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- 1. VACCINES FOR COVID-19 Project work submitted for partial fulfilment of the degree in B. Sc. (ZOOLOGY HONOURS) BY ANANYA PUHAN REGD No.- UG-7104/2020 EXAM ROLL NO.- 59R0020003 CLASS ROLL NO.- BS-20-068 RAMA DEVI WOMENâS UNIVERSITY VIDYA VIHAR BHUBANESWAR, ODISHA
- 2. CERTIFICATE This is to certify that the project work entitled âVaccines for corona virusâ submitted to Rama Devi Womenâs University, Bhubaneswar in partial fulfilment for the award of degree of Bachelor of science in Zoology, is a record bonified project work successfully carried by Miss Ananya Puhan (Exam roll no. 59R0020003) under my supervision at Rama Devi Womenâs University, Bhubaneswar, Odisha. No part of this project work has been submitted to any other university for the award of any other degree or diploma. The assistance and help received during this investigation have been duly acknowledged. Dr. Prakash Chandra Parichha (HOD, Department of Zoology) Rama Devi Womenâs University Vidya Vihar, Bhubaneswar,22, Odisha.
- 3. CERTIFICATE This is to certify that the project work entitled âVaccines for corona virusâ submitted to Rama Devi Womenâs University, Bhubaneswar in partial fulfilment for the award of degree of Bachelor of science in Zoology, is a record bonified project work successfully carried by Miss Ananya Puhan (Exam roll no. 59R0020003) under my supervision at Rama Devi Womenâs University, Bhubaneswar, Odisha. No part of this project work has been submitted to any other university for the award of any other degree or diploma. The assistance and help received during this investigation have been duly acknowledged. Ms. Sushree Barnamita (Department of Zoology) Rama Devi Womenâs University Vidya Vihar, Bhubaneswar,22, Odisha
- 4. DECLARATION I do hereby declare that the report entitled âVACCINES FOR COVID-19â Department of Zoology,BBSR,Odisha in partial fulfilment of requirements for the award of B.Sc. Degree in zoology is an authentic work carried out by me during 2023.The work reported in this project has not been submitted to this university or any other university or institute for the award of B.Sc.Degree. NAME : ANANYA PUHAN UNIVERSITY ROLL NO.- BS20-068 DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY RAMA DEVI WOMENâS UNIVERSITY BHUBANESWAR Studentâs signature Teacherâs signature
- 5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT This report through it goes in my name owes its obligation both expresses and implied to name others those valuable contribution and guidance has shown me the path of light. With great sincerity, I acknowledge my deep sense of gratitude for their encouragement and valuable suggestion for preparing this report. My sincere and whole hearted thank to the teachers of zoology department for their constant aspiration and advice for preparing this report. Without their help , this could not have been possible. I am also thankful to my classmates as we had worked cooperatively and my friends too who helped me directly or indirectly for the success of this entire dissertation work. Last but not the least I would like to thank my parents and family for their financial and moral support without which I would not have reached to this end. NAME : ANANYA PUHAN DATE: UNIVERSITY ROLL NO.- BS20-068 DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY RAMA DEVI WOMENâS UNIVERSITY, BHUBANESWAR
- 6. CONTENTS 1. Introduction 2. Review of literature 3. Objective 4. Different types of vaccines developed worldwide 5. Indiaâs contribution towards the pandemic 6. Comparison between vaccines 7. Measures to be taken against Covid 19 8. Conclusion 9. Bibliography
- 7. INTRODUCTION The Coronavirus has infected millions of people so far all over the world. In addition to that, millions of people have lost their lives to it. Ever since the outbreak, researchers all over the world have been working constantly to develop vaccines that will work effectively against the virus. We will take a look at the Coronavirus vaccine that is present today. Vaccines have the ability to save peopleâs lives. Developing the vaccine for Coronavirus was a huge step to end the pandemic. As of December 2020, there are over 200 vaccine candidates for COVID-19 being developed. Of these, at least 52 candidate vaccines are in human trials. As per the traditional methods, vaccines have managed to do this as they introduce a weakened form of an infectious agent. It enables our immune system to basically build its memory. As a result, our immune system can then identify it quickly and fight against it before it gets the chance to harm us or make us ill. Similarly, some of the coronavirus vaccines have been made like that. On the other hand, there are other coronavirus vaccines that researchers have developed bymaking use of new approaches. We refer to them as messenger RNA or mRNA vaccines. While the vaccines are being developed at a fast pace, they also require rigorous testing. The tests are done in clinical trials to ensure that they meet the benchmarks for the safety and efficiency of international standards.
- 8. CORONA VIRUS Coronavirus, any virus belonging to the family Coronaviridae. Coronaviridae is generally considered to contain two genera, Coronavirus and Torovirus, which differ in nucleocapsid morphology, the former being helical and the latter being tubular. In humans, a species known as SARS coronavirus (or Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus) or SARS-CoV-2 causes a highly contagious respiratory disease that is characterized by symptoms of fever, cough, and muscle ache, often with progressive difficulty in breathing. The coronavirus genome consists of a single strand of positive-sense RNA (ribonucleic acid). Structure 1.RNA â A single stranded genetic blueprint. RNA acts as a molecular messenger enabling production of other elements of the virus. It is about 30 Kilobase long strand. 2.Nucleoproteins âBound to RNA, these proteins help give the virus its structure and enable it to replicate 3.Viral envelope- A waxy barrier containing fat molecules. It protects the virus outside of a host cell and anchors structure needed to infect a cell. 4.Envelope proteins- Embedded in viral envelope, these proteins aid in the assembly of new particles once it has affected a cell
- 9. 5.Spike proteins- These projections give the virus its crown like appearance and the âcoronaâ moniker. They act as grappling hooks, allowing the virus to latch onto host cells and crack them open for infection. Preliminary drugs Expected against corona virus were drugs used against HIV targeting protease enzyme of HIV. This is because corona virus express a number of proteases in their replication cycles. So it was thought to be treated with HIV protease inhibitors. Another drug used was of nucleoside analog that is used against most RNA virus. In this method small bases gets incorporated into growing strands of new RNA thatâs being synthesised by the virus. Either it terminates the chain or make mistake. But this was not effective against corona virus as it does its own proof reading activity.
- 10. REVIEW OF LITERATURE âThe global COVID-19 vaccination rollout is the biggest and fastest in history but many of those at greatest risk remain unprotected â only 28% of older people and 37% of health care workers in low-income countries have received their primary course of vaccines and most have not received booster doses.Health care workers, over 60s and other at-risk groups must be reached as priorities on the way to reaching the 70% coverage target. WHOâs strategy update elevates the targets of vaccinating 100% of health care workers and 100% of the highest risk populations with both primary and booster doses, with the aim of reducing deaths, keeping societies open and ensuring economies function as transmission continues.While vaccines have saved countless lives, they have not substantially reduced the spread of COVID-19. Innovation is needed to develop new vaccines that substantially reduce transmission, are easier to administer and give broader and longer-lasting protection.â WHO âThis outbreak reminds us of how valuable vaccines are. It shows us that when there is a vaccine available for a disease, we should keep our children and ourselves up to date with that vaccination. Without the protection of vaccines, diseases can spread quickly and with terrible consequences. For example, measles and other diseases remain a constant risk. We are so fortunate to have the protection of vaccines against these diseases. Vaccines help train our immune system to fight infections by introducing an inactivated form of a germ (bacteria or virus) into the body.â. Unicef âWe already have a number of partnerships in India, and we are eager to deepen them, both government and private -- be it ICMR, DBT or Serum Institute, and other partners. We are excited about the opportunities that India has through G20 to play an important leadership roleâ. CEPI chief and report by Hidustan Times
- 11. OBJECTIVE The vaccination strategy required to efficiently achieve each goal is then described in detail. ⢠Reduction of pressure on the healthcare system; ⢠Reduction of overall COVID-19 severity and mortality; ⢠Re-opening of society; ⢠Disease elimination 1.Reduction of pressure on the healthcare system - Surveillance data shows that up to 90% of deaths and 80% of hospitalisations have occurred in older adults and persons with underlying conditions. 2.Re-opening of society -Once vaccine supplies are readily available, the goal of re-opening society by lifting non-pharmaceutical interventions will become realistic. The vaccination strategies employed to achieve this goal will need to facilitate a substantial reduction, not only in COVID-19 hospitalisations and mortality, but also in the overall morbidity caused by COVID-19. 3.Disease elimination- In a COVID-19 vaccination elimination strategy, the main focus would shift from protection of the most vulnerable groups to the targeting of the groups that have the highest level of contact with others, including young people and children. The strategy is dependent on the vaccines offering a high level of efficacy against onward transmission.
- 12. DIFFERENT TYPES OF VACCINES DEVELOPED AstraZeneca The AstraZeneca COVID-19 vaccine, now called Vaxzevria , is a viral vector vaccine, just like the Johnson & Johnson vaccine. It uses a chimpanzee adenovirus to carry spike proteins from the coronavirus into your body to create an immune response. How does it work? The AstraZeneca vaccine uses a common cold-causing chimpanzee adenovirus, or a vector, to transport some of the spike protein in DNA to your cells. Your cells then take that DNA and convert it into the spike protein of the virus. This is what the virus uses to enter cells and cause an infection. Your cells set up an immune response. Instead of making the virus, they create its outer shell. This is because actual coronaviruses are made up of single-strand RNA, not the DNA in the vaccine. So you do not actually get an infection with the disease .The vaccine is given in two doses Trusted Source, with a suggested gap of 8 to 12 weeks between doses. Fig- 2. Mechanism of AstraZeneca vaccine
- 13. How is it different from other vaccines? While Moderna and Pfizer are based on mRNA, the AstraZeneca vaccine is a viral vector vaccine. This means it uses a different mechanism to create an immune response. The second dose is also given at a longer interval, instead of the 3- to 4-week suggested interval with the others. Efficacy A pooled analysis of four large studies found that in groups that received two standard doses of the AstraZeneca vaccine, the overall efficacy was 70.4%. Benefits of the AstraZeneca COVID-19 vaccine- 1.Itâs easy to produce quickly and in large volumes. 2.Itâs fairly inexpensive. 3.It can be kept in a regular refrigerator. Disadvantages of the AstraZeneca COVID-19 vaccine 1.Itâs not available everywhere yet. 2.It may have an overall lower efficacy rate. 3.Individuals at higher risk of blood clots may not be able to take it. 4. Many patients suffered from blood clotting for which vaccination was paused in united states and several other countries.
- 15. Sputnik V Sputnik V, officially known as Gam-COVID-Vac, is an adenovirus-based vaccine created by the Gamaleya National Centre of Epidemiology and Microbiology. Sputnik V uses a modified version of two different adenoviruses to create immunity against SARS-CoV-2, the virus that causes COVID-19. Adenoviruses cause respiratory, flu-like illnesses, and there are over 60 types. Similar to other vaccines such as Pfizer, Sputnik V is administered in two doses, given 21 days apart. According to results from 2021 clinical trials, Sputnik V is up to 91.8 percent Trusted Source effective in preventing COVID-19. How does it work? When the SARS-CoV-2 virus enters the body, it attaches to human cells using proteins called spike proteins on its outer surface. After binding to the cell via these spike proteins, the virus can then change its structure and enter the cell. Once SARS-CoV-2 is inside the cell, it begins to reproduce. Sputnik V is a vaccine that contains two different adenovirus vectors, known as rAd26 and rAd5, which have been modified to contain the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein .When the vaccine enters the body, the adenovirus vectors within the vaccine enter the cells and recreate the spike protein found on the SARS-CoV-2 virus. As soon as the cell recognizes this foreign spike protein, the immune system kicks in and begins to make antibodies against the virus. After vaccination, the body will have built a natural immunity to SARS-CoV-2 without ever having encountered the virus. In turn, this helps the cells more easily recognize and protect against future infection from the real virus.
- 16. Fig 5. Mechanism of Sputnik V How is it different from other vaccines?
- 17. Sputnik V is a combined vector vaccine Trusted Source, which means it uses inactivated viruses called vectors. These vectors recreate the necessary SARS-CoV-2 spike proteins to produce an immune system response. Unlike other types of vaccines Trusted Source, such as those that use inactivated viruses, Sputnik V does not contain any form of the SARS-CoV-2 virus. Instead, it relies on DNA from another modified virus to give the cells enough information to produce natural immunity via antibodies and other immune cells. Efficacy Most efficient in india , Sputnik V has an efficacy of about 91.8% Pros of the Sputnik V COVID-19 vaccine 1.Sputnik V clinical trials have shown that the tolerability of the vaccine matches other vector vaccines that have been produced. 2.Sputnik V can be produced in a freeze-dried formulation, which means that the vaccine can be transported without requiring constant refrigeration. 3.While there are some concerns about antibody levels after full vaccination, the efficacy is similar to other COVID-19 vector vaccines on the market. Cons of the Sputnik V COVID-19 vaccine 1.Some scientists are concerned that the variability of antibody and T-cell levels in trials may make it difficult to figure out how effective Sputnik V actually is. 2.Some researchers are concerned that previous immune system response to the adenoviruses within the vaccine may affect vaccine efficacy. 3.There have also been some concerns about the transparency within clinical trials and the standards of quality surrounding Sputnik V.
- 18. Fig 6.-Sputnik V vaccine
- 19. Pfizer- BioNTech The PfizerâBioNTech COVID-19 vaccine, is an mRNA-based COVID-19 vaccine developed by the German biotechnology company BioNTech. The vaccine is given by intramuscular injection. It is composed of nucleoside-modified mRNA (modRNA) encoding a mutated form of the full-length spike protein of SARS-CoV-2, which is encapsulated in lipid nanoparticles. The Pfizer vaccine requires two doses and works by providing your body with instructions on how to make the spike protein unique to this coronavirus. Your immune system processes this information and then builds an immune response, including antibodies. Efficacy The vaccine has shown to have a high efficacy rate after a single dose, up to 95% How does it work? Fig-6. Mechanism of Pfizer-BioNTech The vaccine uses messenger RNA, genetic material that our cells read to make proteins. The molecule called mRNA for short is fragile and would be chopped to pieces by our natural enzymes if it were injected directly into the body. To protect their vaccine, Pfizer and BioNTech wrap the mRNA in oily bubbles made of lipid nanoparticles.
- 20. After injection, the vaccine particles bump into cells and fuse to them, releasing mRNA. The cellâs molecules read its sequence and build spike proteins. The cell presents fragments of the spike protein on its surface. When other cells called helper T cells detect these fragments, the helper T cells can raise the alarm and help marshal other immune cells to fight the infection. Fig-7. Pfizer- BioNTech
- 21. Moderna The Moderna COVID-19 vaccine is a COVID-19 vaccine developed by American company Moderna, the United States National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID), and the Biomedical Advanced Research and âDevelopment Authority. It is designed to be administered as two or three 0.5 mL doses given by intramuscular injection at an interval of at least 28 days apart. It is an mRNA vaccine composed of nucleoside-modified mRNA (modRNA) encoding a spike protein of SARS-CoV-2, which is encapsulated in lipid nanoparticles. Efficacy Evidence of vaccine efficacy starts about two weeks after the first dose. High efficacy is achieved with full immunization, two weeks after the second dose, and was evaluated at 94.1% How does it work? Its mechanism is similar to that of Pfizer vaccine. Fig-8. Mechanism of Moderna vaccine
- 22. INDIAâS CONTRIBUTION TOWARDS PANDEMIC Currently, three Indian pharma companies in partnership with foreign or domestic research institutes are expediting the trials of vaccine. there was Serum Institute of India), Bharat Biotech, Biological E â there were multiple home-grown successes in India. The biggest benefit that India has is that it has a robust immunization program in place and it is also implementing the largest immunization program of the world, with nearly 27 million newborns targeted annually "PPEs, N95 masks, oxygen, ventilators and diagnostic tests kits were developed at a jet pace to ensure self-sufficiency. Medical infrastructure saw an exponential growth, from having one lab in March, 2020 to around 2,000 laboratories as on date with nearly half of the labs from the private sector. The same is true for dedicated ICU facilities and isolation centers. AarogyaSetu app and ITIHAS, a cellular-based tracking technology has been used for surveillance and identification of potential clusters, RT-PCR app for testing, facility application for managing information on admitted patients and all have been integrated with a single COVID portal. Following vaccines are approved by india 1.COVISHEID Deployed under the name âCovishield,â this vaccine was developed by Oxford-AstraZeneca and manufactured locally by the Serum Institute of India. The Covishield vaccine is made using a weakened adenovirus (a common cold virus) taken from chimpanzees. Scientists have then modified that virus to look more like a coronavirus. While it canât cause illnesses in a patient, it makes their immune system start producing antibodies to attack any coronavirus infection. It is administered in two doses between four and 12 weeks apart. Clinical trials of the Oxford- AstraZeneca vaccine showed an efficacy of 76% after the first dose, which increased to 81.3% after the second dose. In total, phase III trials of the vaccine showed a 79% efficacy at preventing COVID-19 symptoms, and 100% efficacy at preventing severe disease and hospitalization.
- 23. Common side effects include headache, fatigue, muscle or joint pain, fever, chills, and nausea. Fig-9. Covishield 2.Covaxin The Covaxin vaccine was developed by Bharat Biotech in collaboration with the Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) and India's National Institute of Virology. It is made using inactivated coronaviruses that are safe to be injected into patients. The deadly virus is recognized by the immune system, which begins to make antibodies against the coronavirus. Covaxin is given in two doses, four weeks apart. In March 2021, preliminary data from its phase III trial showed that the vaccine has an efficacy rate of 81%. Possible side effects include pain, swelling, itching, fever, rashes, overall weakness, nausea, vomiting, and in rare cases, difficulty in breathing and swelling of the throat and face.
- 24. Fig 10. Covaxin
- 25. COMPARISON BETWEEN VACCINES Fig-11. Comparison between vaccines
- 26. MEASURES TO BE TAKEN 1. Wash your hands frequently with soap and water or thoroughly clean your hands with an alcohol-based hand rub. Washing your hands with soap and water for around 20 seconds or using alcohol-based hand rub kills viruses. 2. Maintain at least 1 metre (3 feet) distance between yourself and anyone who is coughing or sneezing. This is advisable because when someone coughs or sneezes they spray small liquid droplets from their nose or mouth which may contain virus. 3. Avoid touching eyes, nose and mouth because hands touch many surfaces and can pick up viruses. Once contaminated, hands can transfer the virus to your eyes, nose or mouth and the virus can enter your body from there too. 4. Practice respiratory hygiene and ensure that the people around you follow good respiratory hygiene. You can do this by covering your mouth and nose with your bent elbow or tissue when you cough or sneeze. 5. If you have fever, cough and difficulty breathing, seek medical care early and stay home if you feel unwell. Follow the directions of your local health authority as it will allow your health care provider to quickly direct you to the right health facility. 6. Clean and disinfect frequently touched surfaces like tables, doorknobs, light switches, handles, desks, computers, phones, keyboards, sinks, toilets and countertops daily. 7. Wear a facemask if you are sick and also when you are around other people (e.g., sharing a room or vehicle). 8. Keep in mind the travel advisory set out by the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare.
- 27. Fig 12- Measures taken at individual level to prevent covid 19
- 28. CONCLUSION ďˇ Vaccination has to a great extend saved people from getting worse health condition. ďˇ Even though the direct level of threat from COVID-19 has reduced (for some people), there is still concern about the longer term harm and disruption that COVID-19 has caused to people and communities, and worry about the threat of future waves of infection. ďˇ Mechanism of working of vaccines, its affects, comparison and a number of specific suggestions are required for the people to understand the importance of vaccines. For example, support for key workers, creating safer public environments, wide- scale financial support, greater awareness around the experiences of those who are at higher risk to COVID-19 and putting in place robust processes for learning and reflection on the impact of the pandemic. ďˇ Corona virus mutates rapidly so its information varues from time to time. ďˇ Besides taking vaccines people should be careful and take necessary precautions to reduce transmission of disease. ďˇ We can only hope a reduction in the number of patients as the permanent solution is yet to come into light ďˇ Vaccination being the ultimate saviour for the current scenario should be religiously taken by people.
- 30. THE END