4. Representations of Functions as Power Series
Recall
f (x) =
1
1 − x
=
∞
X
n=0
xn
for |x| < 1 (1)
▶ We say that
∞
X
n=0
xn
, is the power series representation of
f (x) =
1
1 − x
on the interval (−1, 1).
▶ We can use this power series representation to find the power
series representation of other functions as well.
5. Example 1
1/2
Use (1) to express the function
1
1 + x2
as the sum of a power series and find the interval of convergence.
6. Example 1
2/2
▶ We notice that 1
1+x2 is just the function f (x) = 1
1−x evaluated
at −x2:
f (−x2
) =
1
1 − (−x2)
=
1
1 + x2
▶ Since
1
1 − x
=
∞
X
n=0
xn
for |x| < 1, by plugging in −x2 to both
sides, we have that
1
1 + x2
=
∞
X
n=0
(−x2
)n
for | − x2
| < 1
=
∞
X
n=0
(−1)n
x2n
for |x| < 1
since (−x2
)n
= (−1)n
(x2
)n
= (−1)n
x2n
and
| − x2
| < 1 ⇐⇒ |x2
| < 1 ⇐⇒ |x| < 1
8. Example 2
2/3
▶ Again we use equation (1) by noticing that 1
x+2 is a
transformation of f (x) = 1
1−x :
1
x + 2
=
1
2 + x
=
1
2(1 + (x
2 ))
=
1
2(1 − (−x
2 ))
ie,
1
x + 2
=
1
2
f
−
x
2
.
▶ So we plug in −x
2 to both sides of (1) and get
1
1 − (−x
2 )
=
∞
X
n=0
−
x
2
n
for
15. Example 2
3/3
▶ Now multiplying both sides of the above by 1
2 we get
1
2(1 − (−x
2 ))
=
1
2
∞
X
n=0
(−1)nxn
2n
for |x| 2
=
∞
X
n=0
(−1)nxn
2n+1
for |x| 2
=⇒
1
x + 2
=
∞
X
n=0
(−1)nxn
2n+1
for |x| 2
17. Example 3
2/2
▶ Now since we found in example 2 that
1
x + 2
=
∞
X
n=0
(−1)nxn
2n+1
for |x| 2
we have that
x3
x + 2
= x3
∞
X
n=0
(−1)nxn
2n+1
for |x| 2
=
∞
X
n=0
(−1)nx3xn
2n+1
for |x| 2
=
∞
X
n=0
(−1)nxn+3
2n+1
for |x| 2
19. Differentiation and Integration of Power Series
▶ Theorem: If
P
cn(x − a)n has a radius of convergence R 0,
then the function f defined by
f (x) =
∞
X
n=0
cn(x−a)n
= c0+c1(x−a)+c2(x−a)2
+c3(x−a)3
+. . .
is differentiable on the interval (a − R, a + R) and
(i) f ′
(x) = c1 + 2c2(x − a) + 3c3(x − a)2
+ . . .
=
∞
X
n=1
ncn(x − a)n−1
(ii)
Z
f (x)dx = C + c0(x − a) + c1
(x − a)2
2
+ c2
(x − a)3
3
+ . . .
= C +
∞
X
n=0
cn
(x − a)n+1
n + 1
The radii of convergence in (i) and (ii) are both R.
20. Remark
▶ Note that the intervals of convergence for the derivative and
integral may be different (even though the radii are the same.)
22. Example 4
2/2
f (x) =
1
1 − x
=
∞
X
n=0
xn
=⇒
f ′
(x) =
1
(1 − x)2
=
∞
X
n=0
nxn−1
▶ The radius of convergence of 1
(1−x)2 =
P∞
n=0 nxn−1 is R = 1
▶ The series is centered at 0 so we just need to test the
endpoints of the interval (−1, 1) to find the interval of
convergence.
▶ x = 1 :
∞
X
n=0
nxn−1
=
∞
X
n=0
n; diverges by test for divergence.
▶ x = −1 :
∞
X
n=0
nxn−1
=
∞
X
n=0
(−1)n
n; diverges by test for
divergence.
▶ So the interval of convergence is I = (−1, 1).
23. Example 5
1/3
Find the power series representation and its radius of convergence
for the function
ln(1 + x)
24. Example 5
2/3
▶ We start by noticing the fact that
d
dx
ln (1 + x) =
1
1 + x
▶ We can find the power series of 1
1+x using (1):
1
1 + x
=
1
1 − (−x)
=
∞
X
n=0
(−x)n
for |x| 1
=
∞
X
n=0
(−1)n
xn
for |x| 1
25. Example 5
3/3
▶ Now we can integrate the power series of 1
1+x according to the
theorem to get back the power series of ln (1 + x).
ln (1 + x) =
Z
d
dx
ln (1 + x)dx [by FTC]
=
Z
1
1 + x
dx
= C +
∞
X
n=0
(−1)n xn+1
n + 1
▶ To find the constant of integration we plug in x = 0 on both
sides and get C = ln 1 = 0 so that
ln (1 + x) =
∞
X
n=0
(−1)n xn+1
n + 1
for |x| 1
26. Example 6
1/2
Find the power series representation and radius of convergence for
f (x) = tan−1
(x)
27. Example 6
2/2
▶ Recall that
d
dx
tan−1
(x) =
1
1 + x2
▶ In example 1 we found that
1
1 + x2
=
∞
X
n=0
(−1)n
x2n
for |x| 1
▶ So taking the integral of both sides we have
tan−1
x =
Z
d
dx
tan−1
(x)dx [by FTC]
=
Z
1
1 + x2
dx
= C +
∞
X
n=0
(−1)n x2n+1
2n + 1
for |x| 1