2. Unpicking an argument
Argument structure?
Assumptions ?
Values ?
Supporting evidence ?
Accurate judgements ?
3. Purpose of this session is to help you understand how to approach a
critical analysis of text (published research, policy documents, and your
own writing):
- To introduce main elements of a critical analysis
- To consider how validity is defined differently in scientific, qualitative
and critical studies
- To consider how an argument is structured
- To critically analyse your own work
4. What is the issue?:
In any text (read or written) we need to determine……
What are the conclusions?
What is the argument that is being made?
What are the reasons / evidence given in
support of the conclusions?
Are there any implicit assumptions? Values?
Is the argument a good one? Why? How do you know?
Exercise 1
5. Stages in critical analysis / writing
Identifying elements (reasoning, conclusions) in a case
Gathering & assembling pertinent information
Recognising & evaluating assumptions & values
Clarifying & interpreting expressions & ideas
Appraising evidence & evaluating credibility of statements
Analysing, evaluating & producing explanations
Drawing inferences
Rendering accurate judgements
Producing arguments
Adptd Glaser (1941); Fisher (2001)
6. Education research literature - some considerations:
• Education is a multidisciplinary field
• Formal education / pedagogic research (to inform sector)
• Action research (local - mainly to inform individual teacher)
• Psychology research (cognition, individual differences, social behaviours)
• Sociology / educational philosophy
• Education policy and management theory
• Conflicting research cultures, values, methods & epistemologies
(scientific, interpretive, mixed method)
• Empirical research papers, discussion articles, policy reports
• Practical limitations on research design (ethical & pragmatic)
• Different international and subject perspectives (East v West perspectives)
A framework for informing critical analysis & writing
7. We tend to look at problems through a particular
‘lens’ often shaped by our subject specialism
Viewed through an Viewed through a Viewed through a critical
objective lens subjective lens theory lens
(science view) (qualitative view) (political, sociological view)
Which lens do you see through?
8. OBJECTIVE ‘Positivist’ philosophy
Scientific approach founded on realism:
phenomena in the world (incl. human behaviour) are real
and exist independently of what we believe or feel
Real world governed by
general universal laws
• Empirical studies
• Researcher as distant, objective observer and analyst
• Goal = establishing fact
• Constructing theory based on observed behavioural trends
Is this you?
9. Validity in quantitative research
Goal: Establishing empirical fact based on observed behaviours
Underpinning philosophy: Positivist
Best defined in terms of philosophy of this research tradition. Characterised by,
and validity defined by:
• Predictability of theory & replicability of results
• Removal of context - generalisable
• Randomisation of samples
• Observability
• Appropriateness of instrumentation & treatment of data
10. ‘Naturalist’ philosophy
SUBJECTIVE
Rather than realism, founded on ‘idealism’
Good
Good
the real world exists but teaching
teaching
different people construe it is...
is...
in very different ways
• Understanding individuals’ interpretations of the world around them
can only come from the inside, not be observed from the outside
• People are autonomous, have free will and do not subconsciously
follow predictable patterns of behaviour.
• Goal = Meanings and interpretations
Is this you?
11. Validity in qualitative research
Goal: Understanding individuals’ subjective interpretations. Meanings.
Underpinning philosophy: Idealism, naturalism
Characterised by, and validity defined by:
• Choice of participants
• Honesty, richness, depth and scope of the data achieved
• Use of triangulation
• Disinterestedness and objectivity of the researcher (researcher is
central to the process).
• Accuracy in catching meaning and interpretation
• Preservation of context, representing natural setting accurately
• Socially situated and culturally rich data
12. Various philosophical traditions:
CRITICAL THEORY Marxism, feminism, postmodern
etc
‘Traditional theory’ aims to understand and explain
‘Critical theory’ aims to critique to transform society
• Interpretation & hidden meanings in texts –symbolism, presumptions
• Examination of underpinning values, philosophies and politics
‘Whose interests are being served by current policies for testing children
in schools?’
‘Plagiarism: like copyright, underpinned by western ideals about respect
for individual intellectual property. For students brought up in collectivist
cultures, are we taking account of their worldviews?’
Is this you?
13. Validity in critical theory
Goal: To critique & and transform. Meanings, symbolism.
Who’s interests & agendas are being served? Values?
Underpinning philosophy: e.g. Marxism, Postmodernism, feminism, Politics
Characterised by, and validity defined by:
• Disinterestedness and objectivity of the researcher (researcher is
central to the process).
• Accuracy in catching meaning and interpretation
• Breadth of analysis – wide-ranging perspectives.
• Preservation of context, representing natural setting accurately
• Socially situated and culturally rich data
14. Exercise
Read the extract in the attached exercise setting
out a call to rethink our approach to higher education.
Try to deconstruct the argument:
- What argument is being made?
- Is there reasoning / evidence to support this?
- Are authors making any implicit assumptions?
- Is the world getting more complex, or less?
Defend both viewpoints.
16. LANGUAGE OF CRITICAL WRITING:
ARGUMENT INDICATORS
Conclusion ‘indicators’
thus….hence…which proves that…..so….from which can be
inferred…..consequently…….must…….requires
Reasoning ‘indicators’
because….for…since…..so….firstly……secondly…
….follows from the fact that……
The exam was poor measure of students’ understanding because,
in contrast to coursework marks, the profile of exam grades was
extremely variable, suggesting they were influenced by other factors
such as stress. Therefore if the sole purpose of an assignment is
only to measure student understanding we need to consider
whether exams are the best tool.
17. LANGUAGE OF CRITICAL WRITING:
Patterns of reasoning
Simple reasoning
One reason supports one conclusion
There is a proven positive correlation between attendance and
grade, therefore poor performance can only be solved through
strategies to improve attendance.
‘Side by side’ reasoning
Reason 1 and reason 2 and reason 3, support one conclusion
dissection teaches little respect [1] …supply companies mistreat
animals [2]….good simulations now available [3]……so no longer
should teach dissection
Adptd Fisher (2001)
18. ‘Chain’ of reasoning
Reason 1 so conclusion 1 therefore conclusion 2
Treating teaching & research in isolation damages
academic identity, so we need to rethink reward strategies [1]
therefore governing bodies need to send clearer signals to
institutional managers [2].
Complex patterns of reasoning
Reason 1 so conclusion 1 and reason 2. Therefore conclusion 2
Most students dislike mathematics [1]. So if students had
more choice over subjects and avoided maths eventually
fewer students would have abilities in maths [1].
This could seriously damage the Nation’s capacity for
producing scientists and engineers [2]. Therefore we should
limit freedom of student’s choices over subjects chosen [2].
Adptd Fisher (2001)
19. Exercise
Re-read the last paragraph of the exercise extract.
Where is the reasoning and the conclusions ?
What is the structure of the argument?
20. Paragraph 4
Reasoning 1
Conclusion 1, leading in turn to
Conclusion 2
Paragraphs 1 – 3 are reasoning, but not progressive.
Rather the same statement supported by examples.
Paragraph 4 is a ‘chain’ pattern. X, thus Y and in turn Z
21. Critiquing your own work
Analysing your arguments
What are your conclusions?
What are the reasons you give (supported by evidence? - literature, data)?
What is the structure to your reasoning – is there a single line of reasoning
or is your work supported by a chain or body of reasoning?
What is assumed (e.g. values, empirical stance)?
Evaluating your arguments
Are the reasons acceptable and credible (is supporting literature reliable?
Is data missing)?
Does the reasoning support the conclusions? Alternative explanations?
Are there associated arguments that would weaken or strengthen your claims?
What is your ‘judgement’?
Editor's Notes
AIMConsider some issues in critical thinking in education: - Navigating through literature - Critiquing different research studies - Unpicking an argument structure
AIMConsider some issues in critical thinking in education: - Navigating through literature - Critiquing different research studies - Unpicking an argument structure
Use this as a framework for structuring your critical review to ensure it is critical, rather than descriptive
Likely encounter much literatureNeed to consider range of issues in brief but might need to narrow down a strategy for critique: Focus only on issue within subject area? Focus only on empirical evidence? Compare different research perspectives on issue: eg statistical study of behaviours vs peoples’ experiences Focus on trends and policies & implications for teaching
Different types of research attempt to achieve different goalsDifferent research philosophies are measured by different quality criteria- important to understand differences for a critical analysisMain groups of research epstemologies
Objectivism – reality exists independent of consciousness: What is out there is out there. Researchers job is to measure, understand and explain. Do people behave randomly or are there patterns of behaviour? If so, what are they and what characterises them?. Why do these patterns exist? What model explains this?
What is the purpose of a book? To read to gain information to learnTake the book back through time to Palaeolithic. To stand on to reach higher. To fuel fire.Book is a real object but it’s meaning differs to different people depending on context.Significant in education.What makes a good teacher? Is there an agreed universal ideal Is meaning dependent on individuals’ experience
Analysing an argumentIt can be useful to dismember the argument to understand it’s structure. Helps to determine if it is logical and coherent, or biased and disjointed or incomplete.
Analysing an argumentIt can be useful to dismember the argument to understand it’s structure. Helps to determine if it is logical and coherent, or biased and disjointed or incomplete.
Look at last paragraph of example and see if you can deconstruct the structure of the argument
