Theories of Mass Communication

Theories of mass communication
• Notes By : Ashish Richhariya
• Course : FTNMP / BMM
• Designation : Faculty at Thakur College Of Science & Commerce
• Query : arichhariya30@gmail.com
Thakur College Of Science & Commerce, Mumbai

Theories of mass communication

Defining Theory:
• A theory is a set of statements in the format (implicit or explicit) “if,
then.”
• Theories describe in words a certain model of ideal interactions,
which are seen in the context of causal relationships.
• The relationships are derived from assumptions that lead to
necessary consequences.

 Mass communication theories are typically imagined as ways
to explain how mass communication.
 Mass communication refers to that aspect of human
communication that involves groups of people.
 Mass communication theory is broader than these images
because it deals with issues that cannot be seen as simple
“effects.”

 Theories are our best representations of the world around us.
“Mass communication theories are explanations and predictions of
social phenomena that attempt to relate mass communication to
various aspects of our personal and cultural lives or social systems”
Mass communication theories explore explanations for how we
interact with mass communication, its role in our lives, and the effects it
has on us.

 One key characteristic of mass communication is its ability to
overcome the physical limitations present in face-to-face
communication.
The human voice can only travel so far, and buildings and objects limit
the amount of people we can communicate with at any time.
 Mass media messages involve less interactivity and more delayed
feedback than other messages.
The majority of messages sent through mass media channels are one
way.

The Media as Gatekeeper
•Gatekeeping function, which means they affect or control the
information that is transmitted to their audiences.
•This function has been analyzed and discussed by mass communication
scholars for decades.
•Whereas interpersonal communication only requires some channel or
sensory route, mass media messages need to “hitch a ride” on an
additional channel to be received.
•For example, a Sports Illustrated cover story that you read at SI.com
went through several human “gates,” including a writer, editor,
publisher, photographer, and webmaster, as well as one media “gate”—
the Internet.

•In terms of the Gatekeeping function of limiting, media outlets
decide whether or not to pass something along to the media channel
so it can be relayed.
•Because most commercial media space is so limited and expensive,
almost every message we receive is edited, which is inherently
limiting.
•Gatekeepers also function to expand messages. For example, a
blogger may take a story from a more traditional news source and fact
check it or do additional research, interview additional sources, and
post it on his or her blog.

•The study of communication and mass media has led to the
formulation of many theories:
•structural and functional theories believe that social structures are real
and function in ways that can be observed objectively;
•cognitive and behavioral theories tend to focus on psychology of
individuals;
•interactions theories view social life as a process of interaction;
•interpretive theories uncover the ways people actually understand
their own experience;
•critical theories are concerned with the conflict of interests in society
and the way communication perpetuates domination of one group over
another
Mass Communication Theories:

•The earliest theories were those propounded by Western
theorists Siebert, Paterson and Schramm in their book Four Theories Of
the Press (1956).
•These were termed "normative theories" by McQuail in the sense that
they "mainly express ideas of how the media ought to or can be
expected to operate under a prevailing set of conditions and values."
•Each of the four original or classical theories is based on a particular
political theory or economic scenario.

•Denis McQuail, who has died aged 82, was a
leading scholar in the field of media studies and
mass communication.
•He is perhaps best known for his influential
textbook McQuail’s Mass Communication
Theory(1994), a comprehensive survey of how
the media works.
•McQuail's book, Mass Communication Theory, discusses in greater
detail the mass communication concept.
•Specifically, it talks about the significance of mass media and how it
affects the individual and society rather than focusing on the definitions
of the models in general.

NORMATIVE/ CLASSICAL THEORIES:
•Normative theories explain how the media 'ought to' or can be
'expected to' operate under the prevailing set of political-economic
circumstances.
•Therefore, each theory is connected with the kind of political system in
which the society has to conduct its socio-economic political affairs.
• Siebert et al., in 1956, mentioned four theories, based on classification
of the world's national media systems into four categories.

•Denis McQuail, in the 1980s, considered it appropriate to add two
more theories to the original set of four.
•He concedes that these theories "may not correspond to complete
media systems" but "they have now become part of the, discussion of
press theory and provide some of the principles for current media policy
and practice".

Authoritarian Theory

•This theory developed in the 16th and 17th centuries and was mainly
based on absolute power of the monarchy (truth). According to this
theory, mass media, though not under the direct control of the State,
had to follow its bidding.
•This approach justified itself on the basis of Plato’s (407–327 BC)
authoritarian philosophy, who believed only a few wise men at the top
can keep the state safe.
•A British academician, Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679), argued that
maintaining order is the sovereign duty and individual objections have
to be ignored.
Origin:

•Authoritarians are necessary to control the media to protect and
prevent the people from the national threats through any form
communication (information or news).
•The authorities have all rights to permit any media and control it by
providing license to the media and make certain censorship.
•Authoritarian theory describe that all forms of communications are
under the control of the governing elite or authorities or influential
bureaucrats.

•The Authoritarian Theory describes the situation where states view the
mass media as an instrument at all ties. The role of the media is to
mainly educate citizens, and acts as a propaganda tool for the ruling
party.
•Under an Authoritarian media system, ownership of the media can be
either public or private. Ownership of printing medias are mostly
private, while broadcast and cinemas usually remain in the hands of the
government.

Libertarianism or Free Press Theory

Origin:
•The Libertarian Theory originally came from liberal thought in
Europe from the 16th Century.
•In 1789, The French, in their Declaration of The Rights of Man, wrote
“Every citizen may speak, write, and publish freely". Out of such
doctrines came the idea of a “free marketplace of ideas”.
•George Orwell defined libertarianism as “allowing people to say things
you do not want to hear”.

•The Libertarian Theory describes societies that provide media with
unrestrained freedom, especially from government control, so that they
are free to report a variety of views.
•There is no control or censorship. Under a libertarian media system,
ownership of media is mainly private.
•Under the Libertarian Theory, the media’s purpose is to inform,
entertain, sell, and serve as a “watchdog”, keeping the government in
check.
•Libertarian Theory involves some innate distrust of the role of the
government and the state and a belief that everybody has rights to
information.

•But the application of press freedom has hardly been straight forward.
The free press theory thus protects the owners of media but fails to give
equal expression to the rights of editors and journalists or of the
audiences.
•Libertarian theory sees people are more enough to find and judge good
ideas from bad. The theory says people are rational and their rational
thoughts lead them to find out what are good and bad.
•The press should not restrict anything even a negative content may give
knowledge and can make better decision whilst worst situation.

•Freedom of press will give more freedom to media to reveal the real
thing happening in the society without any censorship or any authority
blockades.
•It gives more values for individuals to express their thoughts in media.
•Is too positive about individual ethics and rationality.
•Ignores need for reasonable control of media.
•Ignores dilemmas posed by conflicting freedoms.
Strength and Weakness:

Social Responsibility Theory

Origin
•In mid 20th century most of the developing countries and third world
nations have used this social responsibility theory of press which is
associated with “the Commission of the Freedom of Press” in United
States at 1949.
•The 'social responsibility' theory owes its origin to the Commission on
Freedom of the Press (Hutchins 1947) that was appointed in the United
States.

•Social responsibility theory allows free press without any censorship
but at the same time the content of the press should be discussed in
public panel and media should accept any obligation from public
interference or professional self regulations or both.
•The theory lies between both authoritarian theory and libertarian
theory because it gives total media freedom in one hand but the
external controls in other hand.
•The Social Responsibility theory is based on the assumption that media
serve essential functions in society. Therefore, it should accept and fulfill
certain obligations to the society.
•These obligations are to be met by setting up high professional
standards in communication of information: truth, accuracy, objectivity
and balance.

•The theory helped in creating professionalism in media by setting up a
high level of accuracy, truth, and information.
•The commission of press council also included some tasks based on
social responsibility of media, which are as follows:
1. Formulate the code of conduct for the press.
2. Improve the standards of journalism.
3. Safeguarding the interests of journalism and journalist.
4. Criticize and make some penalty for violating the code of conduct.

•However, the Social-Responsibility Theory does not assume that
anyone can use the media to publish anything like the Libertarian
Theory.
•This theory requires the media to adhere to professional standards and
codes of conduct when exercising their editorial freedom.
•Under a Social-Responsible media system, the role of the media is to
serve the public, and in order to do so, should remain free of
government interference.
•The idea of this theory is that the media has a moral obligation to
provide adequate information for citizens to make informed decisions.

Soviet Media Communist Theory

Origin
•After the 1917th revolution, the Soviet Union was restructured with
new political system based on the Marxist-Leninist principles.
•So the Soviet originates a theory from Marxist, Leninist and Stalinist
thoughts, with mixture of Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel ideology is
called “Soviet Media Theory” is also known as “The Communist Media
Theory”.
•The Soviet-Communist Theory originated from the Soviet Union from
Marxist, Leninist, and Stalinist thoughts after the 17th century.

•Soviet media theory is imitative of Leninist principles which based on
the Carl Marx and Engel’s ideology. The government undertake or
controls the total media and communication to serve working classes
and their interest.
•Theory says the state have absolute power to control any media for the
benefits of people. They put end to the private ownership of the press
and other media.
•Under the Soviet-Communist Theory, the state owns or in some way
controls all forms of mass media directly.

•Also under the Soviet-Communist system, the media reports less on the
bad things that happen under communism, and emphasizes the bad
things that happen in democratic.
•Technically, currently, no country’s media is fully under the Soviet-
Communist system.
•However, certain countries’ media possess characteristics of a Soviet-
Communist media system
•The theory describe the whole purpose of the mass media is to educate
the greater masses of working class or workers.
•Here, the public was encouraged to give feedback which would able to
create interests towards the media.

 MAGIC BULLET/ HYPODERMIC NEEDLE/ STIMULUS RESPONSE THEORY

Origin
• The American scholar Harold Lasswell supported the idea of HNT in
his Propaganda Techniques in World War I (1927) saying that mass-
mediated propaganda affected the politics, family relations, general
outlooks, and behavior of people.
•The theory explains how media controls what the audience views and
listens to and the effects, which can be immediate or later in future.

• Harold Dwight Lasswell, February 13, 1902-December 18, 1978 was an
influential political scientist known for seminal studies of power
relations and of personality and politics and for other major
contributions to contemporary behavioral political science.

•The magic bullet theory (also called the hypodermic needle theory)
suggests that mass communication is like a gun firing bullets of
information at a passive audience.
•“Communication was seen as a magic bullet that transferred ideas or
feelings or knowledge or motivations almost automatically from one
mind to another”.
•The media (magic gun) fired the message directly into audience head
without their own knowledge.
•The media (needle) injects the message into audience mind and it
cause changes in audience behavior and psyche towards the message.
•Audience are passive and they can’t resist the media message is called
“Hypodermic Needle Theory”.

•However, many people hold the assumption that media, like television
news outlets, simply release information that doesn’t encourage
audience engagement and critical thinking.
•This theory has been largely discredited by academics because of its
suggestion that all members of an audience interpret messages in the
same way, and are largely passive receptors of messages.
•The media create messages with a specific purpose – that is, to elicit a
specific response. People react in the same manner to a message. The
effects of the media's “bullets” or “syringes” are immediate and
powerful, often resulting in swift behavioral changes

•The magic bullet theory of mass communication, saying that it
discounts critical thinking skills and fails to take into account
demographic variables especially education that cause people to think
and behave independently.
•Using terms like ''bullet'' and ''needle'' shows the severity of the
impact on the audience and the power the originator of the message
has.

TWO STEP FLOW THEORY

Origin
•The two-step flow theory was first formulized by Paul Lazarsfeld,
Bernard Berelson and Hazel Gaudet in The People’s Choice (1944).
•The study primarily focused on the process of decision making during a
Presidential election campaign.
•The three researchers were expecting that evidence would point to
direct influence of media messages on voting intentions.

•Paul Felix Lazarsfeld was one of the major figures in 20th-century
American sociology. The founder of Columbia University’s Bureau for
Applied Social Research, he exerted a tremendous influence over the
techniques and the organization of social research.
•"It is not so much that he was an American sociologist," one colleague
said of him after his death, "as it was that he determined what
American sociology would be."

•Bernard Berelson (1912-1979), an American
behavioral scientist, made major contributions in
the fields of communications research, voting
studies, and population policy.
•He virtually created the term “behavioral sciences” and he was
principally responsible for the establishment of the Center for
Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences in Stanford, California.

•The two-step flow theory suggests that mass communication messages
do not move directly from a sender to the receiver. Instead, a small
group of people, gatekeepers, screen media messages, reshape these
messages, and control their transmission to the masses.
•In the second step, the opinion leaders filter and interpret the
messages before they pass them along to individuals with shared
ideologies who have less contact with the media, opinion followers.
•Conservatives often argue that they are marginalized by the “liberal
media,” while liberals argue that they are marginalized because wealthy
conservatives own and control the media.

•The two-step flow theory of communications explains how information
from the media moves in two distinct stages.
•The hypothesis states “ideas often flow from radio and print to opinion
leaders and from these to the less active sections of the population.”
•The two-step flow theory of communications is important to public
relations because of the influence it has on large audiences.
•If media or public relations professionals are sending out information in
hopes of crafting a specific message for an audience and opinion leaders
heavily alter that information, then the impact of the message has also
been altered.

MULTI STEP FLOW THEORY

Origin
•This theory was first introduced by sociologist Paul Lazarsfeld in 1944
and elaborated by Elihu Katz and Lazarsfeldin 1955.
•The multistep flow paradigm describes the way in which media and
interpersonal influence shape public opinion.The flows of influence and
information are amplified by opinion leaders

•Elihu Katz May 31, 1926 U.S. He was a American sociologist who
significantly contributed to the study of mass communication.
•Some of his most notable work includes research on such topics as
the intersection of mass and interpersonal communication, uses and
gratifications, and media effects.

•This theory suggests that there is a reciprocal nature of sharing
information and influencing beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors. The idea is
that opinion leaders might create media messages, but opinion
followers might be able to sway opinion leaders.
•Thus, the relationship to media becomes much more complex. Some
believe that the role of the opinion leader in our changing culture is
diminishing particularly with the ability for average people to reach
potentially millions of people through social media.

•A theory that indicates that information, usually from media outlets,
moves in multiple directions, each consumer of the information passing
on not only the information but their own interpretation of it.
•Theory states that the flow of communication are multi-stepped in
nature. Keeping in mind the shortcomings of the previous theory, it
proposes that information and influence are a two-way process.
Opinion leaders can both influence and are influenced by opinion
receivers.

Origin
•The uses and gratifications theory, developed by Elihu Katz and Jay
Blumler, seeks to explain the relationship between an audience and how
this audience uses the media.
•Elihu Katz first introduced the Uses and Gratification Approach, when
he came up with the notion that people use the media to their
benefit. The perspective emerged in the early 1970’s as Katz and his
two colleagues, Jay Blumler and Michael Gurevitch continued to expand
the idea.

•Jay Blumler was a pioneer researcher
into the media before media studies
became part of the British university
repertoire.
•He was an institution builder, as the
director of the Leeds University Centre
for Television Research the progenitor
of the University of Leeds

•The uses and gratifications theory stands in stark contrast to the magic
bullet theory of mass communication. Rather than the media infusing
people's minds with ideas, this theory says that people are quite
particular about choosing media content that suits their needs.
•And these needs can run the gamut, from the need for information,
entertainment and social interaction to the need for relaxation, escape
or arousal.

•The uses and gratification theory suggests that audience members
actively pursue particular media to satisfy their own needs. The
reciprocal nature of the mass communication process no longer sees the
media user as an inactive, unknowing participant but as an active,
sense-making participant that chooses content and makes informed
media choices.
•We tend to avoid media that do not agree with our values, attitudes,
beliefs, or pocketbooks. Schramm argued that we make media choices
by determining how gratified we will be from consuming a particular
media.

•Even with all the information on the internet, there are still some
people who consider it too time consuming and complex. Yet, many of
our students do not have television sets, but instead watch all television,
movies, and videos online. Streaming shows online helps us avoid
commercials and media content in which we choose not to participate.
•Netflix, for example, requires a monthly fee in order for you to be
commercial free during your shows, but usually you have to wait a
season to watch shows.

•The Uses and Gratification theory discusses the effects of the media on
people. It explains how people use the media for their own need and
get satisfied when their needs are fulfilled.
•Also, this theory is in contradiction to the Magic Bullet theory which
states that the audience is passive. This theory has a user/audience-
centered approach. Even for communication, say – interpersonal,
people refer to the media for the topic to discuss among themselves.

 SPIRAL OF SILENCE THEORY

Origin
•Originally proposed by German political scientist Elisabeth Noelle-
Neumann in 1974.
•Elisabeth Noelle-Neumann, the German political scientist contributes
the famous model called “Spiral of Silence”.

•Born in Berlin, Germany, on December
19, 1916, Elisabeth Noelle is a
journalist, an entrepreneur, and one of
the most eminent and influential
German communication researchers of
the 20th century.
•She is the founder and director of the
Institut für Demoskopie Allensbach, the
first German opinion research
institute to employ the representative
survey method. She is best known
internationally for her “spiral of
silence” theory.

The theory posits that they remain silent for a few reasons:
1. Fear of isolation when the group or public realizes that the individual
has a divergent opinion from the status quo.
2. Fear of reprisal or more extreme isolation, in the sense that voicing
said opinion might lead to a negative consequence beyond that of
mere isolation (loss of a job, status, etc.)

•Spiral of silence, in the study of human communication and public
opinion the theory that people’s willingness to express their opinions on
controversial public issues is affected by their largely unconscious
perception of those opinions as being either popular or unpopular.
•Developed by German survey and communication researcher Elisabeth
Noelle-Neumann in the 1960s and ’70s, the spiral of silence theory more
broadly attempts to describe collective opinion formation and
societal decision making regarding issues that are controversial or
morally loaded.

•Accordingly, Noelle-Neumann viewed public opinion as a form of social
control that ultimately applies to everyone, regardless of social class,
and that is apparent in many areas of life, ranging from controversial
political issues to fashion, morals, and values.
•Such an understanding of public opinion differs markedly from the
traditional conception according to which most people’s opinions on
public issues are influenced by rational debate among educated elites.
•Specifically, the perception that one’s opinion is unpopular tends
to inhibit or discourage one’s expression of it, while the perception that
it is popular tends to have the opposite effect.

McCOMBS AND SHAWS AGENDA SETTING THEORY

Origin
•The Agenda Setting Function of the Mass Media, it was first put forth
by Maxwell McCombs and Donald Shaw in 1972 in Public Opinion
Quarterly
•This theory states that the news plays an integral part in the shaping of
political realities. The amount of time spent on an issue and the
information relayed in a news story, along with the story's position,

•Maxwell McCombs 1938, U.S.), one of
the two founding fathers
of empirical research on the agenda-
setting function of the press.
•Max McCombs is internationally recognized for his research on the
agenda-setting role of mass communication, the influence of the media
on the focus of public attention.

- Donald Lewis Shaw, one of the
two founding fathers of empirical
research on the agenda-
setting function of the press, is a
social scientist and a Kenan
professor emeritus at the University
of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.
•Donald Shaw is an American journalism historian, theorist, and author,
a retired U.S. Army Reserve officer, and writer who taught 46 years at
the School of Journalism and Mass Communication.

•The influence of media affects the presentation of the reports and
issues made in the news that affects the public mind. The news reports
make it in a way that when a particular news report is given importance
and attention than other news the audience will automatically perceive
it as the most important news and information are given to them.
•Agenda setting theory is used in a political ad, campaigns, business
news, PR (public relation) etc.
•Gatekeeping is in charge of and has control of the selection of content
discussed in the media.
• Editors are the main gatekeepers of media itself. The news media
decides ‘what’ events to broadcast and show through the media ‘gates’
on the basis of ‘newsworthiness’.

•The agenda-setting function of the media was often regarded as a force
for good, and media theorists point to thousands of examples as proof,
especially in the arena of life sciences. Stop-smoking, healthy eating and
driver safety movements, they say, largely owe their success to the
media's agenda-setting role.
•The agenda-setting theory of mass communication was embraced by a
full generation of journalists, and especially print journalists, who
pointed to the news pages as living proof of the theory's existence every
single day. The day's most important stories appeared on page one,
under the biggest and boldest headlines. Less important news appeared
on inside pages

First Level:
The first level is usually used by the researchers to study media uses and
its objectives or the influences that media creates on people and the
most proximal thought that people will have on the exposure to the
information given by media house.
Second level:
At the second level, the media focuses on how people should think
about the nature of the issues. Thus, sensationalization of news reports
may happen to bring in the interest of the audience. In fact, media
wants to grab attention and implant thoughts in people minds about
some serious issues. That’s why media turn certain issues viral.
These are the levels of agenda setting theory:

CULTIVATION THEORY

Origin
•Cultivation theory (aka cultivation hypothesis, cultivation analysis) was
an a theory composed originally by G. Gerbner and later expanded upon
by Gerbner & Gross.
•Originated by George Gerbner in the 1960s, this theory is most
frequently applied to television viewing and suggests that frequent
television viewers’ perceptions of the real world become reflective of
the most common messages advanced by fictional television.

•George Gerbner, August 8, 1919-December
24, 2005 U.S., Hungarian born American
journalist known for his research
into television content and the development
of cultivation theory, which posits that
stories told by a culture and its media form
the foundation of that culture.
•George Gerbner, who thirty years ago founded the Cultural Indicators
project, which is best known for its estimate that the average American
child will have watched 8,000 murders on television by the age of
twelve, is so alarmed about the baneful effects of TV that he describes
them in terms of "fascism."

•Cultivation research is one that studies media effects . Cultivation
theorists posit that television viewing can have long-term effects that
gradually affect the audience. Their primary focus falls on the effects of
viewing in the attitudes of the viewer as opposed to created behavior.
•Heavy viewers of TV are thought to be ‘cultivating’ attitudes that seem
to believe that the world created by television is an accurate depiction
of the real world. The theory suggests that prolonged watching of
television can tend to induce a certain paradigm about violence in the
world.
• Theorists break down the effects of cultivation into two distinct levels:
first order – is a general beliefs about the our world, and second order –
which are specific attitudes, such as a hatred or reverence for law and
order, pedophiles, etc.

•The theory suggests that this cultivation of attitudes is based on
attitudes already present in our society and that the media take those
attitudes which are already present and re-present them bundled in a
different packaging to their audiences.
•Many times the viewer is unaware the extent to which they absorb
media, many times viewing themselves as moderate viewers when, in
fact, they are heavy viewers.
•Cultivation theory questions how active we actually are when we
consume mass communication. According to the American Academy of
Pediatrics, by age 18, the average American child will have watched
200,000 acts of violence on television. This statistic does not even take
into account the violence a child has access through YouTube videos,
Instagram, Facebook, music videos or any other media distribution.

The Shannon-Weaver Model

•The Shannon-Weaver theory was first proposed in the 1948 article “A
Mathematical Theory of Communication” in the Bell System Technical
Journal by Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver
Origin
•In 1948, Shannon was an American mathematician, Electronic engineer
and Weaver was an American scientist both of them join together to
write an article in “Bell System Technical Journal” called “A
Mathematical Theory of Communication” and also called as “Shannon-
Weaver model of communication”.

•Claude E. Shannon received his B.S.
from the University of Michigan,
Ann Arbor and his Ph.D. from
Massachusetts Institute of
Technology (MIT).
•Shannon worked for the National
Research Council, the National
Defense Research Committee, and
Bell Telephone Laboratories, where
he developed the mathematical
theory of communication, now
known as information theory, with
Warren Weaver.

•Warren Weaver received
his B.S. and Ph.D. from the
University of Wisconsin.
Weaver worked as faculty at
Throop College, California
Institute of Technology,
University of Wisconsin, and
served in World War One.

•The Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication argues that
communication can be broken down into 6 key concepts: sender,
encoder, channel, noise, decoder, and receiver.
•A later version of the theory by Warren Weaver added a 7th concept
(‘feedback’) which changed the model from a linear to cyclical model.
•It is known as the “mother of all models” because of its wide
popularity. The model is also known as ‘information theory’ or the
‘Shannon theory’ because Shannon was the main person who
developed the theory.

Explanation of the Shannon-Weaver
Communication Model
1. Sender (Information Source)
The model starts with the sender. They are the person (or object, or
thing) who has the information to begin with (the ‘information source’).
The sender starts the process by choosing a message to send, someone
to send the message to, and a channel through which to send the
message.
2. Encoder (Transmitter)
The encoder is the machine (or person) that converts the idea into
signals that can be sent from the sender to the receiver. The Shannon
model was designed originally to explain communication through means
such as telephone and computers which encode our words using codes
like binary digits or radio waves.

3. Channel
The channel of communication is the infrastructure that gets
information from the sender and transmitter through to the decoder
and receiver. We sometimes also call this the ‘medium’.
4. Noise
Noise interrupts a message while it’s on the way from the sender to the
receiver. It’s named after the idea that ‘noise’ could interrupt our
understanding of a message. There are two types of noise: internal and
external.

•George Gerbner's Model which was Developed in 1956 stands out from
the others because of its stress upon two distinct aspects relating
messages to 'reality' and establishing that communication process
comprises two dimensions the receptive/ perceptual dimensions and
the communicating dimensions.
Origin

•George Gerbner August 8, 1919- December
24, 2005, U.S.He was an American journalist
known for his research
into television content and the development
of cultivation theory, which posits that
stories told by a culture and its media form
the foundation of that culture.
•George Gerbner, who thirty years ago
founded the Cultural Indicators project,
which is best known for its estimate that
the average American child will have
watched 8,000 murders on television by the
age of twelve, is so alarmed about the
baneful effects of TV that he describes
them in terms of "fascism."

(i) Perceptual Dimension:
An ‘E’ is an event happens in the real life and the event content or
message is perceived by ‘M’ (Man or a Machine). After Perceives the
message from “E” by “M” is known as “E1”. E1 is not same as like ‘E’.
Because any man or machine can’t perceives the whole event and they
perceives only the part of the event (E1). This is known as “Perceptual
Dimension”.
These 3 factors are involves between ‘E’ and ‘M’
Selection
Context
Availability
M (man or machine) cannot perceive the entire content of the event
“E”. So M selects the interesting or needed content from the entire
event and filtering the others. The context occurs in the event
and Availability is based on ‘M’s attitude, mood, culture and personality.

(ii) Means and Controls dimension:
E2 is the event content which is drawn or artified by M. Here M
becomes the source of a message about E to send someone else. M
creates a statement or signals about the message and Gerbner termed
its Form and content as “SE2”. S (Signal or Form) it takes and E2 (Man’s
content). Here Content (E2) is structured or formed (S) by ‘M’ and it can
communicate in a different ways or based on the structured ways.
M has to use channels (or media) over to send the message which he
has a greater or lesser degree of control. The question of ‘control’
relates to M’s degree of skill in using communication channels. If using a
verbal channel, how good is he using words? If using the Internet, how
good is he at using new technology and words?

Berlo's S-M-C-R Model

Origin
•This model was first developed in 1960 by David Berlo, a theoretician
and founder of the communications department at Michigan State
University. It's used in television advertising, newspaper and magazine
ads, and even some types of social media.

•David Berlo full name David Kenneth Berlo was born in 1929 and died
in 1996 in St. Petersburg, Florida.
•He was a theoretician and founder of the Department of
Communication at Michigan State University. Devised a communication
model SMCR, which uses Shannon- Weaver model of communication.

•Communication is a complicated affair. Words seem to vanish into the
air and touch the listener’s ear. On one hand communication means to
talk meaningfully, whereas on the other hand, individual experience
depicts that people get easily confused about the kind of
communication that occurs in the real world.
•It is a fact that a few people are unable to answer meaningfully to
questions put to them. In such a situation it is not possible to
understand each others actions as well.
•A few factors are required to be considered when understanding the
basic communication model. In a communication process there must be
a sender, a receiver and a message. It is called the SMR model.

•While the Aristotle model of communication puts the speaker in the
central position and suggests that the speaker is the one who drives the
entire communication, the Berlo’s model of communication takes into
account the emotional aspect of the message. Berlo’s model of
communication operates on the SMCR model.

•The sender-message-channel-receiver (SMCR) model of
communication, sometimes called the Berlo model, is the most basic
form of communication we engage in today. It's really less of a ''model,''
and more of an identification of the parts of communication as a whole.
•The SMCR model relies on four key elements:
1. Sender - This is the person who originates the message
2. Message - The content that is being communicated
3. Channel - The medium being used to transmit the message
4. Receiver - The person who the message is directed toward

Attitudes – This includes attitudes towards the audience, subject and towards oneself.
For example, for the student, the attitude is to learn more and for teachers, it is to
help teach.
Knowledge– Communicating also means that the person needs to be knowledgeable
about the subject or topic. For e.g. a teacher needs to know about the subject in detail
that he or she teaches so that they can communicate properly such that the students
understand here.
Social system – The social system includes the various aspects of society like values,
beliefs, culture, religion and a general understanding of society. It is where the
communication takes place.
For example, classrooms differ from country to country just like people’s behaviors and
how they communicate, etc.
Culture: Culture of a particular society also comes under the social system.
According to this model, people can communicate only if the above requirements are
met in the proper or adequate proportion.
Sender:

Message:
Content – The body of a message, from the beginning to the end, comprises its
content. For example, whatever the class teacher teaches in the class, from beginning
to end, is the content of the message.
Elements – It includes various things like language, gestures, body language, etc. They
constitute all the elements of a particular message. Any content is accompanied by
some elements.
Treatment – It refers to the packing of the message and the way in which the message
is conveyed or the way in which it is passed on or delivered.
Structure– The structure of the message refers to how it is arranged; the way people
structure the message into various parts.
Code– The code of the message refers to the means through which it is sent and in
what form. It could be, for example, language, body language, gestures, music, etc.
Even culture is a code. Through this, people give and receive messages and
communication takes place.

Channel:
Hearing: The use of ears to receive the message. For example, orally transmitted
messages, interpersonal communication etc.
Seeing: Visual channels, for example, Watching television so the message is conveyed
through the scene/film.
Touching: The sense of touch can be used as a channel to communicate. For example,
we touch, buy food, hugging our loved ones, etc.
Smelling: Smell also can be a channel to communicate. For example, perfumes, food,
fragrances etc. Charred smell communicates something is burning. People can deduct
which food is being cooked by its smell etc.
Tasting : The tongue is a muscular organ used in the act of eat and taste food. For
example, while a food is being shared, the communication can happen regarding its
taste.
Note: Despite not mentioning a medium, we need to assume that as communication is
taking place, channels can be any of the 5 senses or combination.

•The receiver needs to think all the contents and elements of the source, so as to
communicate/responds to sender effectively. Berlo’s model believes that for effective
communication to take place, the source and the receiver need to be on the same
level. Only then communication will happen or take place properly. Hence, the source
and the receiver should be similar.
•For example, if the communication skill of the source is good, then the receiver
should have equally good listening skills.
It cannot be said that the receiver does not receive the whole message because even
though he may receive it, but may not be able to interpret its meaning. For effective
communication, the source and the receiver need to be on the same level.
Receiver:

Theories of Mass Communication

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