1. abhijit mitra marine science calcutta university

How to Study Stored
Carbon in Mangroves
A START UP
fold
BLACK
CSIR-NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE COMMUNICATION
AND INFORMATION RESOURCES
New Delhi
MANUALAbhijit Mitra
J. Sundaresan
FINAL Title Page
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HOW TO STUDY STORED CARBON IN MANGROVES: A START UP MANUAL
Preface
Thebiomassandproductivityofmangroveforestshavebeenstudiedmainlyintermsofwoodproduction,
forestconservation,andecosystemmanagement(PutzandChan,1986;Tamaietal.,1986;Komiyamaet
al., 1987; Clough and Scott, 1989; McKee, 1995; Ong et al., 1995). The contemporary understanding
of the global warming phenomenon, however, has generated interest in the carbon-storing ability of
mangroves. Carbon sequestration in this unique producer community is a direct function of biomass
production capacity, which in turn depends upon interaction between edaphic, climatic, and topographic
factors of the area. Hence, results obtained at one place may not be applicable to another. Therefore
regionbasedpotentialofdifferentlandtypesandforestsneedtobeworkedout.Carbonregistriestypically
segregateanumberofcarbonpoolswithinamangroveforeststhatcanbeidentifiedandquantified.These
carbonpoolsarecategorizedinavarietyofways,buttypicallyincludefourmajorcomponents,namelythe
abovegroundbiomass,belowgroundbiomass,litter,andsoilcarbon.Themangroveecosystemisunique
in terms of carbon dynamics as the litters and detritus contributed by the floral species are exported to
adjacent water bodies in every tidal cycle.
The present handbook is a guide to estimate the biomass and carbon stock in major compartments of
mangrove system, which can be worked out in the field by lay man without the use of any sophisticated
instrument.
Thismanualistheoutputoftheprogrammeentitled“Vulnerabilityassessmentanddevelopmentofadaptation
strategies for climate change impact with special reference to coasts and Island ecosystems of India
(VACCIN)..”, whose main essence is to develop capacity to improve governance of coastal regimes and
islandsofIndiaduetoclimatechangeimpact.VACCINProjectissupportedbyCouncilofScientificand
IndustrialResearch,MinistryofScience&Technology,GovernmentofIndia.
The entire exercise of writing this manual would not have been possible without the active support of
Lakshadweep administration (particularly Dept. of Environment and Forests, U. T of Lakshadweep), as
theembryonicdevelopmentofthisstartupmanualwasinitiatedinthemidstofKadmathislandduringthe
meeting of the Principal Investigators ofVACCIN Project, during 10-14 March 2016.
Abhijit Mitra
J. Sundaresan
ix

xi
CONTENTS
1. Importantterminologies 1
2. Mangroves:Anoverview 3
3. Distributionofmangroves 4
4. Ecosystemservicesofmangroves 6
5. Importanceofmangrovebiomassestimation 9
6. Mangrovebiomassestimation:Afieldlevelapproach 10
7. Carbonstockestimationinmangroveforest 17
8. Worksheet for mangrove biomass and stored carbon estimation 20
9. Carbon score card of mangroves 23
10. Stored carbon potential series in mangroves and associate flora 31
11. References 37

1. Important terminologies
i) Biomass–Itistheweightoflivingmaterialataparticularinstantoftime.Bydefinition,itisthetotal
amount of live and inert organic matter above and below ground and is expressed in tonnes of dry
matter per unit area.
ii) Litter–Plantlitter(sometimescalledtotallitterortreelitter)isdeadplantmaterial,suchasleaves,
bark and twigs, that has fallen to the ground. Litter provides habitat to small animals, fungi and
plants,andthematerialmaybeusedtoconstructnests.Aslitterdecomposes,nutrientsarereleased
totheenvironment.Theportionofthelitterthatisnotreadilydecomposableisknownas“humus”.
iii) Detritus –In biology, detritus is non-living particulate organic matter (as opposed to dissolved
organic matter). It includes the bodies or fragments of dead organisms as well as faecal material.
Detritus is typically colonized by communities of microorganisms which act to decompose (or
remineralize)thematerial.
iv) Diameter at breast height (DBH) – This has traditionally been the “sweet spot” on a tree
where measurements are taken and a multitude of calculation are made to determine things like
growth, volume, yield and forest potential. Tree DBH is outside bark diameter at breast height.
Breast height is defined as 4.5 ft (1.37 m) above the forest floor on the uphill side of the tree. For
the purpose of determining the breast height, the forest floor includes the duff layer that may be
present, but does not include unincorporated woody debris above the ground line. It is measured
by a diameter tape or tree caliper.
v) Above ground biomass (AGB) – The term actually denotes the upper part of the plant that is
exposed above the soil.AGB component includes leaves, living branches, dead branches, flower,
fruit, bark and wood. The value ofAGB is an indicator of plant vigour and health.
vi) Below ground biomass (BGB) – BGB refers to the root system of the plant that is found below
the soil. In case of mangroves the BGB is expected to be more than terrestrial plants.
Pneumatophores are also part of BGB in case of mangroves.
vii) Carbon stock – It is the reservoir of carbon in various forms. Natural stocks include oceans,
fossil fuel deposits, the terrestrial systems, and the atmosphere. In the terrestrial system, carbon is
sequestered in rocks, forests and soils, in swamps, wetlands, grasslands, and agricultural lands.
viii) Sink and source –Astock or reservoir that takes up or absorbs carbon is called a “sink,” and
one that releases or emits carbon is called a “source.” Shifts or flows of carbon from one stock to
another, for example, from the atmosphere to the forest (as happens during photosynthesis), or
from industrial units to atmosphere (as occurs during emission) are referred to as carbon “fluxes.”
ix) Carbon sequestration - It is the extraction of the atmospheric carbon dioxide and its storage in
the producer community of the ecosystems for a long period of time – many thousands of years.
Forests offer considerable potential to act as a sink, that is, to promote net carbon sequestration.
x) Carbon credit – It is the key component of national and international attempts/strategies to
mitigate the growth in concentrations of Green House Gases (GHG’s). Carbon trading is an
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application of emission trading approach. GHG emissions are capped and then markets are used
to allocate the emissions among the group of regulated sources. The idea is to allow market
mechanisms to drive industrial and commercial processes in the direction of low emission or less
carbon intensive approaches. The carbon offsetters (companies that sell carbon credits) purchase
the credits from an investment fund or a carbon development company that has aggregated the
credits from individual projects. The quality of the credit is based on the validation process and
sophistication of the fund or development company that acted as the sponsor to the carbon
project.
xi) Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) – The CDM allows net global GHG emissions to be
reducedatamuchlowerglobalcostbyfinancingemissionsreductionprojectindevelopingcountries
wherecostsarelowerthaninindustrializedcountries.ItwasanarrangementunderKyotoProtocol
allowingindustrializedcountrieswithGHGreductioncommitmenttoinvestinprojectsthatreduce
emission in developing countries as an alternative to more expensive emission reduction in their
owncountries.
xii) Age of a tree (for a forest/site) –It is basically the mean age of the trees comprising a forest, crop
or stand. In forests, the mean age of dominant trees are considered. The dominant trees (species)
areidentifiedbyevaluatingtherelativeabundanceofeachspeciesintheforest.Theplantationageis
generally considered from the year the plantation was done, without adding the age of the nursery
stock.
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2. Mangroves:An overview
ThetermmangrovehasoriginatedfromthePortugueseword‘Mangue’,whichmeansthecommunityand
the English word ‘Grove’,whichmeanstreesorbushes.AccordingtoMephamandMepham(1984),the
term“mangrove”hasbeeninconsistentandconfusinginthepast.Mangrovesarebasicallytheevergreen
sclerophyllous, broad-leaved trees with aerial root like pnuematophore or stilt root and viviparously
germinatedseedlings(UNESCO,1973).Theygrowalongprotectedsedimentaryshoresspeciallyintidal
lagoons, embayments and estuaries (Macnae, 1968). They also can grow far inland, but never isolated
fromthesea.Theseemergent,evergreencanopiesarefoundalongthesedimentaryshoresofbothtropical
and sub-tropical regions in association with intertidal flora and fauna commonly known as mangrove
ecosystemandthecommunityofthesemangroves(includingmicroandmacro-organisms)wastermedby
Macnae (1968) as Mangal. The mangal is therefore a broad domain encompassing the entire biotic
communitycomprisingofindividualplantspecies,associatedmicrobes(likebacteriaandfungi),andanimals.
The mangal and its associated abiotic factors constitute the mangrove ecosystem, which is a unique
ecosystem of the globe.
LearandTurner(1977)expressedtheword‘mangrove’ofcoastalecosysteminaholisticmanner,including
itscommonhabitatorinhabitingspecies.About60–75%oftropicalcoastlineisfringedwithmangroves
(Reimold and Queen, 1974). Duke (1992) defined mangroves as “….Atree, shrub, palm and ground
fern,generallyexceedingonehalfmeterinheightandwhichnormallygrowsabovemeansealevelinthe
intertidalzoneofmarinecoastalenvironmentsorestuarinemargins….”.Thisdefinitionisacceptableexcept
that ground ferns should be considered as mangrove associates rather than true mangroves.
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3. Distribution of mangroves
Mangrovesarecircumtropicalindistribution.Thisforestcommunityoccupiesapproximately75%ofthe
total tropical coastline. Northern extension of this coastline occurs in Japan (310
22/
N) and Bermuda
(320
20/
N), whereas, southern extensions are in New Zealand (380
03/
S),Australia (380
45/
S) and on the
eastcoastofSouthAfrica(320
59/
S).Globally,mangrovesaredistributedin112countriesandterritories.
It is interesting to note that mangrove plants are not native to the Hawaiian Islands - 6 species have been
introducedtheresincetheyear1900.Thetotalglobalcoverageofmangroveshasbeenvariouslyestimated
as 14-15 million hectares (Schwamborn and Saint-Paul, 1996), 10 million hectares (Bunt, 1992) and 24
millionhectares(Twilleyetal.,1992).ThemajormangroverichcountriesinIndianOceanregionarelisted
inTable 1.
TABLE 1
Country Mangrove Area (in Km2
)
Indonesia 42,500
Myanmar 6,950
Malaysia 6,410
India 4,871
NW Australia 4,513
Bangladesh 4,500
Madagascar 4,200
Mozambique 4,000
Pakistan 2,600
Thailand 1,900
India’s distribution of mangrove forests comprises the western and eastern coasts of India. From the
statistical point of view, the eastern coast of India possesses about 70% of the total Indian mangroves,
whereas, the western coast supports only 12%.The remaining 18% is concentrated inAndaman Nicobar
Islandsofourcountry.
The East coast of the Indian sub-continent supports the following mangrove sectors:
1. TheGangeticSundarbansinWestBengal
2. MahanadimangrovesinOrissa
3. The Godavari and the Krishna mangrove forests inAndhra Pradesh
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4. TheCauverymangrovesinTamilNadu
5. Mangroves ofAndaman and Nicobar Islands.
On the other hand, mangroves of the West coast of India include the following zones:
1. Backwatersystems:Veli(acoastallagoonnearThiruvanathapuram,Kerala)
2. Mangroves of Gujarat coast
3. Mangroves of Maharashtra coast: “The Sewri Mangrove Park”, which was declared as protected
area by the Bombay PortTrust on January 15, 1996. (This park consists of 15 acres of mangroves
inthemudflatsbetweenSewriandTrombay)
4. MangrovesofGoaregion(coveringsevenestuarineareasofwhichtheMandoviandZuariandthe
inter-connecting Cambarjua canal harbour occupy about 75% of the mangroves of this region)
5. Mangroves of Karnataka coast.
Thestate-wisedistributionofmangrovesinIndiaispresentedinTable2.
TABLE 2
Distribution of mangrove forests along the East and West coasts of India
State/UT Very Dense Moderately Open Total
Mangrove Dense Mangrove area
(in km2
) Mangrove (in km2
) (in km2
)
(in km2
)
Andhra Pradesh 0 15 314 329
Goa 0 14 2 16
Gujarat 0 195 741 936
Karnataka 0 3 0 3
Kerala 0 3 5 8
Maharashtra 58 100 158
Orissa 0 156 47 203
Tamil Nadu 0 18 17 35
West Bengal 892 895 331 2118
Andaman & Nicobar 255 272 110 637
Daman & Diu 0 0 1 1
Pondicherry 0 0 1 1
Total 1147 1629 1669 4445
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4. Ecosystem services of mangroves
The mangrove ecosystem forms the backbone of coastal economy in certain pockets of the globe for its
variousbenefitstocoastalpopulation.Themultipleecological,economicandaestheticbenefitsofferedby
thisluxuriantecosystemarepointedhereinbrief.
1. Themangrovevegetationsandtheirassociatesareeconomicallyveryimportantfortheirproductslike
timber,fire-wood,honey,wax,alcohol,tanninsetc.
2. Mangroves are thought to possess the ability to control coastal water quality.The complexity of the
mangrove forest habitat increases the residence time, which assists in the assimilation of inorganic
nutrients and traps suspended particulate matter.
3. The mangroves also function as flood control barrier and binder of sediment particles (http://
www.fao.org/gpa/sediments/habitat.htm). Mangrove associate species like Ipomoea pes-caprae,
Porteresiacoarctatastabilizetheislandbyintricatelybindingthesedimentparticles.Thisfeatureof
mangrovesisveryimportantincontexttoclimatechangeinducedsealevelrise.
4. Theecosystemformsanidealecologicalassetbecausetheproductionofleaflitteranddetritusmatter
frommangroveplantsfulfillthenutritionalrequirementsofprawnjuveniles,adultshrimps,molluscs
and fishes of high economic value. It is for this reason mangrove ecosystem is recognized as the
world’smostpotentialnursery.
5. Thevibratingmangroveecosystemprovidesnutritionalinputstoadjacentshallowchannelsandbay
system that constitute the primary habitat of a large number of aquatic species, algae of commercial
importance, seaweeds, phytoplankton etc.
6. Mangrovesandmangrovehabitatscontributesignificantlytotheglobalcarbon cycle.Twilleyetal.
(1992) estimated the total global mangrove biomass to be approximately 8.70 gigatons dry weight
(which is equivalent to 4.00 gigatons of carbon).Accurate biomass estimation however needs the
measurementofthevolumesofindividualtrees.Thusmangrovesarevitalcarbonsinkinthecoastal
ecosystem.Mangrovedestructioncanreleaselargequantitiesofstoredcarbonandexacerbateglobal
warming trends, while mangrove rehabilitation will increase sequestering of carbon (Kauppi et al.,
2001; Ramsar Secretariat, 2001; Chmura et al., 2003).
7. The highly specialized mangrove ecosystem also acts as the protector of the coastal landmass from
stormsurges,tropicalcyclone,highwinds,tidalbores,seawaterseepageandintrusion.Largenumbers
of references are available in context to tsunami of 26th
December, 2004 suggesting that mangroves
both dissipated the force of the tsunami and caught the debris washed up by it, and thus helped to
reduce damage (IUCN, 2005).
8. Bioaccumulationofheavymetalsbycertainmangrovespeciesrevealsamostsurprisingfeatureabout
theseplantsastheycanactasbio-purifierorbio-filter.Fewspeciesofmangrovesarehighlyefficient
indetectingorassessingthechangeofambientenvironment.Theconcentrationofheavymetalpollutants
indifferentpartsofmangroveplantsmayactasapathfinderforwaterqualitymonitoringprogramme.
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9. Mangrovesfiltergroundwaterandstormwaterrun-offthatoftencontainharmfulpesticides,herbicides
and hydrocarbons. Mangroves also recharge underground water table by collecting rain water and
slowlyreleasingitintotheundergroundreservoir.
10. Mangrove prop roots protect and offer habitat for mammals, amphibians, reptiles, countless unique
plants, juvenile fish and invertebrates that filter water such as sponges, barnacles, oysters, mussels,
crabs, shrimps etc.
11. Mangroves are ideal nesting grounds for many water birds such as the great white heron, reddish
egrets,roseatespoonbills,white-crownedpigeons,cuckoosandfrigatebirds.Theexcretorymaterials
of these birds (rich in phosphorus) serve as the fertilizers of the adjacent water bodies on which the
primary production of the aquatic phase depends.
12. Mangroveforestsarethehousingcomplexesforbees,birds,mammalsandreptilesfromwhichhoney,
wax, food etc. are obtained.
13. The molluscan species in the mangrove ecosystem (like oysters, gastropods,etc.) are the sources of
lime.
14. Mangrove leaves are used as fodder and green manure. The cyanobacterial strains present on the
forestfloorofmangroveecosystemareimportantsourcesofbiofertilizer.
15. Extractsfrommangroveandmangrovedependentspecieshaveprovenactivityagainstsomeanimal
andplantpathogens.Moreover,mangroveextractskilllarvaeofthemosquitoese.g.,apyrethrinlike
compoundinstiltrootsofRhizophoraapiculatashowsstrongmosquitolarvicidalactivity(Thangam,
1990).
16. Bioactivecompound(ecteinascidin)extractedfromthemangroveascidianEcteinascidiaturbinata
have shown strong in vivo activity against a variety of cancer cells.
17. PhenolsandflavonoidsinmangrovesleavesserveasUV-screeningcompounds.Hence,mangroves
can tolerate solar UVradiation and create a UV-free, under-canopy environment (Moorthy, 1995).
18. Barkof Ceriopssp.isanexcellentsourceoftanninandadecoctionofitisusedtostophaemorrhage
and as an application to malignant ulcers. Flowers of this plant are a rich source of honey and bee
wax.
19. Mangrove ecosystem affords recreation to hunters, fishermen, bird-watchers, photographers and
others who treasure natural areas. However, the intrusive actions of noisy jet-skis, campers and
others,whichdisturbnestingandbreedingareas,chopdownmangrovesandotherwisedamagethis
fragileenvironment,threatenitsexistence.Therecenttrendofexpandingshrimpcultureactivityatthe
expenseofmangrovesisanothermajorthreattomangrovebiodiversity.
20. Mangroves can adapt to sea level rise if it occurs slowly enough (Ellison and Stoddart, 1991), if
adequateexpansionspaceexistsandiftheambientenvironmentalconditionsarecongenialfortheir
survivalandgrowth.Theyhavespecialaerialroots,supportingroots,andbuttressestoliveinmuddy,
shifting, and saline conditions. Mangroves may adapt to changes in sea level by growing upward in
place, or by expanding landward or seaward. This property of mangroves is known as resilience.
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Mangrovevegetationcanexpandtheirrangedespitesealevelriseiftherateofsedimentaccretionis
sufficienttokeepupwithsealevelrise.However,theirabilitytomigratelandwardorseawardisalso
determinedbylocalconditions,suchasinfrastructure(e.g.,roads,agriculturalfields,dikes,urbanization,
seawalls, and shipping channels) and topography (e.g., steep slopes). If inland migration or growth
cannotoccurfastenoughtoaccountfortheriseinsealevel,thenmangroveswillbecomeprogressively
smaller with each successive generation and may perish (UNEP 1994). The mangrove vegetation
bandwidthisthusdirectlyproportionaltotheirmigrationrate.
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5. Importance of mangrove biomass estimation
Biomassisdefinedas“thetotalamountofliveorganicmatterandinertorganicmatteraboveandbelowthe
ground and is usually expressed as tonnes of dry matter per unit area”. The biomass of a mangrove tree
(irrespective of species) is the sum of the biomass of its roots, pneumatophores, trunk, branches, leaves,
andreproductiveorganslikeflowersandfruits.Detailedestimationsofbiomassofmangrovespeciesare
extremelyimportantinthepresenteraduetofollowingreasons:
1. Biomassestimationprovidesdirectpictureofcommercialviabilityofmangrovespeciesintermsof
timber, wood, honey, wax etc.
2. Biomassofmangrovesprovidesinformationontheirprimaryproductioncapacity.
3. Thedetrituscontributedbythemangrovevegetationnotonlynourishestheadjacentwaterbodiesand
promotes fisheries, but also act as the foundation of detritus food chain in the inter-tidal zone. The
detritusarenothingbutcontributorycomponentsofleaves,branches,fruits,andflowersofmangroves.
4. Biomassofmangrovesexertsaregulatoryinfluenceoncoastalcarboncyclebywayofsequestering
(locking)ordischarging(throughdetritusintheadjacentwaterbodies)carbon.
5. Accurate estimations of mangrove biomass in different salinity zones are necessary for carbon
accounting.Theimpactofenvironmentalvariables(particularlysalinity)onmangrovegrowthisreflected
throughbiomassstudyofmangrovesgrowingindifferentenvironmentalconditions.
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6. Mangrove biomass estimation:Afield level approach
There are four main phases of mangrove biomass estimation.They are:Above Ground Biomass (AGB)
estimation,BelowGroundBiomass(BGB)estimation,forestfloor(detritusandlitter)biomassestimation
and soil mass estimation.After the mass of each compartment is assessed, carbon is estimated in each of
thesecompartments,whosesummationwillyieldthetotalcarbonintonnesperhectareinthesystem.
STEP1:Above ground (foliage, stem, branches) biomass estimation
STEP 2: Below ground (root system) biomass estimation
STEP 3: Forest litter (fallen leaves, twigs, branches, flowers, fruits etc.) biomass estimation
STEP 4 : Soil mass estimation
Each of the above steps is discussed separately:
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Fig. 1.Asimple device to
measure tree height
Fig. 2. Measurement of DBH
STEP1:Above ground (foliage, stem, branches) biomass estimation
[A]Above ground stem biomass estimation:
Theabovegroundstembiomassofindividualtreesofeachspeciesintheexperimentalplot(usually10m
×10 m) is estimated using non-destructive method in which the diameter at the breast height (DBH) is
measuredwithacaliper(oratailor’stape)andheightwithRavi’smultimeterortheodolyte.Formfactoris
determined as per the expression outlined by Koul and Panwar (2008)with Spiegel relascope to find out
the tree volume (V) using the standard formula given by Pressler (1995) and Bitterlich(1984). Specific
gravity(G)isestimatedtakingthestemcores,whichisfurtherconvertedintostembiomass(BS
)asperthe
expression BS
= GV.The expression for Vis Ïr2
HF, where F is the form factor, r is the radius of the tree
derived from its DBH and H is the height of the target tree.
Precautions for girth measurement
• If the tree is branched below breast height (1.3 m), the girth must be taken for individual branches,
and must be noted separately.
• All branches with a girth above 10 cm are taken into account.
• If the tree is at an incline, stand in the upper slope while taking the girth.
• IfthetreebranchesatDBH,thenmeasurethegirthslightlybelowtheswell.
[B]Above ground branch biomass estimation
The total number of branches irrespective of size is counted on each of the sample trees. These branches
are categorized on the basis of basal diameter into three groups, viz. <5cm, 5–10 cm and >10 cm. Fresh
11

weight of two branches from each size group is recorded separately.Total branch biomass (dry weight)
per sample tree is determined as per the expression:
Bdb
= n1
bw1
+ n2
bw2
+ n3
bw3
= Ó ni
bwi
where, Bdb
is the dry branch biomass per tree, ni
the number of branches in the ith branch group, bwi
the
average weight of branches in the ith group and i = 1, 2, 3, . . .the branch groups.
[C]Above ground leaf biomass estimation
Leaves from ten branches (of all the three size groups) of individual trees of each species are removed.
Two/three trees of each species per plot may be considered for estimation.The leaves are weighed and
oven dried separately (species-wise) to a constant weight at 80 ± 50
C. The species-wise leaf biomass is
thenestimatedbymultiplyingtheaveragebiomassoftheleavesperbranchwiththenumberofbranchesin
a single tree and the average number of trees per plot as per the expression:
Ldb
= n1
Lw1
N1
+ n2
Lw2
N2
+ ……….n5
Lw5
N5
Where, Ldb
is the dry leaf biomass of dominant mangrove species per plot, ni
….n5
are the number of
branchesofeachtreeoffivedominantspecies,Lw1
…...Lw5
aretheaveragedryweightofleavesremoved
from ten branches of each of the five species and N1
to N5
are the average number of trees per species in
theplot.
Note: Here only 5 dominant species have been considered on the basis of relative abundance, and so the
expression ended with subscript 5.
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STEP 2: Below ground (root system) biomass estimation
Severalmethodsexisttomeasurerootbiomassdirectly.Theseareessentiallydestructivemethodsthatare
usedformeasurementsrequiredinecologicalandagronomicresearch.Theyare:
• Excavationmethod
• Auger core method
• Monolithmethod
TheWinrockInternationalInstituteofAgriculture(MacDicken,1997)reportsthattheaugercoresampling
and the monolith methods of measurement of roots are economically more feasible than excavation.
Therefore, these two methods are described briefly.
The soil auger core method uses a cylindrical tube 15 cm in length and 7-10 cm in diameter, with an
extensionofabout1m.Itremovesordisplacesaknownvolumeofsoilfromasoilprofileofknowndepth.
A core of 50-80 mm in diameter is considered sufficient. The auger corer can be inserted manually or
mechanically.Manualinsertionoftheaugercorerisnotveryfeasiblefordepthsgreaterthan50cmorfor
clayeystonysoils.Insandydrysoils,asmalldiametercoremaybenecessaryinordertoreducesoillosses
whileextractingthecore.Instonysoils,andparticularlywheremanywoodyrootsarepresent,coringmay
not be possible. In these circumstances, it may be more practical to take a known volume of soil through
a monolith taken from the face of a cut or cross section of soil corresponding to a cut, trench, and hole or
naturally occurring gully in the landscape. Ideally, the sample of the profile should be to the limit of the
depthoftherootsystem.Rootintensitychangeswithsoildepth,butthespatialvariabilityofrootintensity
istypicallyhigh.However,thelimitsofthesamplecanbebasedoninitialobservationsofthewallsofthe
soil profile. In some cases, the sample can be based on an exponential model that relates root distribution
tothemassofthemainstemoftheroot.Thisfunctioncouldbeusedtoextrapolaterootdensityinthesoil
samples.As far as possible, soils must be sampled to a minimum depth of 30 cm.
Important steps to measure root biomass are (1)Wash them immediately after extraction from the cores.
The core samples can be stored in polyethylene bags in a refrigerator for a few days or in a freezer until
examination and processing (2) Dry weight must be verified by weighing of dry biomass or by loss-of-
ignition methods. The texture, the structure, degree of compaction and the organic matter content have
greatinfluenceontheprecisionandtimerequiredtoextracttherootsfromthecores(3)Theextractionof
roots from the cores (which is a function of structure, degree of compaction and organic matter content)
involvesasieveorstrainerof0.3-0.5mmmesh.Theworkcanbesimplifiedbyasuperficialwashingand
bycombiningstrainerswith1.1and0.3mmmesh.Thefirststrainerwillcontainmostroots,thesecondwill
contain the rest (4)Thematerialtakenfromthestrainerscanalsobemixedwithwaterandthesuspended
material may be poured off (live roots of most species have specific gravity near to 1.0). The remainder
can be classified manually in a container under water (to remove fragments of organic matter and dead
roots).
Thefinerootsareasmallbutimportantpartofthesystemfortheassimilationofwaterandnutrients.This
functional distinction helps in classifying the root systems according to size. The class limits need to fall
between 1 and 2 mm of root diameter. Roots larger than 10 mm in diameter are not sampled by the soil
corer. For herbaceous perennial vegetation, roots can be separated into classes of greater than and less
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than2mm.Inmixedvegetation,theseparationofrootsofdifferentspeciesisdifficult.
Remark: Sampling in homogenous soils may not capture the spatial variability of root density, which is
claimedtohaveweightvariationcoefficientscommonlyinexcessof40percent.Inheterogenoussoils,the
variationcoefficientcanbemuchhigher.Thisvariabilityimpliesthatmanysamplesarerequiredinorderto
estimatetheweightofrootsandthebelowgroundbiomasscomponent.Itisadvisabletoobtainexperimental
informationfromoneortwositesonthenatureofspatialvariationofbothsoilsandrootdistribution,where
available.
The monolith method requires cutting a monolith of the soil, from which the roots are separated by
washing.Thismethodisfrequentlyusedforquantitativedeterminationsofroots.Smallmonolithscanbe
sampledwithsimpletoolssuchasashovel.However,thesourceofmachineryisrequiredfortheexcavation
of a trench front to be sampled.
Thesizeofthemonolithvariesdependingonthespeciesofplantbeinginvestigated.Generally,thevolume
of a monolith varies between 1 and 50 dm3
. The samples of the monolith can be obtained with a board of
stainless steel pins nailed in wood. The size of the pin board is determined by the type of pins, based on
previousobservationsofdepthanddistributionofrooting.Thesoilcollectedwiththepinboardisheavy(a
sample of a block of 100 cm × 50 cm × 10 cm of soil can weigh almost 100 kg.)The soil is washed away,
exposingtherootsforobservation.Ifroughsoilfragmentsareshowninthemeshbeforeputtingtheboard
intheground,itwillbeofhelptomaintaintherootsintheoriginallocationwhilethesampleiswashed.The
washingofthesamplecanbefacilitatedthroughcoldwatersoakingforclayeysoilsandsoakinginoxalic
acid for calcareous soils. Washed root samples can be stored in polyethylene bags for a short time in a
refrigerator, but preferably they should be stored in a freezer.The samples are dried for 5 hours at 1050
C
in an oven. The results can be expressed in dry matter per unit of volume of soil.
14

Fig. 3. Litter constitute the forest floor
STEP 3: Forest litter (fallen leaves, twigs, branches, flowers, fruits etc.) biomass estimation
Litterfallisdeterminedbysettingrectangulartrapsintheselectedplots.Thetrapsaremadeof1mmmesh
size nylon screen, through which rainwater can pass (Brown and Lugo, 1984). The traps are positioned
above the high tide level (Jeffrie and Tokuyama, 1998) and contents of all the traps are collected and
brought to the laboratory after duration of one month. The collected materials are segregated into leaves
and miscellaneous fractions (comprised of twigs, stipules, flowers, fruits etc.) where they are dried to a
constant weight at 80 ± 50
C. Finally the mean weight per plot is estimated and transformed into tonnes
ha-1
y-1
or gm.m-2
day-1
unit.
15

STEP 4: Soil mass estimation
The soil mass of a particular site or area can be analyzed through a very crude and simple approach. For
thisthevolumeofthesoilistobeestimated.Depthisthereforeanimportantparameterforknowingthesoil
mass.As mass of soil is the product of its volume and density, therefore density may be determined by
scooping 1cm3
of the soil from different portions (at random) of the site and weighing the oven dried
samples. The mean of all these masses will give a rough idea of density of the soil for the particular area.
Finally the mass of soil for a particular depth can be estimated by the expression:
ms
= l x b x d x D
Where
ms
= mass of the soil
l=lengthofthestudysite
b= breath of the study site
d= depth up to which the mass needs to be estimated
D= mean density of soil of the area.
16

Fig. 4.Aview of CHN analyzer
7. Carbon stock estimation in mangrove forest
Carbon estimation in plant biomass
Carbonestimationinproducercommunityhasbecomeveryimportantnow-a-daysparticularlytoknow
the role of species in CDM. The sequestered carbon in the species can be evaluated by analyzing the
carboncontentofthespeciesattwodifferentages.Twocommonmethodsareusedtoestimatethecarbon
inplantbiomass.
Method 1
In this method, the stem, branch, and leaf biomass for each species are dried at 800
C and converted into
carbon by multiplying with a factor of 0.50 (Brown 1986; Montagnini and Porras 1998; Losi et al2003)
or 0.45 (Whittaker and Likens 1973;Woomer 1999).Any field worker can carry out this job without the
helpofanysophisticatedinstrument.
Method 2
DirectestimationofpercentcarbonisdonebyaCHNanalyzer.Forthisaportionoffreshsampleofstem,
branch and leaf from of individual species are oven dried at 700
C, randomly mixed and ground to pass
through a 0.5 mm screen (1.0 mm screen for leaves). The carbon content (in %) is finally analyzed on
CHNanalyzer.Forlitter,thesameproceduremaybefollowedafterovendryingthenetcollectionat70ºC.
17

TheCHNanalyzerusesacombustionmethodtoconvertthesampleelementstosimplegases(CO2
,H2
O,
andN2
).ThedriedandgroundsampleisfirstoxidizedusingclassicalreagentslikeSilverVanadate,Silver
Tungstate,andEA-1000,whichismixtureofchromeandnickeloxides.Productsproducedinthecombustion
zoneincludeCO2
,H2
O,andN2
.Elementssuchashalogensandsulfurareremovedbyscrubbingagentsin
thecombustionzone.Theresultinggasesarehomogenizedandcontrolledtoexactconditionsofpressure,
temperature, and volume. The homogenized gases are allowed to de-pressurize through a column where
they are separated in a stepwise steady-state manner and quantified as a function of their thermal
conductivities.
Chemical method of estimating organic carbon in soil
Soilsamplesfromtheupper5cmarecollectedfromalltheselectedplotsanddriedat600
Cfor48hrs.For
analysis,visibleplantparticlesarehandpickedandremovedfromthesoil.Aftersievingthesoilthrougha
2mmsieve,thesamplesofthebulksoil(50gmfromeachplot)aregroundfinelyinaball–mill.Thefine
dried sample is randomly mixed to get a representative picture of the study site. Modified version of
Walkley and Black method (1934) can then be followed (as depicted in the flow chart) to determine the
organic carbon of the soil in %.
18

Walkley and Black (1934) method
1 gm of dried soil is taken in a conical flask
1ml of phosphoric acid (H3
PO4
) and 1 ml of distilled water are added
The mixture is heated for 10 min at 100 to 1100
C.
10 ml 1N potassium dichromate (K2
Cr2
O7
) and 20 ml concentrated sulphuric acid (H2
SO4
) with
silver sulphate (Ag2
SO4
) are added and mixed
Allowedthemixturetostandfor30minutes
The mixture is diluted to 200 ml with distilled water and 10 ml of phosphoric acid (H3
PO4
) and 1ml
ofindicator(diphenylamine)areadded
Thecolourofthemixturechangestobluishpurple
The mixture is titrated with Mohr salt solution [(NH4
)2
Fe(SO4
)2
.6 H2
O] until the colour of the
solutionchangestobrilliantgreen
Thesametitrationisrepeatedwithouttakingsoilandthevolumeofthepotassiumdichromate
requiredtooxidizeorganiccarboniscalculatedfromthedifference.
Calculation:
% of carbon = 3.951 x (1- S/B)
g
where,g=weightofsampleingrams
B=Mohrsaltsolutionforblank
S = Mohr salt solution for sample
Flow chart of Walkley and Black (1934) method
19

Select the plots (10 m × 10 m) and fix the coordinates
through GPS; for associate species the dimension is
usually 1.0 m × 1.0 m
Evaluatetherelativeabundanceofspeciesintheplots
toidentifythedominantspecies
Estimate theAGB (stems, branches and leaves), and
BGB (root system), litter biomass and sum up to
evaluatecarbonstockinthemangroveflora(intonnes/
ha);incaseofassociatespeciestheunitisgm/sq.meter
Estimate the organic carbon in the soil (0.5 to 1 m
depth) and evaluate the carbon stock per hectare
AddthecarbonstockinAGB,BGB,Litterandsoilto
get the carbon stock per hectare in the system for a
particularyear
Repeat the same estimation for the same plots in the
next year and get the difference in carbon stock. This
gives the sequestration of carbon per year by the
mangroveforest/standunderstudy
8. Worksheet formangrove biomass and stored carbon estimation
Flow chart for biomass-carbon stock assessment in mangroves
20

Table A
Relative abundance of tree species (mean of 15 plots) in the study area
Species No./100m2
Relative abundance (%)
Sp.1
Sp.2
Sp.3
Sp.4
Sp.5
Sp.6
Table B
Field data sheet
Species Height [r] F value Volume Specific Stem Carbon Carbon
[H] (in m) =V/SH [FHËR2
] gravity [G] Biomass (%) (in kg/tree)
(in m) (in m3
) (in kg/m3
) [BS
]
(in kg)
Sp.1
Sp.2
Sp.3
Sp.4
Sp.5
Sp.6
H = Height of the tree; r = Radius at breast height; V= Volume of the tree; S = Surface area
at the base; G = Specific gravity
AGB = Stem Biomass + Branch Biomass + Leaf Biomass
Format for field level data acquisition
21

Table C
Above ground biomass (t/ha) of dominant plant species
Vegetative part Sp.1 Sp.2 Sp.3 Sp.4 Sp.5 Sp.6
Stem
Branch
Leaf
Total (AGB)
Table D
Above ground carbon stock (t/ha) of dominant plant species
Vegetative part Sp.1 Sp.2 Sp.3 Sp.4 Sp.5 Sp.6
Stem
Branch
Leaf
Total (AGB)
22

Species Identifying Character AGB AGC
(t ha-1
) (t ha-1
)
1. Shrub like with prominent stilt roots,
usually found in sheltered mangrove
areas commonly thrive on the
supralittoral zone.
2. Leaves lanceolate with serrated 9.66 – 4.46 –
margins armed with spines. 12.85a
5.94a
3. Flowers with long spike inflorescence,
light blue or violet in colour.
1. Shrub distributed in high saline areas,
bark reddish brown with leaves
elliptical, leaf-tip notched, cuneate
at base.
2. Fruit green to reddish in maturation, 23.20 - 10.93 –
sharply curved. 106.11a
49.98a
3. Fragrant white flowers, curved yellow
or pinkish fruits in clusters.
1. Trees are tolerant to high salinity,
pneumatophores spongy, narrowly
pointed with lender stilt roots.
2. Bark dark brown or even black. 61.29 – 28.75 –
3. Leaves lanceolate to elliptical, leaf-tip 403.86a
189.41a
acute, lower surface silver grey to
white; curved fruit with relatively
long beak.
Scientific name: Avicennia alba
Common name: Kalo baen
D = 592 kgm-3
Scientific name: Acanthus ilicifolius
Commonname:Hargoja
D = 340 kgm-3
Scientific name: Aegiceros corniculatum
Commonname:Khalsi
D = 552 kgm-3
9. Carbon score card of mangroves
23

(t ha-1
) (t ha-1
)
1. Trees are tolerant to high salinity, 51.22 – 24.23 –
pneumatophores pencil like. 302.83a
143.24a
2. Bark yellowish brown. Leaves
elliptical, leaf-tip rolling, lower 45.55 – 21.64 –
surface white to light grey. 209.32b
99.43b
3. Inflorescence terminal or axillary,
orange yellow in colour.
pneumatophores pencil like.
2. Bark yellowish brown. Leaves 56.95 – 27.11 –
elliptical, leaf-tip roundish, obtuse 315.45a
150.01a
apex, lower surface white
to light grey.
3. Inflorescence terminal or axillary,
orange yellow in colour.
1. Trees are with long, corky, forked
pneumatophores and stem light
brown in colour.
2. Leaves thick, coriaceous, narrowly 37.42 – 16.88 –
elliptic oblong tapering towards apex. 219.45a
98.98a
3. Flowers are cream coloured in
axilliary cymes with globose berry
seated in flattened calyx tube.Scientific name: Sonneratia apetala
Common name: Keora
D = 561 kgm-3
Scientific name: Avicennia marina
Common name: Piara baen
D = 652 kgm-3
Scientific name: Avicennia
officinalis
Common name: Sada baen
D = 586 kgm-3
24

(t ha-1
) (t ha-1
)
Scientific name: Ceriops decandra
Common name: Goran
D = 885 kgm-3
Scientific name: Bruguiera
gymnorrhiza
Common name: Kankra
D = 728 kgm-3
Scientific name: Aegialitis
rotundifolia
Common name: Tora
D = 460 kgm-3
1. Trees generally found on elevated
interior parts of mangrove forest
with prominent buttress roots.
2. Bark dark grey. Leaves simple, 17.84 – 8.60 –
elliptical-oblong, leathery and 23.71a
11.43a
leaf-tip acuminate.
3. Flowers axillary, single with red
calyx, red in colour and almost
16 lobed; fruits are cigar shaped,
stout and dark green.
straight conical stem base enlarged
with numerous stilt roots.
2. Bark brown and smooth. Leaves 13.45 – 6.44 –
sub-orbicular or ovate with long 33.46a
17.46a
petiole. Leathery, fleshy, dense
towards the end of shoot, bluntly
pointed.
3. Flowers axillary panicle and fruit
elongated with plumular cap.
1. Stilt roots arising from pyramidal
stem base.
2. Light grey barked stem. Leaves
elliptic-oblong, emarginated at 17.80 – 8.15 –
apex, cuneate at base. 105.91a
48.51a
3. Flowers axillary in condensed
cymes; fruit is berry, dark red when
mature, warty towards tip, ridged,
not hanging down.
25

(t ha-1
) (t ha-1
)
1. Prominent main root absent, many
laterally spreading snake like roots 12.06 – 5.58 –
producing elbo-shaped pegs. 183.76a
85.08a
Bark grayish.
2. Poisonous milky latex highly
irritating to eyes. Leaves light
green with wavy margin.
3. Catkin inflorescence terminal 9.98 – 4.64 –
or axillary, orange yellow. 130.65b
60.8b
1. Trees with numerous peg-like
pneumatophores and bind root
suckers.
2. Young branches covered with
shining golden-brown scales. 5.33 – 2.38 –
Leaves elliptic with lower surface 6.02a
2.69a
shining with silvery scales.
3. Flowers golden yellow with
reddish tinge inside and fruits
sub-globose, woody, indehiscent
with longitudinal and transverse ridges.
1. Palm tree like appearance with no
aerial roots.
2. Leaves lanceolate, palm leaves
arising from root stock, leaf tip 7.19 – 3.03 –
acute. 9.34a
3.94a
3. Flowers female in globose head,
males in catkin-like red to yellow;
fruit dark brown or brick red, globose,
pericarp fleshy, fibrous.
Scientific name: Nypa fruiticans
Common name: Golpata
D = 332 kgm-3
Scientific name: Excoecaria
agallocha
Common name: Genwa
D = 730 kgm-3
Scientific name: Heritiera fomes
Common name: Sundari
D = 692 kgm-3
26

(t ha-1
) (t ha-1
)
1. Palm tree like appearance with no
aerial roots, generates found on hard
muddy soil of mangrove swamps.
2. Leaves held in crown above the 43.05 – 18.04 –
trunk, petiole armed with hard 91.98a
38.54a
spines.
3. Flowers dioecious, yellowish white,
trimerous spadices arising in
between leaves; Spathes about
30 cm long, enclosing the flowers;
fruit drupe, oblong, 1 seeded,
shining black when ripe.
1. Trees with prominent stilt roots.
2. Leaves narrowly elliptical, leathery
midrib, lower leaf surface yellowish 43.02 – 19.88 –
green with black dots scattered. 76.85a
35.50a
3. Flowers in 2 cymes on stout
peduncle; fruit viviparous with
cotyledonary collar, red when mature
and about 30 cm long.
1. Pnuematophores completely absent.
Bark yellowish white, peeling off
as papery flakes.
2. Leaflets bijugate or unijugate, 57.13 – 26.17 –
obovate, rounded apex and tapering 115.32a
52.82a
base.
3. White flowers with reddish gland
within; large fruit with pyramidal
seeds.
Scientific name: Xylocarpus
granatum
Common name: Dhundul
D = 688 kgm-3
Scientific name: Phoenix paludosa
Common name: Hental
D = 345 kgm-3
Scientific name: Kandelia candel
Common name: Garjan
D = 522 kgm-3
27

(t ha-1
) (t ha-1
)
Scientific name: Xylocarpus
mekongenesis
Common name: Pasur
D = 730 kgm-3
1. Presence of blind suckers and
plank like roots.
2. Bark is pale greenish or yellowish
with alternate, elliptical to obovate, 23.65 – 10.95 –
rounded leaf tip and tapering 73.80a
34.17a
at base.
3. Flowers small, white, axillary;
fruits yellowish brown, small ball
shaped.
28

Mangrove associate species and coastal vegetation (unit: gmm-2
)
Scientific name: Acrostichum
aureum
Common name: Hudo (Mangrove
fern)
Scientific name: Scaevola
taccada
Common name: Beach cabbage
D = 435 kgm-3
1. Bushy shrubs that form rounded
mounds with height ranging
from 1 – 4 m.
2. Young stems are soft and fleshy. - -
3. Multi-stemmed shrub with green
elliptic, alternately arranged
succulent and waxy leaves.
1. Erect terrestrial fern, about
1.5 m tall growing in degraded
mangrove areas, stipes woody,
glabrous arising from woody
rhizome. 1389 - 543.09 –
2. Leaves unipinnate, linear-oblong, 2695a
1053.75a
red when young, leaf tip blunt.
3. Sori-densely present on
undersurface of leaves.
(t ha-1
) (t ha-1
)
29

AGB andAGC of true mangroves have been expressed intonnes per hectare (t ha-1
)
AGB andAGC of mangrove associate species and other coastal vegetation have in expressed in grams per
square meter (gmm-2
)
a
stands for Indian Sundarbans; b
stands for Bahuda estuary in Odisha; c
implies Mandovi estuary; Goa;
d
stands for Kalapet coast in Puducherry and e
represents Kadmath island in Lakshadweep
(t ha-1
) (t ha-1
)
1. Erect, grassy appearances mostly
remain inundated.
2. Leaf blades are narrowly linear 186.9 – 58.3 –
and leathery. 262.8a
82.0a
3. Below ground biomass extends to
a large distance.
98.7 – 32.8 –
173.7c
57.7c
1. Herbaceous vines that creep along 61.8 – 19.1 –
the ground. 140.3a
43.4a
2. Stems creep along the beach to a 89.3 – 29.8 –
length of 75 feet. 163.0c
54.4c
3. Leaves are smooth, to some extent 102.2 – 36.7 –
waxy with two distinct lobes. 192.4d
69.1d
116.9 – 42.2 –
221.4e
79.9e
1. Stout, rigid, grass with thorny edge.
2. Leaves are long (10-15 cm) 109.69 – 34.1 –
and margins spinulose-serrulate. 196.40e
61.1e
3. Presence of long, underground or
superficial stolons.
Scientific name: Spinifex littoreus
Common name: Ravan’s moustache
Scientific name: Porteresia coarctata
Common name: Dhani ghas
Scientific name: Ipomoea pes-caprae
Common name: Goat’s foot
30

10. Stored carbon potential series in mangroves and associate flora
The selected species under blue carbon have pronounced variation in carbon sequestration potential which
are arranged here in descending order.
31

32

33

34

35

36

11. References consulted
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term ‘mangrove’. South African Jr. Bot. 51, 75-99.
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38

List of Contributors
Location Name Designation
Indian Sundarbans Dr. Abhijit Mitra Faculty Member, Department of
(Data for true Marine Science, University of Calcutta
mangrove species)
Dr. Tanmay Ray Chaudhuri, IPS Researcher, Department of
Oceanography, Techno India University,
Salt Lake, Kolkata 700091, W.B.
Dr. Kakoli Banerjee Assistant Professor, School of
Biodiversity & Conservation of Natural
Resources, Central University of Orissa,
Landiguda, Koraput, Orissa 764 021
Dr. Sufia Zaman Adjunct Professor, Department of
Mr. Prosenjit Pramanick Senior Research Fellow, Department of
Ms. Upasana Dutta Junior Research Fellow, Department of
Ms. Nabonita Pal Junior Research Fellow, Department of
Ms. Ankita Mitra Student, Department of Ecology and
Environmental Science, School of Life
Science, Pondicherry Central University,
Kalapet, Puducherry – 605014, India
Indian Sundarbans Dr. Abhijit Mitra Faculty Member, Department of Marine
(Data for mangrove Science, University of Calcutta
associate species)
Dr. Somaiah Sundarapandian Assistant Professor (Stage III),
Department of Ecology and
Subhra Bikash Bhattachayya Aquaculturist, ICAR-Central Institute of
Brackish Water Aquaculture (CIBA),
Kakdwip-743 347, W.B.
39

Harekrishna Jana Faculty Member, Department of
Microbiology, Panskura Banamali
College, Vidyasagar University, East
Midnapore – 721152
Dr. Sufia Zaman Adjunct Professor, Department of
Mr. Prosenjit Pramanick Senior Research Fellow, Department of
Ms. Upasana Dutta Junior Research Fellow, Department of
Ms. Nabonita Pal Junior Research Fellow, Department of
Science, Pondicherry Central University
Bhitarkanika Dr.Kakoli Banerjee Assistant Professor, School of
mangrove (Odisha) Biodiversity & Conservation of Natural
Resources, Central University of Orissa,
Landiguda, Koraput, Orissa 764 021
Mandovi Dr. Subhadra Devi Gadi Associate Professor, Department of
mangrove (Goa) Zoology, Carmel College ofArts, Science
nad Commerce for Women, NUVEM,
Salcete, Goa – 403604
Dr. Abhijit Mitra Faculty Member, Department of Marine
Science, University of Calcutta
Mr. Preshit G.Priolkar Project Fellow, Department of Zoology,
Carmel College of Arts, Science nad
Commerce for Women, NUVEM,
Salcete, Goa – 403604
Kalapet coast Dr. Somaiah Sundarapandian Assistant Professor (Stage-III),
(Puducherry) Department of Ecology and
Environmental Science,
School of Life Science, Pondicherry
Central University, Kalapet,
Puducherry– 605014, India
40

Kadmath Island Dr. J. Sundaresan Head-Climate Change Informatics, CSIR-
(Lakhsadweep) NISCAIR
Mr. Mutum Ibomcha Singh Project Assistant –II, VACCIN, CSIR-
NISCAIR, Pusa Campus, New Delhi
Dr. K. Syed Ali Environment Warden, Dept. of
Environment and Forests, U. T of
Lakshadweep, Kiltan Island - 682 558
41

1. abhijit mitra marine science calcutta university

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1. abhijit mitra marine science calcutta university