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Soil and Plant Nutrition
1.
Copyright © 2008
Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings PowerPoint® Lecture Presentations for Biology Eighth Edition Neil Campbell and Jane Reece Lectures by Chris Romero, updated by Erin Barley with contributions from Joan Sharp Chapter 37 Soil and Plant Nutrition
2.
Copyright © 2008
Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Overview: “The Nation that Destroys Its Soil Destroys Itself” • Farmland productivity often suffers from chemical contamination, mineral deficiencies, acidity, salinity, and poor drainage • Healthy soils improve plant growth by enhancing plant nutrition • Typically, plants obtain carbon dioxide from the air, and water and minerals from the soil
3.
Fig. 37-1
4.
Copyright © 2008
Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Concept 37.1: Soil is a living, finite resource • Plants obtain most of their water and minerals from the upper layers of soil • Living organisms play an important role in these soil layers • This complex ecosystem is fragile
5.
Copyright © 2008
Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Soil Texture • Soil particles are classified by size; from largest to smallest they are called sand, silt, and clay • Soil is stratified into layers called soil horizons • Topsoil consists of mineral particles, living organisms, and humus, the decaying organic material
6.
Fig. 37-2 A horizon B
horizon C horizon
7.
Copyright © 2008
Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings • After a heavy rainfall, water drains from the larger spaces in the soil, but smaller spaces retain water because of its attraction to clay and other particles • The film of loosely bound water is usually available to plants • Loams are the most fertile topsoils and contain equal amounts of sand, silt, and clay
8.
Copyright © 2008
Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Topsoil Composition • A soil’s composition refers to its inorganic (mineral) and organic chemical components
9.
Copyright © 2008
Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Inorganic Components • Cations (for example K+ , Ca2+ , Mg2+ ) adhere to negatively charged soil particles; this prevents them from leaching out of the soil through percolating groundwater
10.
Copyright © 2008
Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings • During cation exchange, cations are displaced from soil particles by other cations • Displaced cations enter the soil solution and can be taken up by plant roots • Negatively charged ions do not bind with soil particles and can be lost from the soil by leaching Animation: How Plants Obtain Minerals from SoilAnimation: How Plants Obtain Minerals from Soil
11.
Fig. 37-3 Soil particle – – –
– – – – – – K+ K+ K+ Ca2+ Ca2+ Mg2+ H+ H+ H2O + CO2 H2CO3 HCO3 – + Root hair Cell wall
12.
Copyright © 2008
Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Organic Components • Humus builds a crumbly soil that retains water but is still porous • It also increases the soil’s capacity to exchange cations and serves as a reservoir of mineral nutrients • Topsoil contains bacteria, fungi, algae, other protists, insects, earthworms, nematodes, and plant roots • These organisms help to decompose organic material and mix the soil
13.
Copyright © 2008
Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Soil Conservation and Sustainable Agriculture • In contrast with natural ecosystems, agriculture depletes the mineral content of soil, taxes water reserves, and encourages erosion • The goal of sustainable agriculture is to use farming methods that are conservation-minded, environmentally safe, and profitable
14.
Copyright © 2008
Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Irrigation • Irrigation is a huge drain on water resources when used for farming in arid regions • The primary source of irrigation water is underground water reserves called aquifers • The depleting of aquifers can result in subsidence, the settling or sinking of land
15.
Fig. 37-4 Land subsidence
in California Sinkhole in Florida
16.
Fig. 37-4a Land subsidence
in California
17.
Fig. 37-4b Sinkhole in
Florida
18.
Copyright © 2008
Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings • Irrigation can lead to salinization, the concentration of salts in soil as water evaporates • Drip irrigation requires less water and reduces salinization
19.
Copyright © 2008
Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Fertilization • Soils can become depleted of nutrients as plants and the nutrients they contain are harvested • Fertilization replaces mineral nutrients that have been lost from the soil • Commercial fertilizers are enriched in nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium • Organic fertilizers are composed of manure, fishmeal, or compost
20.
Copyright © 2008
Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Adjusting Soil pH • Soil pH affects cation exchange and the chemical form of minerals • Cations are more available in slightly acidic soil, as H+ ions displace mineral cations from clay particles
21.
Copyright © 2008
Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Controlling Erosion • Topsoil from thousands of acres of farmland is lost to water and wind erosion each year in the United States • Erosion of soil causes loss of nutrients
22.
Fig. 37-5
23.
Copyright © 2008
Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings • Erosion can be reduced by – Planting trees as windbreaks – Terracing hillside crops – Cultivating in a contour pattern – Practicing no-till agriculture
24.
Copyright © 2008
Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Preventing Soil Compaction • Soil compaction from heavy equipment reduces pore space between soil particles • Soil compaction slows gas exchange and reduces root growth
25.
Copyright © 2008
Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Phytoremediation • Some areas are unfit for agriculture because of contamination of soil or groundwater with toxic pollutants • Phytoremediation is a biological, nondestructive technology that reclaims contaminated areas • Plants capable of extracting soil pollutants are grown and are then disposed of safely
26.
Copyright © 2008
Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Concept 37.2: Plants require essential elements to complete their life cycle • Plants derive most of their organic mass from the CO2 of air, but they also depend on soil nutrients such as water and minerals
27.
Copyright © 2008
Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Macronutrients and Micronutrients • More than 50 chemical elements have been identified among the inorganic substances in plants, but not all of these are essential to plants • A chemical element is considered an essential element if it is required for a plant to complete its life cycle • Researchers use hydroponic culture to determine which chemical elements are essential
28.
Fig. 37-6 TECHNIQUE Control: Solution containing
all minerals Experimental: Solution without potassium
29.
Table 37-1
30.
Copyright © 2008
Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings • Nine of the essential elements are called macronutrients because plants require them in relatively large amounts • The macronutrients are carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur, potassium, calcium, and magnesium
31.
Copyright © 2008
Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings • The remaining eight are called micronutrients because plants need them in very small amounts • The micronutrients are chlorine, iron, manganese, boron, zinc, copper, nickel, and molybdenum
32.
Copyright © 2008
Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Symptoms of Mineral Deficiency • Symptoms of mineral deficiency depend on the nutrient’s function and mobility within the plant • Deficiency of a mobile nutrient usually affects older organs more than young ones • Deficiency of a less mobile nutrient usually affects younger organs more than older ones • The most common deficiencies are those of nitrogen, potassium, and phosphorus
33.
Fig. 37-7 Healthy Phosphate-deficient Potassium-deficient Nitrogen-deficient
34.
Copyright © 2008
Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Improving Plant Nutrition by Genetic Modification: Some Examples • Genetic engineering can improve plant nutrition and fertilizer usage
35.
Copyright © 2008
Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Resistance to Aluminum Toxicity • Aluminum in acidic soils damages roots and greatly reduces crop yields • The introduction of bacterial genes into plant genomes can cause plants to secrete acids that bind to and tie up aluminum
36.
Copyright © 2008
Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Flood Tolerance • Waterlogged soils deprive roots of oxygen and cause buildup of ethanol and toxins • The gene Submergence 1A-1 is responsible for submergence tolerance in flood-resistant rice
37.
Copyright © 2008
Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Smart Plants • “Smart” plants inform the grower of a nutrient deficiency before damage has occurred • A blue tinge indicates when these plants need phosphate-containing fertilizer
38.
Fig. 37-8 No phosphorus deficiency Beginning phosphorus deficiency Well-developed phosphorus deficiency
39.
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Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Concept 37.3: Plant nutrition often involves relationships with other organisms • Plants and soil microbes have a mutualistic relationship – Dead plants provide energy needed by soil- dwelling microorganisms – Secretions from living roots support a wide variety of microbes in the near-root environment
40.
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Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Soil Bacteria and Plant Nutrition • The layer of soil bound to the plant’s roots is the rhizosphere • The rhizosphere has high microbial activity because of sugars, amino acids, and organic acids secreted by roots
41.
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Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Rhizobacteria • Free-living rhizobacteria thrive in the rhizosphere, and some can enter roots • Rhizobacteria can play several roles – Produce hormones that stimulate plant growth – Produce antibiotics that protect roots from disease – Absorb toxic metals or make nutrients more available to roots
42.
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Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings • Inoculation of seeds with rhizobacteria can increase crop yields
43.
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Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Bacteria in the Nitrogen Cycle • Nitrogen can be an important limiting nutrient for plant growth • The nitrogen cycle transforms nitrogen and nitrogen-containing compounds • Most soil nitrogen comes from actions of soil bacteria
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Fig. 37-9 Atmosphere Atmosphere N2 N2 Soil Nitrogen-fixing bacteria Soil H+ (from
soil) Ammonifying bacteria NH3 (ammonia) NH4 + (ammonium) Nitrifying bacteria Organic material (humus) N2 NO3 – (nitrate) Denitrifying bacteria NH4 + Nitrate and nitrogenous organic compounds exported in xylem to shoot system Root
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Fig. 37-9-1 Nitrogen-fixing bacteria N2 Ammonifying bacteria NH3 (ammonia) Organic
material (humus)
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Fig. 37-9-2 Nitrogen-fixing bacteria N2 Ammonifying bacteria NH3 (ammonia) Organic
material (humus) Atmosphere Soil H+ (from soil) NH4 + (ammonium) Nitrifying bacteria NO3 – (nitrate) Denitrifying bacteria NH4 + Nitrate and nitrogenous organic compounds exported in xylem to shoot system Root N2
47.
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Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings • Plants absorb nitrogen as either NO3 – or NH4 + • Bacteria break down organic compounds or use N2 to produce NH3, which is converted to NH4 + • Nitrification is carried out by bacteria that convert NH3 into NO3 –
48.
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Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Nitrogen-Fixing Bacteria: A Closer Look • N2 is abundant in the atmosphere, but unavailable to plants • Nitrogen fixation is the conversion of nitrogen from N2 to NH3 • Symbiotic relationships with nitrogen-fixing bacteria provide some plant species with a built-in source of fixed nitrogen • Key symbioses occur between nitrogen-fixing bacteria and plants, including those in the legume family (peas, beans, and other similar plants)
49.
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Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings • Along a legume’s roots are swellings called nodules, composed of plant cells “infected” by nitrogen-fixing Rhizobium bacteria • Inside the root nodule, Rhizobium bacteria assume a form called bacteroids, which are contained within vesicles formed by the root cell • The bacteria of a root nodule obtain sugar from the plant and supply the plant with fixed nitrogen
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Fig. 37-10 Nodules Roots (a) Pea
plant root (b) Bacteroids in a soybean root nodule 5 µm Bacteroids within vesicle
51.
Fig. 37-10a Nodules (a) Pea
plant root Roots
52.
Fig. 37-10b (b) Bacteroids
in a soybean root nodule 5 µm Bacteroids within vesicle
53.
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Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings • Each legume species is associated with a particular strain of Rhizobium • The development of a nitrogen-fixing root nodule depends on chemical dialogue between Rhizobium bacteria and root cells of their specific plant hosts
54.
Fig. 37-11 Rhizobium bacteriaInfection thread Chemical
signals attract bacteria 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 Infected root hair Bacteroid Bacteroids form Dividing cells in root cortex Dividing cells in pericycle Developing root nodule Bacteroid Nodule forms Nodule vascular tissueBacteroid Nodule develops vascular tissue
55.
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Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Nitrogen Fixation and Agriculture • Crop rotation takes advantage of the agricultural benefits of symbiotic nitrogen fixation • A non-legume such as maize is planted one year, and the next year a legume is planted to restore the concentration of fixed nitrogen in the soil
56.
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Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings • Instead of being harvested, the legume crop is often plowed under to decompose as “green manure” and reduce the need for manufactured fertilizer • Non-legumes such as alder trees, certain tropical grasses, and rice benefit either directly or indirectly from nitrogen-fixing bacteria
57.
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Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Fungi and Plant Nutrition • Mycorrhizae are mutualistic associations of fungi and roots • The fungus benefits from a steady supply of sugar from the host plant • The host plant benefits because the fungus increases the surface area for water uptake and mineral absorption • Mycorrizal relationships are common and might have helped plants to first colonize land
58.
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Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings The Two Main Types of Mycorrhizae • In ectomycorrhizae, the mycelium of the fungus forms a dense sheath over the surface of the root • These hyphae form a network in the apoplast, but do not penetrate the root cells
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Fig. 37-12 Epidermis Mantle (fungal sheath) (a)
Ectomycorrhizae Cortex Mantle (fungal sheath) Endodermis Fungal hyphae between cortical cells (colorized SEM) 100 µm 10 µm Cortical cells Endodermis Fungal vesicle Casparian strip Arbuscules Plasma membrane (LM, stained specimen) CortexEpidermis Fungal hyphae Root hair (b) Arbuscular mycorrhizae (endomycorrhizae)
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Fig. 37-12a-1 Epidermis Cortex
Mantle (fungal sheath) Endodermis Fungal hyphae between cortical cells (colorized SEM) 100 µm Mantle (fungal sheath) (a) Ectomycorrhizae
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Fig. 37-12a-2 Mantle (fungal sheath) (a)
Ectomycorrhizae
62.
Fig. 37-12a-3 (colorized SEM) Mantle (fungal sheath) Fungal hyphae between cortical cells 100
µm
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Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings • In arbuscular mycorrhizae, microscopic fungal hyphae extend into the root • These mycorrhizae penetrate the cell wall but not the plasma membrane to form branched arbuscules within root cells
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Fig. 37-12b-1 Epidermis Fungal hyphae Cortex Endodermis Fungal vesicle Casparian strip Arbuscules Plasma membrane Root hair (b) Arbuscular
mycorrhizae (endomycorrhizae) Cortical cells 10 µm (LM, stained specimen)
65.
Fig. 37-12b-2 Cortical cells Arbuscules (LM,
stained specimen) 10 µm
66.
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Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Agricultural and Ecological Importance of Mycorrhizae • Farmers and foresters often inoculate seeds with fungal spores to promote formation of mycorrhizae • Some invasive exotic plants disrupt interactions between native plants and their mycorrhizal fungi
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Fig. 37-13 EXPERIMENT Increasein plantbiomass(%) RESULTS Invaded Uninvaded
Sterilized invaded Sterilized uninvaded 0 100 200 300 Soil type Mycorrhizal colonization(%) 0 10 20 30 40 Invaded Uninvaded Soil type Seedlings Sugar maple Red maple White ash
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Fig. 37-13a EXPERIMENT
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Fig. 37-13b RESULTS Increasein plantbiomass(%) Mycorrhizal colonization(%) 300 200 100 0 Invaded Uninvaded
Sterilized invaded Sterilized uninvaded 0 10 20 30 40 Invaded Uninvaded Soil type Soil type Seedlings Sugar maple Red maple White ash
70.
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Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Epiphytes, Parasitic Plants, and Carnivorous Plants • Some plants have nutritional adaptations that use other organisms in nonmutualistic ways • An epiphyte grows on another plant and obtains water and minerals from rain
71.
Fig. 37-14a Staghorn fern,
an epiphyte
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Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings • Parasitic plants absorb sugars and minerals from their living host plant
73.
Fig. 37-14b Mistletoe, a
photosynthetic parasite
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Fig. 37-14c-1 Dodder, a
nonphotosynthetic parasite Dodder Host’s phloem Haustoria
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Fig. 37-14c-2
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Fig. 37-14c-3 Dodder Host’s phloem Haustoria
77.
Fig. 37-14d Indian pipe,
a nonphotosynthetic parasite
78.
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Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings • Carnivorous plants are photosynthetic but obtain nitrogen by killing and digesting mostly insects Video: Sun Dew Trapping PreyVideo: Sun Dew Trapping Prey
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Fig. 37-14e-1 Venus flytrap
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Fig. 37-14e-2
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Fig. 37-14e-3
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Fig. 37-14f-1 Pitcher plants
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Fig. 37-14f-2
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Fig. 37-14f-3
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Fig. 37-14g Sundews
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Fig. 37-UN1 N2 (from
atmosphere) Nitrogen-fixing bacteria H+ (from soil) (to atmosphere) Denitrifying bacteria N2 NO3 – (nitrate) Nitrifying bacteria NH4 + (ammonium) NH3 (ammonia) Ammonifying bacteria Organic material (humus) Root NH4 +
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Fig. 37-UN2
88.
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Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings You should now be able to: 1. Define soil texture and soil composition 2. Explain why plants cannot extract all of the water in soil 3. Define cation exchange and describe how plants can stimulate the process 4. Discuss the problems of topsoil erosion and farm irrigation in arid regions; suggest actions that can help mitigate these problems 5. Distinguish between and list the macronutrients and micronutrients
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Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings 6. Explain how a nutrient’s role and mobility determine the symptoms of a mineral deficiency 7. Summarize the ecological role of each of the following groups of bacteria: ammonifying, denitrifying, nitrogen-fixing, nitrifying 8. Describe the basis for crop rotation 9. Distinguish between ectomycorrhizae and arbuscular mycorrhizae 10.Describe the adaptations for nutrition of parasitic, epiphytic, and carnivorous plants
Editor's Notes
Figure 37.1 Could this happen again?
Figure 37.2 Soil horizons
Figure 37.3 Cation exchange in soil
Figure 37.4 Land subsidence caused by excessive removal of groundwater
Figure 37.4 Land subsidence caused by excessive removal of groundwater
Figure 37.4 Land subsidence caused by excessive removal of groundwater
Figure 37.5 Contour tillage
Figure 37.6 Hydroponic culture
Figure 37.7 The most common mineral deficiencies, as seen in maize leaves
Figure 37.8 Deficiency warnings from “smart” plants
Figure 37.9 The role of soil bacteria in the nitrogen nutrition of plants
Figure 37.9 The role of soil bacteria in the nitrogen nutrition of plants
Figure 37.9 The role of soil bacteria in the nitrogen nutrition of plants
Figure 37.10 Root nodules on legumes
Figure 37.10 Root nodules on legumes
Figure 37.10 Root nodules on legumes
Figure 37.11 Development of a soybean root nodule
Figure 37.12 Mycorrhizae
Figure 37.12a Mycorrhizae
Figure 37.12a Mycorrhizae
Figure 37.12a Mycorrhizae
Figure 37.12b Mycorrhizae
Figure 37.12b Mycorrhizae
Figure 37.13 Does the invasive weed garlic mustard disrupt mutualistic associations between native tree seedlings and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi?
Figure 37.13 Does the invasive weed garlic mustard disrupt mutualistic associations between native tree seedlings and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi?
Figure 37.13 Does the invasive weed garlic mustard disrupt mutualistic associations between native tree seedlings and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi?
Figure 37.14 Unusual nutritional adaptations in plants
Figure 37.14 Unusual nutritional adaptations in plants
Figure 37.14 Unusual nutritional adaptations in plants
Figure 37.14 Unusual nutritional adaptations in plants
Figure 37.14 Unusual nutritional adaptations in plants
Figure 37.14 Unusual nutritional adaptations in plants
Figure 37.14 Unusual nutritional adaptations in plants
Figure 37.14 Unusual nutritional adaptations in plants
Figure 37.14 Unusual nutritional adaptations in plants
Figure 37.14 Unusual nutritional adaptations in plants
Figure 37.14 Unusual nutritional adaptations in plants
Figure 37.14 Unusual nutritional adaptations in plants
Figure 37.14 Unusual nutritional adaptations in plants
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