foreign languages and sign language) 0.2% (2007 est.)
Religions: Roman Catholic 81.3%, Evangelical 12.5%, other 3.3%, none 2.9%
Median age: male: 26.9 years; female: 28.4 years (2016 est.)
Urbanization:
urban population: 78.6% of total population (2015)
rate of urbanization: 1.69% annual rate of change (2010-15 est.)
Major urban areas - population:
Lima 9.897 million (+2 mln in metro area); Arequipa 850,000; Trujillo 798,000 (2015)
DEMOGRAPHICS
Sex ratio: 0.97 male(s)/female (2016 est.)
Mother's mean age at first birth: 22.2
Maternal mortality rate: 68 deaths/100,000 live births (2015 est.)
Total fertility rate: 2.15 children born/woman (2016 est.)
Infant mortality rate: total: 19 deaths/1,000 live births Life
expectancy at birth: total population: 73.7 years
Major infectious diseases: food or waterborne: bacterial diarrhea, hepatitis
A, typhoid; vectorborne: dengue, malaria, and Bartonellosis

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Note: active local transmission of Zika virus by Aedes species mosquitoes has
been identified as of August 2016; it poses a risk if bitten by an infective
mosquito; other less common ways to get Zika are through sex, via blood
transfusion, or during pregnancy, in which the pregnant woman passes Zika
virus to her fetus.
GOVERNMENT
Country name: República del Perú
Government type: presidential republic
Capital: Lima “Ciudad de los Reyes”
Time difference: UTC-5 (no daylight
savings)
Administrative divisions:
25 regions and 1 constitutional province
Amazonas, Ancash, Apurimac, Arequipa, Ayacucho, Cajamarca, Callao,
Cusco, Huancavelica, Huanuco, Ica, Junin, La Libertad, Lambayeque, Lima,
Loreto, Madre de Dios, Moquegua, Pasco, Piura, Puno, San Martin, Tacna,
Tumbes, Ucayali
Independence: 28 July 1821 (from Spain)
Legal system: civil law system
Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal and compulsory until the age of 70
Executive branch:
Multi-party system. President elected through run-off, direct election;
Cabinet composed of Council of Ministers appointed by the president;
elections: president directly elected by absolute majority popular vote
for a 5-year term (eligible for nonconsecutive terms)
Legislative branch:
unicameral Congreso de la Republica del Peru - 30 seats; members
directly elected and proportional representation; 5-year terms
Judicial branch:
Supreme Court - 16 judges, civil, criminal, & constitutional-social sectors
subordinate courts: Superior Courts and peace courts where professional
judges and selected community members preside
Diplomatic representation in the USA:
1700 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20036 ;(202) 833-9860
Peruvian consulates general:
Atlanta, Boston, Chicago, Dallas, Denver, Hartford CT, Houston, Los
Angeles, Miami, New York, Paterson NJ, San Francisco, Washington DC

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Diplomatic representation from the US:
Ambassador Krishna URS
Embassy: Avenida La Encalada, Cuadra 17 s/n, Surco, Lima 33
PO Box 1995, Lima 1; American Embassy Lima, APO AA 34031-5000
telephone: [51] (1) 618-2000; FAX: [51] (1) 618-2397
Consulates located in Lima and on Av. Del Sol in Cusco
ECONOMY
Exchange: nuevo sol (PEN) per US dollar - 3.36 (2016); 3.18 (2015); 2.83 (2013)
GDP - per capita (PPP):$13,000 (2016 est.) - note: data are in 2016 dollars
Agriculture - products:
asparagus, avocados, coffee, cocoa, cotton, sugarcane, rice, potatoes, corn,
plantains, grapes, oranges, pineapples, guavas, bananas, apples, lemons,
pears, coca, tomatoes, mangoes, barley, medicinal plants, quinoa, palm oil
Industries:
miningandrefiningofminerals;steel,metalfabrication;petroleumextraction
and refining, natural gas and natural gas liquefaction; fishing and fish
processing, cement, beer,rubber
Labor force: agriculture: 25.8%; industry: 17.4%; services: 56.8%
Population below poverty line: 25.8% (2012)
Exports: $38.09 billion (2016)
Exports - partners: China 22.1%, US 15.2%, Switzerland 8.1%, Canada 7% (2015)
Imports - partners: China 22.7%, US 20.7%, Brazil 5.1%, Mexico 4.5% (2015)
Exports - commodities:
copper, gold, lead, zinc, tin, iron ore, molybdenum, silver; crude petroleum and
petroleum products, natural gas; coffee, asparagus and other vegetables, fruit,
apparel and textiles, fishmeal, fish, chemicals
Imports - commodities:
petroleumandpetroleumproducts,chemicals,plastics,machinery,vehicles,TV
sets, power shovels, front-end loaders, telephones and telecommunication
equipment, iron and steel, wheat, corn, soybean products, paper, cotton,
vaccines and medicines
Telephone system:
domestic: fixed-line tele-density is only about 10 per 100 persons;
mobile-cellular tele-density exceeds 110 telephones per 100 persons
international: country code - 51;
Internet country code: .pe

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Broadcast media:
10TVnetworks,oneisstateowned;cableTVavailable;over2,000radiostations
including a substantial number of indigenous language stations
Disputes - international:
Chile and Ecuador with treaty-defined maritime boundaries;
Narcotics operations in Colombia have penetrated Peru's shared border;
Peru rejects Bolivia's claim to maritime access through a sovereign corridor;
Diplomatic dispute with Venezuela’s leaders, Peruvian Ambassadors recalled
Internally displaced persons:
60,000 (residual from 1mln IDPs from 1980-2000 civil war; IDPs are
indigenous peasants in Andean and Amazonian)
Illicit drugs:
Peru is again the world's largest producer of coca leaf and cocaine. In 2009,
cultivation of coca in Peru was estimated at 40,000 hectares, in additional to 225
metric tons of potential pure cocaine produced; cocaine is shipped from
Pacific ports to Central and North America, or moved to Brazil, Chile, Argentina,
and Bolivia for use in the Southern Cone or shipment to Europe and Africa.
Country Profile
Ancient Peru was the seat of several prominent Andean civilizations, most
notably that of the Incas whose empire was captured by Spanish conquistadors
in 1533. Peru declared its independence in 1821, and remaining Spanish forces
were defeated in 1824. After a dozen years of military rule, Peru returned to
democratic leadership in 1980, but experienced economic problems and the
growth of a violent insurgency. President Alberto FUJIMORI's election in 1990
ushered in a decade that saw a dramatic turnaround in the economy and
significantprogressincurtailingguerrillaactivity.Nevertheless,thepresident's
increasing reliance on authoritarian measures and an economic slump in the
late 1990s generated mounting dissatisfaction with his regime, which led to his
resignation in 2000. A caretaker government oversaw a new election in the
spring of 2001, which installed Alejandro TOLEDO as the new head of
government - Peru's first democratically elected president of indigenous
ethnicity. The presidential election of 2006 saw the return of Alan GARCIA who,
after a disappointing presidential term from 1985 to 1990, oversaw a robust
economic rebound. Former army officer Ollanta HUMALA was elected president
in June 2011, and carried on the sound, market-oriented economic policies of
the three preceding administrations. Poverty and unemployment levels have
fallen dramatically in the last decade, and today Peru boasts one of the best
performing economies in Latin America. Pedro Pablo KUCZYNSKI won a very
narrow presidential runoff election in June 2016. In March of 2018, Kuczynski

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resigned from the presidency before he could be impeached on graft charges,
and, in an orderly transition, his First Vice President, Martin VIZCARRA assumed
the presidency. President Vizcarra’s term will end in 2021.
Peru’s Geography
Peru’s diverse and often rugged physical terrain have three main geographic
regions: from west to east, these are the coastal region (Costa), the Andean
highlands (Sierra), and the tropical forest covered Amazonian interior (Selva).
The Costa is the smallest of Peru’s geographic region, comprising only 11% of the
nation’s total land area, but accounts for more than one-half of all the
population.
The central - southern region of the Sierra—where our project is located-- is the
heartland of Peru’s Quechua-speaking population. Most people in the Sierra
towns and cities located in river valleys in the high-altitude puna grasslands,
which support herds of llamas and alpacas. Less than 5% of the Sierra is arable;
nevertheless,thisregionincludesmorethan50%ofPeru’sfarmlandsand34%of
the nation’s total area.
Although Peru is generally perceived to be a mountainous country, more than
60% of the nation’s area is made up of tropical rainforests collectively known as
the Selva. Cloud forests on the eastern slopes of the Andes form the Ceja de
Selva, a region through which Peru’s feeder rivers to the Amazon River make
their final descent to the forest plain. Further east lies the Selva Baja, part of the
Amazonian Basin and a region in which rivers remain the primary (or only)
means of overlandtransportation.
Climate Characteristics
Peru’s three major geographic regions each have different climates. Because of
the cold waters flowing northward along the Pacific coast, the Costa receives
very little rainfall. Coastal fog and low clouds occur in the austral winter (June –
August), generating a misty, foggy marine layer, called garua, which provides
the only form of precipitation in this desert environment. The Selva, with its
abundant rainforests, is Peru’s warmest and wettest region. Rainfall is steady
throughout the year.
In the Sierra region, temperatures and rainfall vary according to latitude,
elevation, and rain-shadow effects (i.e., position east or west of the highest
peaks of the Andes). In general, it rains more on the eastern side of the Andes
and less in the west. The heaviest rains in the mountains occur during the
SouthernHemispheric(Austral)summer,whichisDecemberthroughMarch.
Archaeological fieldwork usually takes place in June through August, which is
duringthedryseason,although briefrainoreven thunderstormsmaystilloccur

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(especially because the 2018 ‘El Niño’ climate phenomenon has been
particularly intense, and the effects of climate change are acutely felt in the
Andean highlands). As in the Selva, daily temperatures in the Sierra vary greatly.
Notable Topography
The Andes Mountains are South America’s most spectacular physical feature,
steeply rising from sea level to heights rivaled only by the soaring peaks of the
Himalayas in Asia. Numerous peaks higher than 6,000 m (20,000 ft) spread across
the high ranges of central and southern Peru. So too, Peru’s position in the
Pacific ‘ring of fire,’ and its location on a major fault line (the subduction of the
Nazca Plate) means that earthquakes (sismos) are quite common. Fieldworkers
should be aware of what to do in case of an earthquake. While deadlier on the
coast, in Peru’s mountains zones, earthquakes can sometimes cause landslides
of glacial mud, rock, and ice, wreaking havoc on vulnerable settlements.
Current geological data suggest that the volcanoes in Departments including
Ayacucho and Apurimac are mostly extinct and inactive (although corrosive
volcanic ash can damage airplane engines).
Rivers and Lakes
Rivers flowing off the western Andean slopes onto the Costa are less than 325 km
(200 mi) long and generally flow only during the December-to-March rainy
season. All of Peru’s longest rivers, including the Ucayali, the Marañón, the
Huallaga, and the Apurimac, flow off the eastern side of the Andes and
eventually drain into the Amazon River. The Apurimac, the major river of south-
central Peru, is part of the Amazon River’s longest tributary; it flows more than
2,700 km (1,700 mi) before meeting the Ucayali and Marañón Rivers, and,
several thousand kilometers later, emptying into the Atlantic Ocean.
Peru also has tens of thousands of lakes, most of which are in the Sierra and the
Selva regions. Those in the Sierra are formed either in basins created by melted
glaciers or by movements of the earth’s crust. The Sierra and Selva lakes are not
particularly large, with the exception of Lake Titicaca, which, by volume, is South
America’slargestlake.Atanelevationof3,810m(12,500ft),LakeTiticaca is also
the highest navigable freshwater lake in the world.
While the Ayacucho region tends to be fairly dry by comparison, nearby
Andahuaylas Province, in particular, is home to hundreds of these high mountain
lakes. In fact, the Archaeological site of Sondor overlooks the Pacucha Laguna,
the largest freshwater laguna in Peru. This laguna plays a central role in the
creation and origin myths of both the Chanka people and the cultures
preceding them. Today people fish, take boat rides, and enjoy local wildlife.

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Peru Today
Approximately one-third of the country’s total population resides along the thin
desert coastal belt, with a strong focus on the capital city of Lima. The
expansive Andean highlands, which is strongly identified with the country's
Amerindian population, contains roughly half of the overall population; the
eastern slopes of the Andes, and adjoining rainforest, are sparsely populated
Peru greatest era of modern immigration took place in the 19th and early 20th
centuries. In the last several decades this process has reversed: Peru has
become a country of emigration. Beginning in the 19th century, Peru brought in
Asian contract laborers to work on coastal plantations. Populations of Chinese
and Japanese descent - among the largest in Latin America - are economically
and culturally influential in Peru today. Prior to that era, the labor pool consisted
of enslaved/indentured Afro-descendant and Amerindian communities.
Peruvian out-migration began rising in the 1980s due to a prolonged economic
crisis,andyearsofviolentinternalconflict.Theseoutflowshavestabilizedinthe
last few years as economic conditions have improved dramatically. Peruvians
have largely settled in the USA, Spain, and Argentina.
Lima: Capital City
All international flights land at Jorge Chavez International Airport, in Lima, and
any fieldworkers should consider spending at least a day or two in the city to
enjoy the best sites and experiences.
Lima, the so-called “City-of-Kings,” is the nation’s capital, and has a population
ofover 11 million people. Due primarily to internal migration, over one-third of
Peru’s population lives in this sprawling metropolis. Indeed, in the last three
decades, Lima’s population has more than doubled, with large numbers of new
arrivals living in shantytowns, euphemistically called pueblos jovenes. Many of
these migrants to Lima are from the Sierra, where violence from the 20-year-long
civil war forced over a million people to flee their villages and seek sanctuary in
the relative safety of larger cities and regional capitals. Although improvements
in education, sanitation, and infrastructure have transformed some of Lima’s
shantytownsfromslumstolowermiddle-classdistrictsandintegratedtheminto
the city’s urban fabric, other impoverished areas on the city’s edges still lack
access to basic amenities such as potable water and are overrun with
organized and street crime. As such, novices should avoid travel to these areas.
History and Politics
A significant moment in Peru’s history was the Spanish conquest of the Inca
Empire.Throughout the Spanish colonial era and continuing today, the cultural
encounter between the Old World and the New World has been reflected
economically, socially, and politically. Today, the poorest parts of the country

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remain in the Sierra, where the Amerindian descendants of the vanquished
Inca, Chanka (and others) live today. Parts of Ayacucho and Apurimac
Department, are the poorest regions in the country. Like their ancestors, a
majority(+70%)oftheseindigenousAndeansspeakQuechua(locallyknownas
Runasimi) as their first language, although many younger folks speak Spanish.
The more affluent social classes in Peru, including Creoles (or Criollos,
descendants of the Spanish) and Mestizos (descendants of Spanish and
Amerindians), have historically lived in the coastal cities of Peru. In recent
decades, however, demographic changes have somewhat reshaped this
ethno-geographicclassstructure.Since 1990,Peru’spresidentsoweagrowing
amount of their electoral success to strong showings among poor and
indigenoussectors.And,forthefirsttimein2016,fiveofthe12richestfamiliesin
Peru were based in cities outside of Lima and its coastal satellites.
Most notably, coastal cities like Lima now have large Amerindian populations.
Much of this migration was spurred by terrorist violence that gripped the
Peruvian Andes during the 1980s and early 1990s. This deadly insurgency was
waged by the Sendero Luminoso (“Shining Path”), a Marxist guerrilla
organization that emerged from the Ayacucho and Andahuaylas regions of the
Sierra. Rural communities of Quechua speakers suffered greatly during the years
of conflict, and several villages that resisted the Sendero Luminoso were later
annihilated through horrific massacres by those terrorists, or by brutal secret
police forces motivated by race-based suspicions and distrust.
Although terrorist organizations still operate as narco-mercenaries in a very
isolated region of the south - central Peruvian cloud forests and Selva, their grip
on the nation began to lessen significantly during the regime of President
Alberto“ElChino”Fujimori(1990–2000)whoinstalledinfrastructure(schools,
health clinics, electricity) in long-forgotten rural zones, but also hypermilitarized
the region, building thousands of military installations.
Indeed, a broad era of Peru’s history has been characterized by military coups
and frequentconstitutional overhauls. The mostnotable contemporary instance
came in 1992, when President Fujimori, a civilian who had military support,
staged a coup of his own government (known as autogolpe), which allowed
him to suspend the nation’s constitution and dissolve the country’s Congress. A
yearlater,Fujimoriandhissupporterspushedthroughanewconstitutionthat
wasmore free-marketoriented and permitted Fujimori to run again in 1995.
Fujimori remainsacontroversial figure in Peru.He iswidelycreditedfor bringing
the hyperinflation of the 1980s under control and for general antiterrorism
successes. However, subsequent revelations about rampant corruption and
bribery, a culture of kleptocracy, involvement in big league narcotrafficking, the

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enthusiastic use of government-approved death squads, and the
implementation ofeugenics-styledforced sterilizations by the Presidentand his
cronies, led to Fujimori’s eventual conviction and imprisonment in 2009. His
victims likely number in the millions, for which he was given a 25-year prison
sentenceforcorruptionandhuman-rightsabuses.Fujimorilanguishedinjailuntil
December 2017, when he was granted a full pardon by then-President Kuczynski
in a “House of Cards-style” political maneuver executed to sobering perfection
bytwo of Fujimori’s politically ambitious children, Keiko and Kenji.Kuczynski’s
stunning decision (or ‘forced hand’) ultimately hastened his own downfall
several months later. As of April 2018, Kuczynski is under virtual house arrest in
Peru, and Fujimori remains a free man; the future roles of both former
Presidents—both disgraced-- in Peruvian life remains uncertain.
Nevertheless,theorderlytransitionofpowerandotherrightsandresponsibilities
articulated in Peru’s 1993 constitution remains the “law of the land,” although in
the past 25 years, several parts of it have been changed by amendments. Key
here: Under the constitution, the president is elected to a five-year term. S/he
mayrunfor additionalterms, whichcannotbe successive.The president, in turn,
appoints a Council of Ministers. The legislature is represented by the Congress, a
unicameral body whose 130 members also are elected to 5-year terms.
Administratively,Peruisdividedinto25regions,whicharefurthersubdividedinto
provinces, districts, and annexes. All high-ranking officials at these local levels
are elected. Over the last decade, these subnational administrative entities
have slowly gained increasing autonomy as part of a decentralization
movement. One successful aspect of this movement has involved the national
government transferring one-half of the taxes and royalties from mining and
hydrocarbon extraction to regional administrative bodies. This has proven to be
a windfall for some small Andean communities, although in some cases the lack
of governmental capacity has made it difficult for these towns to prioritize, plan,
and carry out all the desired infrastructural and social-improvement projects.
The Economy
Peru's economy reflects its varied topography - an arid lowland coastal region,
the central high sierra of the Andes, and the dense forests and expansive
tropical lands of the Amazon. A wide range of important mineral resources are
found in the mountainous and coastal areas: Peru is the world's second largest
producer of silver and third largest producer of copper. And Peru's coastal
waters provide excellent fishing grounds. The Peruvian economy grew by an
averageof5.6%from2009-13,withanexpected2017rateof+3.7%,alongwith
a stable exchange rate and low inflation. This growth was due partly to high
international prices for Peru's metals and minerals exports, which account for
almost60%ofthecountry'stotalexports.Growthhasslippedsince2014,dueto

16
weaker worldpricesfor these resources.Despite Peru's strong macroeconomic
performance, dependence on minerals and metals exports and imported
foodstuffs makes the economy vulnerable to fluctuations in world prices.
Fortuitously, Peru's rapid expansion has helped to reduce the national poverty
rate by28 percentage points since 2002, but inequality persists and continues to
pose a challenge. Poor infrastructure hinders the spread of growth to Peru's non-
coastal areas. Recent administrations have passed several economic stimulus
packages to bolster growth and spur investment in Peru’s lucrative mining
sector, a move that was opposed by some environmental groups. Mining
investment remains problematic as global commodity prices fluctuate, and
social conflicts and uprisings remain common in the sector.
For much of Peru’s history, a significant economic gap has existed between the
Sierra region (the traditional homeland of Quechua speakers) and the country’s
coastal sections. Population growth and a desire for greater economic
opportunities helped spark large waves of migrations from the Sierra to Lima and
other coastal urban areas. The modern-day economy of the Sierra is centered
aroundmining,agriculture,and(intheCuscoregion)tourism.Byitself,miningis
not a major source of jobs in the Sierra. Only about 125,000 Peruvian workers
employed in the formal mining sector; anywhere from 60,000 to 250,00
additional persons work inthe informal,or artisanal,miningsector,primarilyin
small-scale gold mining.
In the Sierra, farming is likely to be done at the subsistence level. Commonly
grown crops in this high-altitude region include potatoes, various roots and
tubers, and quinoa. In terms of value to the Peruvian economy, however, coffee
is the most important agricultural product of the Sierra. As of 2011, Peru’s coffee
production represents 2% of the nation’s total economy and 2% of the world’s
total coffee supply. These figures have now more than doubled.
Much of the exploitable land in the Sierra is used for livestock. The importance of
livestock to Peru’s agricultural sector cannot be minimized. In terms of annual
production value, 5 of the nation’s top 11 agricultural products are animal-
related (chicken meat, cow milk, beef, hen eggs, pig meat).
Andean Society
Ethno-Racial Groups
InPeru, there are three major ethno-racial groups: those descended from the
indigenous people who inhabited the region at the time of the Spanish
conquest (termed indígena, originario, or autóctono), those descended from
Europeans (mostly Spanish), and those of mixed Amerindian/European

17
ancestory (mestizos). Peruvians descended from black African slaves or who are
of Japanese/Chinese ancestry constitute much smaller groups.
Amerindians from the Sierra who have migrated to the cities of the coast are
sometimes referred to as cholos or serranos, terms that may carry a pejorative
meaning. The term chunchu is used frequently, again in an often-negative
context, to distinguish those indigenous people from the remotestareas of the
jungles or highlands who frequently speak no Spanish or Quechua at all.
Language is an element of ethnic identification: Europeans and Peruvian Blacks
and Asians overwhelmingly speak Spanish as their first language, as do most
mestizos. The Amerindians in the Sierra primarily speak some dialect of Quechua
or, near the southern Bolivian border, Aymara as a first or second language.
However, language correlations to ethnicity cannot be applied uniformly. In the
northern Sierra, for example no Quechua is spoken, even though much of the
ruralpopulationisculturallysimilartoindigenouspopulationselsewhere.Onthe
other hand, in regions of the southern Sierra, including in some parts of
Ayacucho and Apurimac, Quechua is spoken even by those who ethnically
identify themselves as “blancos” (i.e., European descent).
Ethno-Linguistics
Quechua is a family of related languages largely spoken in the Andean/Sierra
region of Peru. Quechua languages and dialects are spoken in several other
South American countries, with the largest number of non-Peruvian Quechua
speakers living in Ecuador and Bolivia. Linguists argue that Quechuan languages
can be divided into two broad categories: Quechua I and Quechua II. The
Quechua I languages are spoken in Peru’s central Andes, and the Quechua II
languages are spoken primarily in Peru’s southern Andes region. Although
frequently referred to as the “language of the Incas,” regional varieties of
Quechua were spoken in many areas before the conquering Incas arrived.
The dialectical of Quechua spoken by preHispanic peoples in Ayacucho and
Andahuaylas is linguistically distinctfrom the dialectspoken by folksin Cusco.
City Living
Today,about 77% of Peruvians live in urban areas;up to 11 million people live in
metropolitan Lima, the nation’s capital and largest city. Yet, a significant
population still lives in rural, highland areas in cities like Cusco, Ayacucho, and
Puno, with populations more of than 100,000. Major provincial capitals in the
region, like Andahuaylas, have populations in the 30,000’s.
Urbanization
For many decades, a huge swath of Peru’s indigenous populations have
migrated to urban areas to escape the poverty and the violence wrought upon

18
the rural highlands. Many migrated to coastal cities, particularly Lima. For
instance,between1940and1981,Lima’spopulationsoaredfrom650,000to4.6
million. Another surge of urban migration came during the 1980s and early
1990s, when parts of the Peruvian highlands were terrorized by the Sendero
Luminoso (Shining Path) terrorist group.
Asis the case across South America, inPeru,the newestcityarrivalsfirst take up
residence in shantytowns, known informally as pueblos jóvenes (new towns), at
the edge of urban areas. Some pueblos jóvenes literally spring up overnight as
large numbers of squatters quickly build basic housing on unused public and
privately held lands, and even protected archaeological sites! Over time, the
oldest of these pueblos jóvenes, typically located closer to the central part of a
city, become lower middle-class suburbs as newer pueblos jóvenes spring up
and form the outermost shells of urban areas.
Some ruralhighlandtraditions,suchasreciprocity-based laborassistance (ayni)
among members of the local community (ayllu), have found new forms of
expression in these pueblos jóvenes. Regional associations—called clubes,
composed of urban migrants who share a common place of origin—provide
social connections and a network by which to channel assistance from the city
back to the countryside. Many migrants only return for brief periods during local
festivals, and it’s not uncommon for the rural festivals to be organized and
bankrolled by former village residents who now make a living in the big city.
Working Conditions
A large percentage of the jobs in Lima and other Peruvian cities like Ayacucho
and Andahuaylas are in the so-called informal sector. An informal-sector job is
one that falls outside regulated or incorporated businesses. Informal categories
includestreetandstallvendors,householdworkers,drivers,andserviceworkers.
TheoverwhelmingmajorityofthesefolksareexcludedfromPeru’ssocialsecurity
system. The economies of Lima and other larger cities of the coastal region are
much more diversified than those of the Sierra—the Quechua heartland.
Nevertheless,certainemploymentnichesstillexist;citieslikeAyacuchoCity,and
Andahuaylas City are administrative capitals that generate employment in the
public sector and serve as market centers for the surrounding rural regions.
Healthcare in Peru
Peru’s healthcare system is made up of private and public programs. In 2010,
the Peruvian government passed legislation establishing universal health
insurance as part of a government-subsidized, low-income program (like
Medicaid in the USA). Within the cities of Sierra, public and private healthcare
facilitiesrangefromhealthpoststoclinicstofull-scalehospitals.Insomecases,

19
private healthcare facilities have better levels of staffing and equipment than
public ones. Private facilities are also significantly more expensive.
Education and Schooling
Spanish is the principal language of instruction in Peruvian schools, but the
government has promoted a program of bilingual education, with Quechua as
the primary indigenous language.Most participating schoolsare inrural regions.
Although eleven years of primary and secondary schooling is compulsory in
Peru, not all children go to school, nor do all children receive an equal
education. Provinces including Andahuaylas and Cities like Ayacucho have
dozens of high schools, technical and private colleges, and a branch of the
national(public)universitysystem.Publicschools inurbanareasaremuchmore
likelythan theirruralcounterpartstohave basicinfrastructure (i.e.,electricity,
running water, sewage facilities) and libraries and athletic fields or courts.
Around 85% of adolescents in urban areas attend school, but that percentage
plummets in ruralareas.
Restaurants and Mealtimes
When dining with Peruvians, the expectation is that those who invite others to a
restaurant will pay for the meal.
Larger cities of the southern and central Andes generally have a modest
selection of restaurants, although nothing as extensive as Lima. Breakfast is
served at some restaurants, although few places are open before 8 a.m.
Traditional breakfast fare includes bread, eggs, cheese, and potatoes. Note
thatrestaurantsmostlyserveinstantcoffee.Teaisapopularmorning,afternoon,
or evening drink.
Lunch is the main meal of the day and is usually eaten at 1 p.m. Many
restaurants feature a menú, a set lunch special that includes a starter dish, an
entrée, and a dessert. Ceviche (raw fish marinated in lime juice with onion,
peppers, sweet potatoes and corn on the cob), is generally a lunch item.
Ceviche is arguably the national dish of Peru.
Street stands are popular with locals and offer various kinds of food, including
anticuchos (kebabs), choco con queso (boiled corn with cheese), picarones
(sweet potato donuts), and arroz con leche con mazamora (rice pudding with
fruit compote). Note: eating street food comes with some risk.
When searching for a place to grab supper out on the town, note that the
smallerthe city, the earlier the restaurantislikelytoclose,usuallybetween 9 and
10 p.m. With respect to cuisine, restaurants serving Peru’s version of Chinese

20
food(chifas)andrestaurantsspecializinginroastchicken(pollerías)are
ubiquitous; present in almost every town and city in the country.
Markets and Goods
Almost all Peruvian cities and towns have street markets, known as mercados or
ferias. In larger towns, mercados may occupy several city blocks. Produce and
meats are commonly sold at these markets. Some also sell household goods,
electronics, shoes, clothing, and numerous other items. Cities and villages
frequented by tourists often have markets where arrays of local crafts and folk
art are available. Cash is usually the only form of payment accepted.
Bargaining is an accepted part of shopping in Peru, except at large retail or
chain stores in big cities.
Traffic and Transportation
Given the sub-optimal conditions of roads and the lack of adequate
transportation infrastructure, driving in Peru is challenging. Traffic signals and
signs, if they even exist, are ignored by local drivers.Gas stations may notbe
open at night and may be difficult to find in some areas.
Taxi fares are negotiated in advance. When traveling around a city or between
cities, many visitors hire taxis. In general, rates are not metered or fixed.
Buses and minibuses (respectively called caros and combis) are another option
for traveling within or between cities. Minibuses generally have fixed routes and
stop only when requested by the passenger.
Crime Rates and Trends
Although violent crime against foreigners is rare, pick pocketing, purse
snatching, muggings, and other forms of armed and opportunistic robbery are
not uncommon. Kidnappings, when they rarely occur, are often “express
kidnappings,” in which victims are taken to a bank or an ATM machine to
withdraw money for their own ransom, and then released. These types of street
crime are most ubiquitous in tourist meccas including Cusco. Fraud is also a
concern; the U.S. Embassy recommends that you limit the use of credit cards to
hotels and “well-established businesses.”
Most larger cities (e.g., Cusco, Ayacucho) have Policía de Turismo (Tourist
Police), a division of the National Police dedicated to handling crimes against
foreignvisitors.Officers workingwith the PolicíadeTurismo receive training in
how to interact with foreigners and are likely to have somebody available who
speaksEnglish. The U.S.Bureau ofDiplomatic Security recommends thatany
crime victim in Peru contact the police when possible.

21
Country Living
Despite the high rate of urbanization in recent decades, thousands of peasant
communities populate the central and southern Andes. Over 60% of Peru’s rural
population live below the national poverty line and survive on less than one
dollarperday.Themortalityrateforinfant’shoversjustbelow20%.Onaverage,
a person born in Lima will live nearly 20 years longer than a southern highlander
in one of the rural Quechua-speaking peasant communities. Despite attempts
to improve local economies, there exist challenges related to rural land
distribution,jobcreation,andinfrastructuredevelopment.Thesefolksalsoneed
access to high-quality healthcare and education. Illegal coca plantations,
mining and other form of natural resource extraction in dicey ‘no-man’s-lands’
that further threaten the stability of civil society.
Land Distribution
Beginning in 1969, General Juan Velasco, who became President after a coup,
instituted a sweeping Agrarian Reform Law. The law’s intent was to expropriate
the large agricultural landholdings (haciendas) and redistribute them to the
landless and land-poor peasants (campesinos). Prior to agrarian reform, less
than 1% of landowners held over 75% of the arable land. The remaining, less
desirable, mountain-slope acreage was communally owned by peasants.
Despite good intentions, collectivist agrarian reform ultimately failed and was a
direct contributor to the rise of the Shining Path.
Today, lands are owned by private individuals or by indigenous peasant
communities, which in turn divide it among participating members. In general,
the best irrigated and most productive land is in the river valleys. Highland
agricultural plots (chakras) tend to be small (less than 5 ha/12 acres), are often a
long walk from the owner’s home. Crop selection tends to be diverse and a
single family may have rights to several plots, with different crops planted at
various elevations.
Subsistence Economy
Subsistence agriculture and livestock herding have long been the predominant
way of life in the rural parts of the central and southern Peruvian Andes. Many of
these areas are still isolated and not fully integrated into the cash-based
economy of the cities. To improve their economic conditions, many rural families
earn additional income from sources by gaining a foothold in particular
economic niches associated with regional economies. For example, in the
barren, rural areas lying between Cusco and Machu Picchu, extensive tourism
provides a market for locally made handicrafts, and work for guides and porters
on the Inca trail. In other areas, supplemental income may come from day labor
like road maintenance work or street-market trade in nearby towns.

22
Transportation in the Provinces
The rugged terrain of the Peruvian Andes has always presented challenges in
creatingtransportationlinksbetweenruralregionsandurbancenters.In1999,
only 28% of Peruvian rural households had access to a nearby road in good
condition. Such isolation has made it difficult to market food and wares in a
timely manner and has contributed significantly to the persistent poverty of the
rural regions. Since 1995 the Government has implemented major rural road
projects.WithassistancefromtheWorldBankandInter-AmericanDevelopment
Bank, more than 15,000 km (9,320 mi) of dirt roads have been upgraded to
gravel. Nearly 80% of the roads rehabilitated in the first phase of the project
were situated in the central and southern highlands. This work continues.
Village Healthcare
Rural Peruvians’ access to healthcare is negatively affected by several factors,
including geographical distance from major health clinics. A census of Peru’s
indigenous population in 2007 revealed that nearly 60% did not have access to
healthcare facilities. The mortality rate for infants, although lower than in past
decades, is still between 15 and 22 per 1,000 live births. The death rate for
women delivering children remains one of the highest in the Americas.
Nevertheless, maternal healthcare in rural Peru has been improving. One
indicatoristhatthe estimatednumberofmaternaldeathsper100,000livebirths
decreased from 250 in 1990 to 98 in 2008. The Peruvian government has
implemented various measures to lessen the potential dangers faced by
pregnantwomenliving inrural, isolated communities. Maternal waiting houses,
or mamawasis in Quechua, or casas maternas in Spanish, have been built
adjacent to health centers in rural towns. These waiting houses are designed to
accommodate pregnant women and their families for several weeks prior to
and after childbirth. Programs have been instituted to break down cultural
barriers that might otherwise discourage women from making use of modern
health facilities. Teaching Quechua to healthcare workers and training them to
respectlocalbirthingtraditionswhiledeliveringbabiesintheseruraloutpostshas
been particularly effective.
Campo Education
The remoteness of many rural communities affects education. Educational
achievement is much lower in the rural villages of the central and southern
PeruvianAndes than inurban areas.Forexample,only12% ofrural participants
pass the nation’s reading comprehension test, compared with 29% of urban
participants. One-quarter of rural participants attend schools far from their
home.Insomecases,youths livewithother families duringthe week,returning
home on the weekend or during breaks. Data from 2006 revealed that only 13%
of rural communities had secondary schools. Electricity is nonexistent in many
rural areas, so schools do not have computers or other forms of electronic-

23
basedinstruction.Fewruralschoolshavelibraries.Itisnotuncommonforsome
rural primary schools to consist of a single room, in which children of all grades
are taught. In extremely remote areas, the local school may include children
from kindergarten through secondary grades.
Daily Life in theAndes
The rhythmsofdailylife in the rural parts of the
central and southern Peruvian Andes are
related to the agricultural cycles. Family
membersriseearlytoworkinthefieldsformost
ofthe daylighthours. The fieldsare sometimes
a considerable distance from the home; thus,
a family may move to temporary huts near the
fields at labor-intensive times of year, such as
planting and harvesting.
Communal assistance, based on the
traditional Quechua practice of mutual help,
lightens the workload during these busy
periods. Children often help with herding
livestock. When children are young, both boys and girls are involved in tending
the family herd; when children are older, herding is more frequently done by
adolescent girls. Herding tasks are typically done both before and after school
hours.Childrenhelpwithotherfamilyfarmingtasks.Howmuchtheyworkvaries
with the agricultural season. During planting and harvesting seasons, much of
which overlaps with the summer break from school (December through
February), children work long hours on the land with their families.
Besides helping each other with work on their farms, people in rural areas help
from time to time withcommunityprojects.This type ofcommunal labor might
involve cleaning out irrigation canals, repairing the local school or church, or
building/maintaining mountain paths.
Systems of Belief
Religion and Creed
Prior to the arrival of the Spanish, Andeans practiced rites that reflected their
beliefs in the powers of objects and natural world. Other Andean Mountain
spirits(knownasApus)representedlife-givingnatural forces.However,sincethe
sixteenth century Spanish conquest, Roman Catholicism has been the
predominant religion in Peru. Nevertheless, elements of many pre-Columbian
traditions continue today, blending Catholic practices among the Quechua-
speakingnatives.Thismeldingofdifferentspiritualbeliefsandpracticesisknown
as syncretism. For example, the Andean deity, Pachamama (Earth Mother), has
become associated with the Virgin Mary.

24
The remainder of the population is Protestant or a
memberofanotherChristiandenomination.These
denominations, most of which are evangelical
(Pentecostal, Jehovah’s Witness, etc.), have been
expanding exponentially since the end of Peru’s civil
war (2000). Finally, small numbers of Jews live in Lima
and Cusco, and very small Muslim communities exist in
Lima and Tacna, in Peru’s far south.
Despite a relative lack of religious pluralism, Peru’s
constitutionguaranteesfreedomofreligion,andthis
policy is carried out in practice. The constitution
states a separation between church and state.
Nevertheless, the Catholic Church’s long association
with the government, dating back to the earliest colonial time, has resulted in
legal preferences despite a 2010 reform law designed to reduce religious
inequities. Still, all public schools in Peru require that religious education be
offered, and Catholicism is the only religion taught.
Religious Holidays/Festivals
Within the Quechua communities of the central and southern Sierra, annual
festivals honoring a local patron saint play an integral role in reaffirming each
village’sChristianbeliefs withinacelebratorysocialcontext.Thefestivals may
last a day or more than a week—or even a month! -- and include processions,
rites, dancing, feasting, drinking: a mix of both the sacred and the secular.
Itisimportanttonotethatthesefestivalsareexpensiveandrequirefamily-or
evencommunity-wide fundingand organizing for at leasta year inadvance;
they are also a manifestation of the traditional Quechua social traits of
reciprocity (called ayni) and kinship (called compadrazgo). These festivals often
coincide with planting and harvest times and are an outgrowth of pre-
Columbian ritual observances. Ritual offerings to Pachamama in a ceremony
known as the pago a la tierra continue to be performed regularly by family
elders or by local shamans known as Yachaks. The pago ceremony traces its
roots to pre-Hispanic harvests and plantings, but nowadays the ceremony may
be performed at any time on a special occasion, such as the beginning and the
end of a field excavation.
Within Quechuan communities, religious beliefs are often deeply personal and
focusonaspiritualconnectionwithJesus,saints,andotherreligiousfigures,who
are seen more as intermediaries of God than as models of how to live a virtuous

25
life. Religious imagery—frequently associated with miracles, visions, and
punishments—often plays an important role in these spiritual beliefs.
AnnualpilgrimagestoregionalChristianshrines--usuallyatremotesiteswhere
visions or miracles are reported to have occurred-- are another religious rite that
see the participation ofthousands. Like the festivalshonoring patronsaints, the
pilgrimagestoshrinesincorporatebothChristianritesandmorefiesta-likerevelry
such as dancing and watching fireworks.
Like all former SpanishColonies,Catholic churches are replete throughout Peru.
Many of the larger cities have a cathedral, usually adjacent to the central
plaza. Peruvians celebrate numerous religious holidays. Many of these days are
festivals that honor the patron saints of local cities and villages, but others are
more national in scope. Official public holidays during the Field Season include
the FeastSaints Peter and Paul (June 29). Historians have noted similarities to
prehistoric festival parades in which mummies were carried on liters and feted.
A Note on Behavior at Places of Worship
Visitors to any place of worship in Peru should follow the same decorum as they
would in their home country. Dress should be conservative; tank tops, ragged
jeans, sweat pants, shorts, or flip-flops are generally not appropriate.
• Men should remove hats or caps.
• Women in Peru, are not required to wear a veil or head covering
Visitors entering a Catholic church are notrequired to bless themselves with holy
water. During mass, one should speak only when prompted by the priest. Flash
photography or videotaping is acceptable when church services are not taking
place, but one should still be considerate of those who may be praying.
Local Traditions
Much of the culture within the Peruvian Andes changed significantly during
three hundred years of Colonial rule and subsequent Republican rule.
Nevertheless, even after centuries of European colonization and continuing
negative and outmoded attitudes toward the native Andean populations,
vestiges of traditions dating back to Incan and pre-Incan times remain. Despite
forced resettlement to European-style cities, ancient Quechua customs and
beliefs continue to be firmly rooted in the rural regions of the central and
southernhighlands.There,subsistencefarmingonsteep,mountainslopesisthe
primary way of life. Agricultural cycles influence existence and its daily routines
offamilychoresandresponsibilities.Notsurprisingly,thesedescendantsofthe
Wari, Chanka and Inca people retain a strong reverence for Pachamama
(Mother Earth), the provider who makes life in the high Andes possible.

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Communal Values
The small and predominantly agricultural communities of the Peruvian Andes
are known for their social cohesiveness and commitment to assisting each other
in times of need. All aspects of village life—work, marriage, land ownership, and
water rights—revolve around an extended kinship system known as ayllu. Forms
of ayllu social organization date from at least Wari-Chanka times. A basic
component of ayllu communality is ayni, which in broad terms can be
described as “help rendered to others today in anticipation of that help being
returned at a future date.” Ayni also can be seen in how the people of these
small Andean towns and villages pool their limited financial resources and free
time to put on yearly festivals that are major community social events.
Codes of Politeness
Native Quechuans, colloquially termed campesinos (peasants) are generally
more conservative in their social interactions than foreigners and even other
Peruvians. Kissing on the cheek, a common greeting style among other
Peruvians, is not a customary practice for rural campesinos. Western-style
handshakes are also not common among Amerindians, who prefer only light
hand touching (rather than a firm grasp), along with three pats with the left
hand on the opposite arm. When meeting strangers, they may even avoid
direct eye contact. When visiting someone in a Quechua village, it is
appropriate to call out, “Anyone home?” as one approaches the person’s
home.Itispolitetobeginconversationsbystating“Rimankullayki,”arespectful
of saying “allow me to speak to you.” Initial conservation will usually begin with
“Good morning” (or “day” or “night,” depending on the time).
In a country with a long history of social divisions based on ethnic classifications,
terms such as cholo (generally referring to an urbanized person of indigenous
descent) and indio can be viewed as slurs when used by outsiders and are
potentiallyoffensivetoPeruvians.Thus,itisbesttoavoidsuchlanguage.Kinship
and extended kinship terms such as compadre or hermano should be avoided
unlesssuchrelationships arecultivated.Ingeneral,menareaddressedas“sir”or
papá and women as “ma’am,” or mamá. Surnames are preceded with an
appropriate honorific (e.g., Sr. Yupanqui).
Male-Female Interaction
InPeru’s conservative culture,women whose behavior or dress falls outside the
local norms of modesty, can be subject to glares, catcalls and other verbal
harassment. A double standard exists to some extent. For example, women who
become publicly drunk are generally considered dishonorable, whereas men
who drink too much are not similarly ostracized by the community. On the other
hand, men will often show women (particularly older women or professional
women) a great deal of respect.

27
Hospitality and Gift Giving
Many in the Peruvian highlands continue to live in small houses that may have
only sod or adobe walls, dirt floors, and tin or thatched roofs. At high altitudes,
these houses are brutally cold. Despite these less-than-ideal conditions for
hostingvisitorsandthetime-intensivenatureoflocalagriculture,thecampesinos
of Andahuaylas and Ayacucho are known for their hospitality. Villagers may
offer food to visitors, presenting it with both hands. This is a sign of heartfelt
respect, and a visitor should receive the food the same way, with both hands.
Types of Food and Eating Habits
Potatoes – papas - were first domesticated in the Andean highlands
approximately 8,000 years ago and remain a staple of the Quechua diet. This
highly nutritious vegetable is used as a side dish and main ingredient in stews
and other meals. The Quechua naturally freeze-dry potatoes that can be
reconstituted months or even years later and added to stews or soups or ground
into flour used for thickening sauces and for baking. Quinoa is another food
staple of the Andean highlands. This so-called “wonder grain” is rich in proteins
and amino acids. Corn, or maiz, remains the most popular source of grain in in
the region. Mote, boiled dried corn kernels, is a dietary staple among the
Quechua. Chicha, a home-brewed beer, is usually made from corn, with the
fermentation process initiated by enzymes found in human saliva. After
accepting a glass of chicha, it is crucial that you first sprinkle a few drops of the
drink on the ground as a libation offering to the Pachamama.
A favorite meat dish is pachamanca (Quechua for “earth oven”). Pachamanca
is a stew-type meal cooked over hot volcanic stones buried in the ground.
Different types of meat are used in pachamanca, including beef, pork, or lamb.
Harvest festivals and other community celebrations are the most frequent
occasions for feasts of pachamanca. Cuy choctado is perhaps the most
unusual food. In this simple dish, a guinea pig is split open and spread out,
seasoned, breaded in hominy meal, and fried whole, head and all.
Those of the Peruvian Highlands have long chewed coca leaves with banana
ash or brewed the coca leaves in tea, called mate de coca. Coca leaves
produce a mild stimulant effect. They provide temporary relief from cold,
hunger, fatigue, and the symptoms of altitude sickness. While growing coca for
cocaine is illegal in Peru, using coca for personal consumption is considered a
cultural tradition and is perfectly legal. Chakchar is the name of the Andean
practice of chewing coca leaves. Its varied procedures and social etiquette
have been compared in intricacy to the Japanese tea ceremony. Each person
selects a few of the best leaves and stacks them shiny side up. The individual
then blows on the stack lightly while reciting a short blessing to the earth and

28
significant locations on the local landscape. If another person is present, the
coca stack is passed to that person, who receives it with thanks. Only then are
the coca leaves inserted in the mouth for chewing (the goal is to form and keep
the quid in a cheek pouch).
Dress Codes in theHighlands
AlthoughWestern-styleclothingisincreasinglythe
norm among younger Quechua men, especially in
cities and larger towns, Quechua women still
frequently wear traditional clothing. Garments
worn by women includes the llicila, a woven
square of cloth draped around the shoulders like a
shawl and attached in the front with a tupu pin;
the pollera, a wide woolen skirt; and the sombrero,
a hat that varies from region to region. Both men
and women wear ojotas, sandals made from tire
tread. Men, as well as some women, sometimes
carry a chuspa, a small woven bag used for
carrying coca leaves. The chullo, a woven hat with
ear flaps, is popular with men, although other
types of headgear are also worn. The poncho is
worn solely by men but usually reserved for
community functions and other special occasions.
Local Celebrations
There are two major celebrations that field working anthropologists tend to
witnessintheaustralwintermonths.TheSunFestival(IntiRaymi)occursinmid-
late June,during the Southern Hemisphere’s winter solstice.The Festival includes
elaborate pageantry. Although certainly a tourist event, most attendees are
locals. Peru’s Independence Day (Fiestas Patrias) is celebrated on 28 and 29
July. Bylaw, flags are flown on every house, and military-style parades take
place; our Project is often invited to participate, and we usually do. Other
festivities include fireworks, street fairs, food stalls, and traditional music.
Family Life
Within the highland regions of Peru, the importance of family cannot be
overemphasized. Subsistence farming and raising livestock require the
participation of all family members, including children, to meet basic needs.
Accordingly, much of family life revolves around the agricultural cycle. A
family’s workday begins before dawn and continues after dark. The fields are
sometimes a substantial distance from homes. At especially busy times of the
year,suchasduring planting and harvesting, an entire family maytemporarily
move to makeshift encampments set up near the fields farthest away.

29
Family Structure
Families in rural Quechua communities are multi-generational and include
parents, children, grandparents, siblings, and their spouses, all of whom live
within a family housing compound. A Quechua family is, in turn, connected to
an extended family of local community families, known as an ayllu, bound by
communal obligations and geographical ties to the land. The bond to one’s
family and ayllu is strong within the Quechua culture. Although a family member
may leave to work in the city or in a mining area, or to attend school, s/he often
returns to the community. Abandoning one’s ties is rare among the Quechua.
Male/Female Interaction
Men in the Quechua community are viewed as head of the family, except in
cases in which the woman is either divorced or a widow. Quechua women
generally have a lesser role than men in community decision making. Within the
household, however, women are usually in charge of economic and childcare
matters.Regarding dailyfarmingresponsibilities,menusuallytend the fields;
women and children take care of the family livestock.
Status of Children
Boys and girls are generally treated similarly during early childhood. Infants are
transported everywhere in a cloth sling wrapped around the caregiver’s
shoulders called a manta. The caregiver is usually the mother, but numerous
other family members and even neighbors or friends may take over this role.
Young children are frequently the center of attention, and they are given
considerablelatitudetoexploretheirworld.Nevertheless,thisleveloftolerant
and even permissive parenting generally does not lead to spoiled behavior.
Children who misbehave are sternly told why their conduct is unacceptable, but
spanking or other forms of physical punishment are rare. Indeed, from an early
age, Quechua children are raised to have a deep respect for their surroundings
and for people and animals. Both animals and sacred inanimate places are
believed to have a spirit life that requires attention and respect. Frequent
offerings are made to the mountain deities, known as Apus, who are the
animals’ protectors.
Marriage, Divorce, andBirth
Premarital sexual relations are generally not frowned upon in the Quechua
culture. Prior to marrying, many young couples first enter into servinakuy, a sort
of trial marriage in which the couple live together for a period ranging from
months to years. In fact, it is not uncommon for a Quechua couple to have
several children while still unmarried. Children born during the servinakuy period
are fully accepted into the community, even if the couple should break up and

30
not get married. In that event, the families of the couple decide whom the child
should live with after the split. Often, the decision is that the childwill live with the
family of the child’s mother. After a couple marries, they may move in with the
parents of either the bride or the groom. The decision is sometimes based on
which family is most in need of help with its fields and livestock.
An expectant mother will usually continue doing household and agricultural
tasksthroughouther pregnancy,althoughsomeofthemoststrenuouschores
will be taken on by her husband or another male family member. A pregnant
woman will not spin or weave, because it is believed that the baby might
become entangled in the umbilical cord. Another common belief is that any
negative thoughts on the part of expectant mother may affect the baby.
Rites of Passage
Lay Baptism (Unuchakuy)
Shortly after a child’s birth, a lay baptism (unuchakuy) is performed at the
parents’ home. A formal church baptism does not generally take place until a
child is between the ages of one and a half and three years. At the unuchakuy,
the child receives his or her name, which is either chosen by the godparent or, if
suggested by the parents, approved by the godparent. At this time, a mountain
peak becomes the child’s protector. The name of the mountain is revealed to
the parents in either a dream or by a shaman’s reading of coca leaves.
Haircutting Ceremony (Chuckcha Rutuy)
Once a Quechua child has survived infancy, a time of high mortality in the harsh
conditions of the Andes, the child receives his or her first haircut, called
chuckcha rutuy. One of the child’s godparents, not necessarily the same
godparent who has sponsored the earlier lay baptism, cuts the first lock of hair.
As other family members and invited guests subsequently take turns with the
scissors, they leave a gift of money to provide for the child at some point in the
future. As do many Quechua social events, the haircutting ceremony ends with
a festive meal, accompanied by celebratory drinking and dancing.
Weddings
The traditional Quechua marriage ceremony is called rimanakuy. It is sometimes
followed by a marriage ceremony performed in a Catholic church (casarakuy).
For the former ceremony, traditional Quechua-style clothes are worn by the
bride and groom, whereas Western-style clothing is more likely to be worn at the
latter. The exchange of vows in the casarakuy is immediately followed by a
formal baptism of any children previously born to the couple. The subsequent
celebration involves feasting, dancing, and drinking of locally brewed beer.
Dolls that are tied to the back in cloth slings are passed among the revelers for
their dances with the bride or groom with the hopes of future fertility.

31
Funerals
After a Quechua community member dies, the body is prepared by the family
for public viewing before burial. The dead are buried with any of their
possessions needed in the afterlife. A possession of mourners is accompanied by
a band to the cemetery, where the coffin is placed in a niche.
Naming Conventions
Quechua naming customs follow those of the Spanish, in which the full surname
consists of two familynames. The firstpartof the child’s surname is the father’s
paternal surname, followed by the mother’s paternal surname. In informal
practice, the first family name (i.e., the father’s surname) is generally the only
one used when referring to a person by name. Thus, for example, the full name
of Peruvian President Ollanta Humala, who is of Quechua descent, is Ollanta
Moisés Humala Tasso, and he is the son of Isaac Humala Núñez (father) and
ElenaTassoHeredia(mother).Manyfolksalso have twofirstnames.Boys take a
father’s onomastic as his first or second name, and girls will do the same for
mothers.

32
PART II: BEING MINDFUL
General Behavior Guidelines
You are expected to take responsibility for your own actions or inactions. IFR
policies are based on the principle that participants are adults and guests in
Peru. As a member of the IFR community, you are expected to comply with all
Peruvian laws, Project and IFR policies, and conduct yourself in a way that
supports a scholarlyenvironment.
As an IFR and Project participant you assume a dual status as both a researcher
and a guest of Peru. Therefore, you are subject to, and should be familiar with,
participant conduct policies as well as local laws. You are expected to respect
the rights and dignity of other participants, staff, faculty, members of the host
community, and local citizens. You must take responsibility for acting in ways
that demonstrate respect for yourself and others and recognize that you
represent the project, the IFR, your home institution, and your country for the
duration of your time abroad.
The IFR and the Project are committed to maintaining an environment that
encourages personal and intellectual growth. It is a community with high
standards and expectations for those who choose to become a part of it, and
thusestablishes rules of conductintended tofoster behaviors that are consistent
withacivilresearchsetting.TheProjectanIFRholdsyouresponsibleforknowing
and understanding all policies and for reading and complying with the IFR
Conduct Policy. If you are ever in doubt, ask. These policies are designed for
your well-being and aim to ensure an efficient research program, and a safe,
fair, and successful experience for all participants. Ignorance of the policies is
not an acceptable excuse for policy violation.
It is your responsibility to read and comply with all policies. Inappropriate
conduct abroad is a direct violation of the IFR Participant Agreement, which
you have signed, and can result in dismissal from the Program.
Participant Conduct
Participants are expected to follow project guidelines throughout the duration
of the program. As representatives of the international archaeological
community, participants will follow all Peruvian laws, show respect for local
citizens, and conduct themselves in a civil and responsible manner when
dealing with fellow participants and staff. Participants are to conduct
themselves in a manner which reflects positively on themselves and the Project
and is respectful of others and worthy of respect from others. Your participation
means that you have read and all the information in this handbook, you

33
recognize the need for the following rules, and you realize that you could be
sent home for violating these rules.
Participants working on the Project affirm the following:
1. I will abide by dress and cultural codes suitable to Peru.
2. I will accept those around me and respect their culture.
3. I will treat my project colleagues and staff with respect
4. I will follow the directions of my superiors without “attitude” or “sass”
5. I will obey all laws, rules, and regulations of the Republic of Peru.
6. I will not buy, sell, or use illegal drugs at any time.
7. I will not attend or participate in political demonstrations.
8. I will not engage in disruptive or ‘scandalous’ behavior.
9. I will participate in all scheduled activities unless I am unwell.
10. I will limit my usage of the internet and of electricity and water in general.
11. I will not leave town without notifying the Project Director.
12. IwillnotbringguestsintoProjecthousingandwillmaintainawareness.
13. Iwillkeepmythingssecure;theProjectisnotresponsibleforlostitems.
14. I will respect, and not tamper with, the property of others or the Project.
IT IS CRUCIAL THAT YOU UNDERSTAND: Inappropriate behavior may have more
serious consequences abroad than at home. Such behavior may:
• Harm the relationship between the Project, IFR and our Peruvian hosts
• Ruin the experience of other participants on the trip
• Contaminate the behavior of other participants on the trip
• Violate local laws, subjecting you/us to Peru’s criminal justice system
• Foster the “ugly American” and other negative stereotypes
Cultural Forays and Folly
Living with a host family in a host community is a wonderful way to learn about
the country and its culture but poses added responsibilities. You should be
aware of how local customs may dictate behavior. Consider this [admittedly
stereotypical] hypothetical: A pair of unrelated, female and male participants
from an unnamed country in Western Europe are staying with a local Quechuan
family in Ayacucho. The female participant goes into the town wearing
revealing American-style clothing, consumes alcohol and drugs and, on the
dancefloor re-enacts choreography from a provocative music video.
Meanwhile, the male participant puts on a T-shirt with a politically sensitive
symbol (e.g., a sickle & hammer) and while at the club, he drinks to excess, gets
surely, picks up a local and takes her to a hotel for the evening instead of
returninghome.While nothing these two hypothetical participantresearchers is
illegal, and there is nothing inherently ‘wrong’ with their behavior, the local
Peruvian host family would be understandably embarrassed because in tacitly
accepting the taboo behavior of their guests, they are guilty by association. This

34
sense of culpability (justifiable or not) can permanently damage a local host’s
personal standing in their small community; they risk social harm if they allow the
foreigners to continue to stay in their home. This creates an uncomfortable
situation for everyone involved. What is the point of this hypothetical parable?
Well, it illustrates why we need to be mindful of our behavior and avoid those
types of situations which might do harm unto other.
So, to be a good guest and a great field worker:
•Do greet all those you meet with a polite salutation and a smile—this is
considered good manners.
• Do be patient if someone is late to an appointment or meeting—punctuality is
not an ingrained Peruvian habit.
• Do accept food offered with both hands in the same manner.
• Do ask for permission before taking a photograph of him or her. A small tip in
return may beexpected.
• Don’t lecture or be dismissive of those drinking chicha or chewing coca leaves,
or eating something that grosses you out—these activities and consumptive
choices have long been a part of Quechua culture.
• Don’t use the derogatory term indio or cholo for an indigenous Peruvian.
• Don’t be offended if you are referred to as a gringo/a—it is not considered a
derogatory term.
• Don’t stare or make continuous eye contact with locals—it will spook them.
Finally, it’s worth noting that often the most challenging aspect of a field project
is living together and getting along. Disagreements may sometimes occur, and
that’sOKaslongasthefocusisonresolution.Withthisinmind,theProjectstrictly
prohibits bullying and mobbing. Mobbing is when a person or group gangs up
on an individual or persons. This type of group harassment and character
degradation is a criminal offense in Peru punishable by 2 years in prison. Special
circumstance penalties are even harsher when directed towards the Peruvians
we work with—most of whom have been victims of human rights violations.
Oher behavior that are classified as criminal offences in Peru include:
defamation; slander, libel, discrimination; ridicule; belittlement; aggressive
behavior; attempts to undermine, undervalue, or humiliate; anger stemming
from verbal or behavioral miscommunications; excessive directed criticisms or
gripes; ignoring directives; rumor-mongering without confrontation; intent to
malign; causing psychological harm; making fun of people, their way of life, or
living conditions; privacy-invasion or ‘spying;’ unreported accusations confined
among participants; derogatory accusations based on spite, and inciting others
to make complaints.

35
Philosophy on Discipline
Because vices may be easier to obtain in Peru, and because folks are so far
from home, and are experiencing distinct stressors, they sometimes engage in
risky or inappropriate behavior. It happens. We get that. But even so, it is your
duty as an informed adult to read all conduct standards and know sanctions for
violating those standards. Be aware of the circumstances in which you may be
removed from this research program.
Know also that we keep it real. After a decade of running field programs, we
realize thatneither removing participant violators nor discussing in advance the
importance of living up to the letter of the rules and policies will guarantee that
all participants are prepared to be good citizens. For that reason, it is not
enough for us to simply set limits on behavior. You must know that we will act
affirmatively when participants violate these set limits. Not to do so lacks
transparency, negates respect for you as an adult researcher, and sends a
strong mixed message which could create the perception that we are not
willing to enforce the rules we ourselves have set.
Conduct and Misconduct
Misconduct refers to actions that, in the judgment of Project Staff, jeopardize
participant welfare or that of the program. Such actions include, but are not
limited to:
• Threats or the use of physical and/or verbal violence
• ViolatingthelawsofPeruoritsinstitutionsandactors
• Conduct that threatens the health or safety of others
• Openly abusing the customs and culture of the community
• Damage to or destruction of another person’s property
• Assault or harassment of any kind1
• Obstruction or disruption of research or other activities
• Failure to submit any materials by the deadline set by IFR
• Academic misconduct (cheating, fabrication, forgery, plagiarism, or
facilitating academic dishonesty)
1 In the United States, sexual assault is a general term which is used to cover a range of crimes
including rape. Rape is non-consensual sexual intercourse that involves the use or threat of
force. The term, sexual harassment refers to unwelcome sexual advances, requests for sexual
favors, and conduct of an explicitly sexual nature, when submission to or rejection of this
conduct affects a person’s employment, unreasonably interferes with a person’s work
performance, or creates a hostile working environment. Behavior is considered harassing if it is
deemed sufficiently severe to deny or limit a person’s ability to participate in, or benefit from,
program participation or services.

36
Understand Mixed Signals
The line between conduct and
misconductisculturallyconstrued.For
example, for women in many cultures,
allowing a man to enter your house (or
entering his) may send unintended
signals. Men may assume a woman
wants sexual contact just because this
threshold was crossed. In other
instances, close dancing with men in
nightclubs may be interpreted as an
invitation for additional physical
contact. Just as problematic,
American men may assume that if a
Quechua woman accepts an
alcoholic drink, she is amenable to
sexual contact, which is not the case.
Among the Quechua, accepting a
drink is an ancient custom that serves
to seal bonds of friendship between
two people. Not accepting the glass of
alcohol or refusing to take a small
ceremonial sip may be viewed as
offensive. To avoid offense, you can
always pour a tiny bit of brew into your
glass, pretend to take a sip, then pour
the rest of the liquid on the floor as a
libation to Pachamama earth goddess,
and finally pass the glass to the person
on your left.
Be mindful of the best context to interact with Quechua men and women in a
safe way without misunderstandings. Also, understand that Quechua language
–called Runa Simi—is rife with double-entendres, risqué humor and slightly
sexualizedpuns.Far from offensive, those whocleverlymaster thislanguage are
held in high esteem. In Ayacucho and Andahuaylas, where up to 80% of the
population cites Quechua as the mother tongue, learning a few words or jokes is
a good way to culturally integrate and enhance social relations.
Personal Boundary Perceptions
Notions of personal boundaries and space are influenced by local norms and
are culturally relative. For example, Americans are raised from childhood to

37
adhere to more rigid boundaries and maintain emotional and physical distance
from others. However, social conditioning during the college years generally
reshapes these understandings. While some young adults freely crash in each
other’s pad without sexual expectations, others may be more sensitive to ‘safe
spaces’ and respond negatively to actions by others.
In contrast to EuroAmericans, Quechua Peruvians have looser, inconsistent
boundaries with less regard for personal space; they were raised to share
common area and expect little personal privacy. Personal boundary issues also
become relevant when greeting others. Women should expect a kiss on the
cheek by both males and females; Men should expect a kiss on the cheek from
women and a hand shake from men. In many homes, both men and women
shake hands and pat the shoulders. Overall, public displays of romantic
affection are strongly discouraged, and kissing on the lips is taboo.
Improper Behavior in Civil Society
Definitions of criminally improper behavior, or harassment, in the U.S.A. differ
from that in Peru. Under Peruvian laws, the following behaviors are understood
to be sexual harassment: incessant whistling; teeth-sucking; kissing sounds; cat-
calls; persistent following; groping; making lewd gestures or lascivious proposals;
rubbing against your body; masturbation, and exhibitionism. “Harassment” may
be particularly difficult to identify abroad, where cultural norms are very different
from your home country. A good rule is to assume that harassment consists of
unwantedsexualadvances,andsevere,pervasive,andharmfulbehaviorofa
verbal or physicalnature.
Harassing behavior is annoying at bestand threatening atworst. All participants
should seek assistance if harassment towards them becomes unremitting and
out of control. Many participants reach a point when they can no longer can
tolerate a cat-call on the street or a person’s stare. Exasperated participants
may want to act out by yelling, hurling insults, throwing things, or hitting the
offending goon. While this aggressive behavior is understandable, exhibiting
retaliatory behavior can put you at risk for assault or detention. Instead, of
reacting individually, leave the area and get help.
Back-and-Forth Communication
One way to offset improper behavior is through awareness of strokes. Strokes are
measures of communication exchanged between people. When interacting
with friends, we tend to exchange a comparable number of strokes, a
balanced exchange. But when approached by a stranger or unwelcome
individual,wetend tominimize thenumberofstrokes.Thisiskey.InPeru,aman
may sit next to an American woman at a café and start an uninvited
conversation with:

38
"Hey Pretty Lady, are you single?"
Women may have the urge to lecture that man, waving her arms wildly, replying,
“Excuse You? WTF, I have a boyfriend, and you don’t even know me. Why
would you even ask me that? OMG You should leave me alone"
—providing a lot of strokes (the quality and content is irrelevant). From there, the man
will usually continue the pestering rather than moving away. This is because
confrontations and engagement of any type serve to encourage harassers who
want attention. Don’t give away any strokes in return. Don’t offer explanations.
Instead:
1) Ignore the harassment/pretend ignorance;
2) Feign confusion/lack of understanding; and
3) Move away/remove yourself from the situation
When dealing with persistent people, make sure your body language is
congruent with your words. Say “NO” firmly and swiftly and follow that up with
removing yourself from the situation and getting assistance if needed. When in
doubt, use the “broken record” technique. You don’t have to be creative. Stick
to your answer and don’t budge. For example:
"Would you like to dance with me?"
"No, thank you. I don’t want to."
"Oh, come on. It’s just a dance."
"I’ll be a gentleman."
"Oh, you think you can’t dance?"
“Oh, fine, bye”
Maintain Situational Awareness
It is essential to avoid behaviors that make
you vulnerable to predators. While you have
every right to walk from the Main Plaza to
the Field House at 3 am, but know that if you
do, you are making yourself vulnerable as
prey. Or, you may want to go to a bar and

39
have some fun, but if you “get sauced” or “wasted,” you are now potential
prey. To stay safe, use the buddy system and when possible, travel in groups.
You must also be aware of warning signs and the “gut feeling” alerting you that
something is wrong. Predators (both male and female) usually manipulate
people through tactics like deceptive charm, provoking a response through
insult or insinuation, unsolicited gifts designed to create a feeling of
indebtedness.
Furthermore, you should be aware of progressively intrusive behavior, where
someone is finding excuses to touch you. For example, a man brushes his hand
up against a woman’s back. While she thinks, "This is creeping me out, but I’m
overreacting," he’s thinking, "How much will she tolerate? How far can I go?" In
this type of situation, you must be strong and forceful. If you do not
acknowledge and firmly object, the touch can escalate. Obviously, the double-
standard of female conduct is frustrating, but nevertheless, to minimize risk,
women anthropologists in the field should always aim to:
• Integrate into their community
• Make friends with the women of the village
• Learn about self-protection and put it into practice
• Dress according to local customs
• Interact with men according to the local customs
• Behave according to the local customs
If You Experience Misconduct
• Take one step at a time—it is easy to feel overwhelmed. If you can, talk to the
harasser.Be strong, getsupport. Determine if the intentin malevolent or if it
was a misunderstanding
• Clearly and firmly tell the harasser that you want the behavior to stop. If you
can, tell the him/her how the behavior makes you feel.
• Letthe harasser know that you will take further action if the harassment does
not stop.
• Report the behavior to a Trusted Project Staff Member, directly. You can also
report incidents to the IFR Hotline as soon as possible, preferably within 24
hours of the offending action. They can help you resolve the issue and
provide counseling and guidance. about your options and to receive referrals
to appropriate resources
• You can also e-mail a message. When you establish contact, indicate that
you are the victim of misconduct and leave a phone number and a good
time to return your call. All messages are confidential.

40
If You Are Accused of Misconduct
If you are told that your behavior is inappropriate and/or offensive, you must
immediately stop it. People in Peru perceive certain behaviors, jokes, and
gestures differently. What may be acceptable to you may be extremely
offensive to someone else. Sometimes due to the difference in cultural attitudes
youmaynotthinkyour comment(s)or behavior isoffensive. Nevertheless,you
should try to understand the other person’s feelings and concerns and respect
his or her request to stop.
Consequences of FalseReporting
Remember, as an uncredited project in a foreign country, US/EU laws have
limited jurisdiction. We are required to follow Peruvian law. Individuals who make
reports that are later found to have been intentionally false or made maliciously
without regard for truth may be subject to disciplinary action. Participants in an
investigation shall be advised that maintaining confidentiality is essential to
protect the integrity of the investigation.
Cultural Immersion Expectations
Deep fieldwork is a challenging but rewarding experience. What follows is some
advice on what to expect during your upcoming cultural immersion.

41
Culture Shock and Burnout
Prepare for culture shock; it happens to everyone in varying degrees. Basically,
cultureshockisthepsychologicaldisorientationthatfolksexperiencewhenthey
live in a culture markedly different from their own. It is common to experience
this joltif it is your first time living and working in rural Peru. In cases ofculture
shock, the “different” becomes “inferior.” Sufferers unduly criticize local hosts
and customs or ways of doing things; they also blame negative emotions on
others’shortcomings.Symptomsofcultureshockincludeboredom;withdrawal;
isolation; fatigue; psychosomatic pain; homesickness; irritation over minor
frustrations. These feelings are normal but should not become entrenched or
overwhelming or turn into “groupthink.” Ultimately, your ability to integrate will
depend on your desire and efforts to understand and adapt to local fife.

42
If persistent negativity becomes an issue, talk it out with Project Staff, who will
help you adjust in “the land of magical realism.” Some tips: Keep an open mind;
maintain a sense of humor and good attitude; keep a journal and stay active;
avoid participants who are cliquish or habitual complainers; Have faith in the
good will of your hosts and staff; Focus on the positive outcomes of this
anthropological experience; Get involved in extracurricular activities when
possible; Don’t allow obstacles to stop you from living life abroad.
Lastly, on many archaeological projects, participants start to experience
“burnout”duringthe¾markinthefield.Feelingsoffrustration,irritation,and
even anger are common symptoms. Burnout is a signal that it’s time to take a
break.Do something different. Engage in stress relieving exercises.Take asick
day. Rent a room at a nice hotel. Go on an out-of-town vacation. Talk to Project
Staff or the folks on the IFR hotline; they will understand and provide you with
support and options to get you through that last week-or-so.
Cultural Sensitivity
On this project, you must be open-minded, flexible, curious, and willing to
cultivate novel capabilities. To have a truly rewarding experience, you will have
to tolerate differences and ambiguity, maintain a sense of humor, and allow
yourselftofalter.Trytoimmerseyourselfinthelocalculture.Adapt;don’timpose
change. Be aware that attitudes towards engendered interactions, LGBTQ
acceptance, and racism are significantly different in rural Peru than the U.S.A. It
is important to be attuned to cultural differences and how your behavior and
appearance will be interpreted by the Peruvians. Remember: you are an
anthropologist. Be sensitive and respectful. Awareness helps avoid simple
misunderstandings, embarrassing outcomes, and risky situations. This is not
censorship, but rather discretion. You can maintain your own moral standards
but be mindful of your words and attitude.
For example, consider how extolling the virtues of militant veganism or zealous
animal liberation activism and appear to folks who are deprived of the basic
nutrients found in animal protein, and living in a community where meat is a sign
of health, wealth, and welcome.
Ethnicity, Class, andRace
Race, as we understand it in the United States, simply does not exist in Peru. And
because of these differing notions of self and other, participants of all
backgrounds may have uncomfortable experiences. This is due to the simple
fact that we work in an isolated community of Quechua Indians, where any
non-indigenous person is an “other” of some sort. The society is homogeneous
and there are no tourists. So, darkly pigmented folks may hear people refer to

FIELDWORK IN RURAL PERU

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