Chapter 4

1. CHAPTER 4
LEARNING AND TRANSFER OF TRAINING
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OBJECTIVES (1)
Discuss the five types of learner outcomes
Explain the implications of learning theory for instructional design
Incorporate adult learning theory into the design of a training
program
Describe how learners receive, process, store, retrieve, and act upon
information
Discuss the internal conditions (within the learner) and external
conditions (learning environment) necessary for the trainee to learn
each type of capability

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OBJECTIVES (2)
Discuss the implications of open and closed skills and near and far transfer
for designing training programs
Explain the features of instruction and the work environment that are
necessary for learning and transfer of training

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LEARNING AND TRANSFER
Both learning and transfer are necessary for training effectiveness
Learning refers to a relatively permanent change in human capabilities
Transfer refers to trainees applying what they have learned to their
jobs
• Generalization is applying what was learned to situations that are
similar but not identical to those in training
• Maintenance is the continued use of what was learned over time

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MULTIPLE LEARNING OUTCOMES (1)
Verbal Information
• specialized knowledge, including names, labels, facts, and bodies of
knowledge
Intellectual Skills
• concepts and rules critical to solve problems, serve customers, and
create products
Motor Skills
• coordination of physical movements

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MULTIPLE LEARNING OUTCOMES (2)
Attitudes
• beliefs and feelings that predispose a person to behave in a certain way
Cognitive Strategies
• strategies that regulate thinking and learning
• they relate to decisions regarding what information to attend to,
how to remember, and how to solve problems

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LEARNING THEORIES
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REINFORCEMENT THEORY
Individuals are motivated to perform or avoid behaviors because of
past outcomes of behavior
Trainers need to identify what outcomes learners find most positive
and negative and then link these outcomes to acquiring new
knowledge and skills

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DIFFERENT TYPES OF REINFORCEMENTS
Positive reinforcement is adding a desirable outcome following
desirable behavior
Negative reinforcement is removing an unpleasant outcome following
desirable behavior
Punishment (positive punishment) is adding an unpleasant outcome
following undesirable behavior
Extinction (negative punishment) is removing a desirable outcome
following undesirable behavior

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SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
Individuals learn by observing models of behavior, emulating behavior,
and receiving reinforcement and rewards
Learning results from directly experiencing the consequences of using
a skill, observing others, and seeing the consequences of their behavior
• Attention
• Retention
• Motor reproduction
• Motivational processes

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SELF-EFFICACY IS CRITICAL
Self-efficacy reflects an individual’s belief that he/she can successfully
learn knowledge and skills
Self-efficacy can be increased through:
• verbal persuasion
• logical verification
• modeling
• past accomplishment

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GOAL ORIENTATION
Learning orientation relates to trying to increase ability and
competence in a task
• People with a learning orientation view mistakes as useful for
learning
Performance orientation refers to a desire to look good in comparison
to others
• Individuals with a performance orientation avoid mistakes because
they do not want to appear foolish

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PROMOTING A LEARNING ORIENTATION
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MASLOW’S HIERARCHY
OF NEEDS

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ALDERFER’S THEORY
Existence
• physical needs such as food, clothing, and shelter
Relatedness
• interpersonal needs in personal and professional settings
Growth
• needs for personal development

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MCCLELLAND’S THEORY
Need for achievement
• need to achieve challenging goals, prove something, and
recognition
Need for power
• need to dominate and influence others
Need for affiliation
• need to be a part of something and a desire for social relationships

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NEEDS THEORY IMPLICATIONS
Trainers should attempt to understand learners’ needs, explain how
training will meet needs, and adapt training
If certain basic needs are not met, motivation may suffer
However, training should not necessarily attempt to meet all needs

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EXPECTANCY THEORY IMPLICATIONS
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ADULT LEARNING THEORY
Adults have the need to know “why”
Adults have a need to be self-directed
Adults bring more work-related experiences to the learning situation
Adults enter a learning experience with a problem-centered approach
Adults are extrinsically and intrinsically motivated

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ADULT LEARNING THEORY IMPLICATIONS
Mutual planning and collaboration
Use learner experiences for examples and applications
Develop instruction based on learners’ interests and competencies
Provide opportunities for application
Ensure training is problem centered

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INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORY (1)
Information processing theory proposes that information taken in by
the learner undergoes several transformations in the brain
A message is received by the senses, is registered, stored in short-term
memory, transformed to long-term memory, and a response to the
message is organized
The final link in the model is feedback from the environment

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INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORY (2)
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CLOSED VERSUS OPEN SKILLS
Transfer can be enhanced by understanding the type of skill
Closed Skills
• Involve responding to predictable situations with standardized
responses
Open Skills
• Involve responding to variable situations with adaptive responses

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PROMOTING TRANSFER FOR CLOSED SKILLS
Provide detailed checklists to follow
Provide high-fidelity practice
Shape favorable attitudes toward compliance
Reward compliance

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PROMOTING TRANSFER FOR OPEN SKILLS
Teach general principles
Shape favorable attitudes toward experimentation
Allow trainees to make mistakes without fear of punishment
Provide rewards for experimentation

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THEORY OF IDENTICAL ELEMENTS
Transfer will be maximized when the tasks, materials, and equipment in
training are similar to the work environment
Identical elements are particularly important for promoting near
transfer, applying learned capabilities exactly to the work situation

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STIMULUS GENERALIZATION APPROACH
Transfer is enhanced when the most important features, or general
principles, are emphasized during training
The stimulus generalization approach is appropriate to promote far
transfer, applying learned capabilities to the work environment when it
is not identical to training

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COGNITIVE THEORY OF TRANSFER
Transfer depends on a trainee’s ability to retrieve learned capabilities
Meaningful material and coding schemes enhance storage and recall of
training

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MENTAL & PHYSICAL PROCESSES
Learning depends on the learner’s cognitive processes, organizing the
content in a mental representation, and relating the content to existing
knowledge from long-term memory
Jump to MENTAL & PHYSICAL PROCESSES Long Description

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LEARNING STRATEGIES
Different learning strategies influence how training content is coded
• Rehearsal
• learning through repetition
• Organizing
• finding similarities and themes
• Elaboration
• relating the material to other more familiar knowledge

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THE LEARNING CYCLE (1)
Jump to THE LEARNING CYCLE (1) Long Description

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THE LEARNING CYCLE (2)

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EMPLOYEES NEED TO KNOW THE OBJECTIVES
An objective may have three components
• what the learner is expected to do or know
• quality or level of acceptable performance
• conditions under which the learner is expected to perform

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EMPLOYEES NEED MEANINGFUL CONTENT
Content should be linked to current job experiences and tasks that
have meaning
Material should be presented using familiar concepts, terms, and
examples
Content should be aligned with personal and professional goals

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EMPLOYEES NEED OPPORTUNITIES TO PRACTICE
Practice should:
• involve the trainee actively
• include overlearning
• take the appropriate amount of time
• include the appropriate unit of learning

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EMPLOYEES NEED A NUMBER OF PRE-PRACTICE
CONDITIONS
Provide strategies that will result in the greatest learning
Encourage trainees to reflect
Provide advanced organizers
Help trainees set challenging learning goals
Create realistic expectations for trainees
For training in teams, clarify roles and responsibilities

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EMPLOYEES NEED PRACTICE INVOLVING EXPERIENCE
Learners need practice involving direct experience
Overlearning is needed
Incorporate errors in the learning process
• … and teach individuals how to learn from them

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MASSED VERSUS SPACED PRACTICE
Massed practice involves practicing continuously without rest
With spaced practice, individuals are given rest intervals within the
practice session
In general, spaced practice is superior

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WHOLE VERSUS PART PRACTICE
Whole practice involves focusing on all tasks at the same time
Part practice involves practicing each component as soon as it is
introduced in training
Trainers should incorporate both types

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EMPLOYEES NEED TO COMMIT TRAINING CONTENT TO MEMORY
Jump to EMPLOYEES NEED TO COMMIT TRAINING CONTENT TO MEMORY Long Description

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BOOSTERS
Boosters refer to retrieval opportunities that help the learner’s brain
consider training information as important and help retain it
Boosters can include short multiple choice, short-answer quizzes, or
other activities that require learners to retrieve what they have learned
from long-term memory

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MICROLEARNING
Microlearning refers to training delivered in small pieces or chunks to
engage trainees, motivate them to learn, and help facilitate retention
Chunks of learning are presented using videos or games spanning 5 to 8
minutes
Used to replaced longer training and to supplement formal training

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EMPLOYEES NEED FEEDBACK
Feedback should be specific and should follow the behavior as closely as
possible
Feedback can come from a variety of sources, such as through
interpersonal interactions, video recordings, tests and quizzes, on-the-
job observation, and performance data

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EMPLOYEES LEARN THROUGH OBSERVATION,
EXPERIENCE, AND INTERACTION
Individuals learn through observation and imitating the actions of
models
Trainers should promote three key types of interaction:
• Learner-content
• Learner-instructor
• Learner-learner

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EMPLOYEES NEED THE TRAINING PROGRAM TO BE
PROPERLY COORDINATED AND ARRANGED
Training administration is important
• Communicate courses to employees
• Prepare instructional materials
• Arrange the training facility and room
• Test equipment that will be used
• Provide support during instruction
• Distribute evaluation materials

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ENCOURAGE TRAINEE RESPONSIBILITY AND SELF-
MANAGEMENT
Self-management refers to a person’s attempt to control aspects of
decision making and behavior
Self-management training involves setting goals to use skills on the job,
identifying obstacles and ways to overcome them, and self-administering
rewards

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ENSURE A SUPPORTIVE WORK ENVIRONMENT
Characteristics of a positive climate for transfer include:
• Supervisors and coworkers encourage transfer
• Task cues to use new skills
• Lack of punishment for using new skills
• Extrinsic reinforcement consequences
• Intrinsic reinforcement consequences

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CONSIDER BOTH INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL
CONDITIONS
Internal conditions are processes within the learner that are necessary
for learning
External conditions are processes in the learning environment that are
necessary for learning
External conditions should directly influence forms of instruction, and
they should be designed to facilitate the internal conditions

49. Appendix of Image Long Descriptions

50. LEARNING THEORIES Long Description
This slide presents different learning theories in different boxes (from left to right, top to bottom):
Reinforcement Theory
Social Learning Theory
Goal Theories
Need Theories
Expectancy Theory
Adult Learning Theory
Information Processing Theory
Jump back to LEARNING THEORIES

51. PROMOTING A LEARNING ORIENTATION Long Description
This slide presents different strategies for promoting a learning orientation from left to right:
Set goals around experimentation
Deemphasize competition
Create a community of learning
Provide constructive feedback when trainees make mistakes
Jump back to PROMOTING A LEARNING ORIENTATION

52. EXPECTANCY THEORY IMPLICATIONS Long Description
This slide presents the three components of expectancy theory in three boxes from left to right:
EXPECTANCY--ensure trainees are confident in their ability
VALENCE--provide and communicate valued rewards
INSTRUMENTALITY--ensure valued rewards are received if trainees successfully learn and transfer
Jump back to EXPECTANCY THEORY IMPLICATIONS

53. INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORY (2) Long Description
Information Processing Theory
This flowchart depicts the information processing theory.
The left end of the flowchart contains a vertically positioned rectangular box. The top portion of this box is labeled stimulus or
message. An arrow arises from the top right side of this box and leads to a smaller rectangular box that is labeled receptors
(eyes, ears, nose, and skin). An arrow arises from the right side of this box and leads to another box that is labeled sensory
register. An arrow arises from the right side of this box and leads to the next box that is labeled short-term memory. An arrow
arises from the right side of this box and leads to another box that is labeled long-term memory. An arrow arises from the left
side of this box and points at the box labeled short-term memory.
An arrow arises from the bottom of each of the boxes labeled short-term memory and long-term memory. These arrows point
downward at a rectangular box that is labeled response generator. An arrow arises from the left side of this box and points at
a box labeled effectors. An arrow arises from the left side of this box and points at the bottom right side of the vertically
positioned rectangular box. The content at the bottom of this rectangular box reads environment and feedback
reinforcement.
Jump back to INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORY (2)

54. MENTAL & PHYSICAL PROCESSESLong Description
At the bottom of the slide are different process for learning in different boxes (from left to right):
Expectancy
Perception
Working Storage
Semantic Encoding
Long-term Storage
Retrieval
Generalizing
Gratifying
Jump back to MENTAL & PHYSICAL PROCESSES

55. THE LEARNING CYCLE (1) Long Description
This slide presents the learning process with an arrow (from left to right):
Concrete experience: trainees encounter a concreate experience
Reflective observation: trainees think about the problem
Abstract conceptualization: trainees generate ideas how to solve the problem
Active experimentation: trainees implement ideas to solve the problem
Jump back to THE LEARNING CYCLE (1)

56. EMPLOYEES NEED TO COMMIT TRAINING CONTENT TO
MEMORY Long Description
This slide presents strategies to help trainees commit learning to memory in different boxes (from left to right, top to
bottom):
Help them understand how they learn
Emphasize important points and eliminate irrelevant content
Use a concept map to show relationships among ideas
Teach key words, provide a procedure, sequence, or visual image
Encourage trainees to take notes and engage in reflection
Have trainees engage in overlearning
Provide rest breaks during training
Use quizzes or boosters
Break courses into small chunks of learning using modules or microlearning
Have trainees complete pre-training work
Jump back to EMPLOYEES NEED TO COMMIT TRAINING CONTENT TO MEMORY