This document provides an overview of neoplasia (tumors), including definitions, nomenclature used to classify tumors, the biology of tumor growth, epidemiology, and the molecular basis of cancer and carcinogenesis. It discusses the natural history of malignant tumors, differentiation in tumors, tumor growth rates, features that distinguish benign from malignant tumors, predisposing factors for cancer development, and the molecular basis of cancer formation through genetic changes that result in oncogene activation and tumor suppressor gene inactivation during the multistep process of carcinogenesis.
2. NEOPLASIA (TUMORS)NEOPLASIA (TUMORS)
DefinitionsDefinitions
NomenclatureNomenclature
Biology of Tumor GrowthBiology of Tumor Growth
EpidemiologyEpidemiology
Molecular Basis of CancerMolecular Basis of Cancer
Molecular Basis of CarcinogenesisMolecular Basis of Carcinogenesis
Agents (The Usual Suspects)Agents (The Usual Suspects)
Host Defense (Tumor Immunity)Host Defense (Tumor Immunity)
Clinical Features of TumorsClinical Features of Tumors
3. Defnition of NeoplasiaDefnition of Neoplasia
“A neoplasm is an abnormal mass of tissue, the
growth of which exceeds and is
uncoordinated with that of the normal tissues
and persists in the same excessive manner
after cessation of the stimuli which evoked
the change” - Willis
Genetic changes
Autonomous
Clonal
4. Nomenclature – Benign TumorsNomenclature – Benign Tumors
-oma = benign neoplasm (-oma = benign neoplasm (NOTNOT carcin-, sarc-, lymph-,carcin-, sarc-, lymph-,
or melan-)or melan-)
Mesenchymal tumors (mesodermal derived)Mesenchymal tumors (mesodermal derived)
chrondroma: cartilaginous tumorchrondroma: cartilaginous tumor
fibroma: fibrous tumorfibroma: fibrous tumor
osteoma: bone tumorosteoma: bone tumor
Epithelial tumor (ecto- or endo- derived)Epithelial tumor (ecto- or endo- derived)
adenoma: tumor forming glandsadenoma: tumor forming glands
papilloma: tumor with finger like projectionspapilloma: tumor with finger like projections
papillary cystadenoma: papillary and cystic tumor formingpapillary cystadenoma: papillary and cystic tumor forming
glandsglands
polyp: a “tumor” that projects above a mucosal surfacepolyp: a “tumor” that projects above a mucosal surface
8. Nomenclature – Malignant TumorsNomenclature – Malignant Tumors
Sarcomas: mesenchymal tumorSarcomas: mesenchymal tumor
chrondrosarcoma: cartilaginous tumorchrondrosarcoma: cartilaginous tumor
fibrosarcoma: fibrous tumorfibrosarcoma: fibrous tumor
osteosarcoma: bone tumorosteosarcoma: bone tumor
Carcinomas: epithelial tumorsCarcinomas: epithelial tumors
adenocarcinoma: gland forming tumoradenocarcinoma: gland forming tumor
squamous cell carcinoma: squamous differentiationsquamous cell carcinoma: squamous differentiation
undifferentiated carcinoma: no differentiationundifferentiated carcinoma: no differentiation
note: carcinomas can arise from ectoderm,note: carcinomas can arise from ectoderm,
endoderm, or less likely, mesodermendoderm, or less likely, mesoderm
9.
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13.
14. Tumors with mixed differentiationTumors with mixed differentiation
mixed tumors: e.g. pleomorphic adenoma of salivary glandmixed tumors: e.g. pleomorphic adenoma of salivary gland
carcinosarcomacarcinosarcoma
TeratomaTeratoma
tumor comprised of cells from more than one germ layertumor comprised of cells from more than one germ layer
arise from totipotent cells (usually gonads)arise from totipotent cells (usually gonads)
benign cystic teratoma of ovary is the most common teratomabenign cystic teratoma of ovary is the most common teratoma
Aberrant differentiation (not true neoplasms)Aberrant differentiation (not true neoplasms)
Hamartoma: disorganized mass of tissue whose cell types areHamartoma: disorganized mass of tissue whose cell types are
indiginous to the site of the lesion, e.g., lungindiginous to the site of the lesion, e.g., lung
Choriostoma: ectopic focus of normal tissue (heterotopia),Choriostoma: ectopic focus of normal tissue (heterotopia),
e.g., pancreas, perhaps endometriosis tooe.g., pancreas, perhaps endometriosis too
MisnomersMisnomers
hepatoma: malignant liver tumorhepatoma: malignant liver tumor
melanoma: malignant skin tumormelanoma: malignant skin tumor
seminoma: malignant testicular tumorseminoma: malignant testicular tumor
lymphoma: malignant tumor of lymphocyteslymphoma: malignant tumor of lymphocytes
18. Natural History Of Malignant TumorsNatural History Of Malignant Tumors
1.1. Malignant change in the targetMalignant change in the target
cell, referred to ascell, referred to as
transformationtransformation
2.2. Growth of the transformed cellsGrowth of the transformed cells
3.3. Local invasionLocal invasion
4.4. Distant metastases.Distant metastases.
19. DifferentiationDifferentiation
Well differentiated neoplasmWell differentiated neoplasm
Resembles mature cells of tissue of originResembles mature cells of tissue of origin
Poorly differentiated neoplasmPoorly differentiated neoplasm
Composed of primitive cells with littleComposed of primitive cells with little
differentiationdifferentiation
Undifferentiated or “anaplastic” tumorUndifferentiated or “anaplastic” tumor
Correlation with biologic behaviorCorrelation with biologic behavior
Benign tumors are well differentiatedBenign tumors are well differentiated
Poorly differentiated malignant tumors usuallyPoorly differentiated malignant tumors usually
have worse prognosis than well differentiatedhave worse prognosis than well differentiated
malignant tumors.malignant tumors.
20. If cells LOOK BAD, they are probably going to BEHAVE BAD
Looking “bad” means NOT looking like the cells they supposedly
arose from!
21. If cells LOOK GOOD, they are probably going to BEHAVE GOOD
Looking “good” means looking like the cells they supposedly arose from!
22.
23. ***Pleomorphism***Pleomorphism
SizeSize
shapeshape
Abnormal nuclear morphologyAbnormal nuclear morphology
***Hyperchromasia***Hyperchromasia
High nuclear cytoplasmic ratioHigh nuclear cytoplasmic ratio
Chromatin clumpingChromatin clumping
Prominent nucleoliProminent nucleoli
MitosesMitoses
Mitotic rateMitotic rate
Location of mitosesLocation of mitoses
Loss of polarityLoss of polarity
““ANAPLASIA” = CANCERANAPLASIA” = CANCER
24.
25. DysplasiaDysplasia Literally means abnormal growthLiterally means abnormal growth
Malignant transformation is a multistep processMalignant transformation is a multistep process
In dysplasia some but not all of the features ofIn dysplasia some but not all of the features of
malignancy are present, microscopicallymalignancy are present, microscopically
DysplasiaDysplasia maymay develop into malignancydevelop into malignancy
Uterine cervixUterine cervix
Colon polypsColon polyps
Graded as low-grade or high-grade, often promptingGraded as low-grade or high-grade, often prompting
different clinical decisionsdifferent clinical decisions
Dysplasia mayDysplasia may NOTNOT develop into malignancydevelop into malignancy
HIGH grade dysplasia often classified with CISHIGH grade dysplasia often classified with CIS
26.
27.
28. Tumor Growth RateTumor Growth Rate
Doubling time of tumor cellsDoubling time of tumor cells
Lengthens as tumor growsLengthens as tumor grows
30 doublings (1030 doublings (1099
cells) = 1 gcells) = 1 g (months to years)(months to years)
10 more doublings (1 kg) = lethal burden10 more doublings (1 kg) = lethal burden (“)(“)
Fraction of tumor cells in replicative poolFraction of tumor cells in replicative pool
May be only 20% even in rapidly growing tumorsMay be only 20% even in rapidly growing tumors
Tumor stem cellsTumor stem cells
Rate at which tumor cells are shed or lostRate at which tumor cells are shed or lost
ApoptosisApoptosis
MaturationMaturation
Implications for therapyImplications for therapy
31. Features of Malignant TumorsFeatures of Malignant Tumors
Cellular featuresCellular features
LocalLocal invasioninvasion
CapsuleCapsule
Basement membraneBasement membrane
MetastasisMetastasis
Unequivocal sign of malignancyUnequivocal sign of malignancy
Seeding of body cavitiesSeeding of body cavities
LymphaticLymphatic
HematogenousHematogenous
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39. Significance of Nodal MetsSignificance of Nodal Mets
Example of breast cancerExample of breast cancer
Halsted radical mastectomyHalsted radical mastectomy
Sentinel node biopsySentinel node biopsy
PrognosticPrognostic
Number of involved nodes is an importantNumber of involved nodes is an important
component of TNM staging systemcomponent of TNM staging system
TherapeuticTherapeutic
Overall risk of recurrenceOverall risk of recurrence
Extent of nodal involvementExtent of nodal involvement
Histologic grade and other considerationsHistologic grade and other considerations
““Adjuvant” chemotherapyAdjuvant” chemotherapy
40. Benign vs Malignant FeaturesBenign vs Malignant Features
FeatureFeature BenignBenign MalignantMalignant
Rate of growthRate of growth Progressive butProgressive but
slow. Mitoses fewslow. Mitoses few
and normaland normal
Variable. MitosesVariable. Mitoses
more frequent andmore frequent and
may be abnormalmay be abnormal
DifferentiationDifferentiation WellWell
differentiateddifferentiated
Some degree ofSome degree of
anaplasiaanaplasia
LOCALLOCAL
INVASIOINVASIO
NN
Cohesive growth.Cohesive growth.
Capsule & BMCapsule & BM
not breachednot breached
Poorly cohesivePoorly cohesive
andand
infiltrative!infiltrative!
MetastasisMetastasis AbsentAbsent May occurMay occur
41.
42.
43.
44.
45.
46. Geographic & EnvironmentalGeographic & Environmental
Sun exposureSun exposure
Melanomas 6x incidence New Zealand vs. IcelandMelanomas 6x incidence New Zealand vs. Iceland
Blacks have low incidence of melanoma, so do normallyBlacks have low incidence of melanoma, so do normally
pigmented areas like areolae on white peoplepigmented areas like areolae on white people
Smoking and alcohol abuseSmoking and alcohol abuse
Body massBody mass
Overweight = 50% increase in cancerOverweight = 50% increase in cancer
Environmental vs. racial factorsEnvironmental vs. racial factors
Japanese immigrants to USAJapanese immigrants to USA
Viral exposureViral exposure
Human papilloma virus (HPV) and cervical cancerHuman papilloma virus (HPV) and cervical cancer
Hepatitis B virus (HBV) and liver cancer (Africa, Asia)Hepatitis B virus (HBV) and liver cancer (Africa, Asia)
Epstein-Barr Virus (EBV) and lymphomaEpstein-Barr Virus (EBV) and lymphoma
47. Change In Incidence Of Various Cancers With
Migration From Japan To The United States
48. Predisposing Factors for CancerPredisposing Factors for Cancer
AgeAge
Most cancers occur in persons ≥ 55 yearsMost cancers occur in persons ≥ 55 years
Childhood cancersChildhood cancers
Leukemias & CNS neoplasmsLeukemias & CNS neoplasms
Bone tumorsBone tumors
Genetic predispostionGenetic predispostion
Familial cancer syndromesFamilial cancer syndromes
Early age at onsetEarly age at onset
Two or more primary relatives with the cancer (“soil” theory)Two or more primary relatives with the cancer (“soil” theory)
Multiple or bilateral tumorsMultiple or bilateral tumors
Polymorphisms that metabolize procarcinogens, e.g., nitritesPolymorphisms that metabolize procarcinogens, e.g., nitrites
Nonhereditary predisposing conditionsNonhereditary predisposing conditions
Chronic inflammation?Chronic inflammation?
Precancerous conditionsPrecancerous conditions
Chronic ulcerative colitisChronic ulcerative colitis
Atrophic gastritis of pernicious anemiaAtrophic gastritis of pernicious anemia
Leukoplakia of mucous membranesLeukoplakia of mucous membranes
Immune collapse?Immune collapse?
49. Defnition of NeoplasiaDefnition of Neoplasia
“A neoplasm is an abnormal mass of tissue, the growth
of which exceeds and is uncoordinated with that of
the normal tissues and persists in the same excessive
manner after cessation of the stimuli which evoked
the change” - Willis
Genetic changes
Autonomous
Clonal
50. MOLECULAR BASISMOLECULAR BASIS
of CANCERof CANCER
NON-lethalNON-lethal genetic damagegenetic damage
A tumor is formed by the clonal expansionA tumor is formed by the clonal expansion
of a single precursor cell (of a single precursor cell (monoclonalmonoclonal))
Four classesFour classes of normal regulatory genesof normal regulatory genes
PROTO-oncogenesPROTO-oncogenes
OncogenesOncogenes OncoproteinsOncoproteins
DNA repair genesDNA repair genes
Apoptosis genesApoptosis genes
Carcinogenesis is aCarcinogenesis is a multistepmultistep processprocess
51. TRANSFORMATION &TRANSFORMATION &
PROGRESSIONPROGRESSION
Self-sufficiency in growth signalsSelf-sufficiency in growth signals
Insensitivity to growth-inhibiting signalsInsensitivity to growth-inhibiting signals
Evasion of apoptosisEvasion of apoptosis
Defects in DNA repair: “Spell checker”Defects in DNA repair: “Spell checker”
Limitless replicative potential: TelomeraseLimitless replicative potential: Telomerase
AngiogenesisAngiogenesis
Invasive abilityInvasive ability
Metastatic abilityMetastatic ability
54. ONCOGENESONCOGENES
Are MUTATIONS of NORMAL genesAre MUTATIONS of NORMAL genes
(PROTO-oncogenes)(PROTO-oncogenes)
Growth FactorsGrowth Factors
Growth Factor ReceptorsGrowth Factor Receptors
Signal Transduction Proteins (RAS)Signal Transduction Proteins (RAS)
Nuclear Regulatory ProteinsNuclear Regulatory Proteins
Cell Cycle RegulatorsCell Cycle Regulators
Oncogenes code forOncogenes code for OncoproteinsOncoproteins
55. Category
PROTO-
Oncogene
Mode of
Activation
Associated Human
Tumor
GFs
PDGF-β chain SIS Overexpression Astrocytoma
Osteosarcoma
Fibroblast
growth factors
HST-1 Overexpression Stomach cancer
INT-2 Amplification Bladder cancer
Breast cancer
Melanoma
TGFα TGFα Overexpression Astrocytomas
Hepatocellular
carcinomas
HGF HGF Overexpression Thyroid cancer
56. Category
PROTO-
Oncogene
Mode of
Activation
Associated Human
Tumor
GF
Receptors
EGF-receptor
family
ERB-B1
(ECFR)
Overexpression Squamous cell carcinomas of
lung, gliomas
ERB-B2 Amplification Breast and ovarian cancers
CSF-1 receptor FMS Point mutation Leukemia
Receptor for
neurotrophic
factors
RET Point mutation Multiple endocrine neoplasia 2A
and B, familial medullary thyroid
carcinomas
PDGF receptor PDGF-R Overexpression Gliomas
Receptor for stem
cell (steel) factor
KIT Point mutation Gastrointestinal stromal tumors
and other soft tissue tumors
57. Category
PROTO-
Oncogene
Mode of
Activation
Associated Human
Tumor
Signal
Transduction
Proteins
GTP-binding K-RAS Point mutation Colon, lung, and pancreatic
tumors
H-RAS Point mutation Bladder and kidney tumors
N-RAS Point mutation Melanomas, hematologic
malignancies
Nonreceptor
tyrosine kinase
ABL Translocation Chronic myeloid leukemia
Acute lymphoblastic leukemia
RAS signal
transduction
BRAF Point mutation Melanomas
WNT signal
transduction
β-catenin Point mutation Hepatoblastomas,
hepatocellular carcinoma
58. Category
PROTO-
Oncogene
Mode of
Activation Associated Human
Tumor
Nuclear
Regulatory
Proteins
Transcrip.
activators
C-MYC Translocation Burkitt lymphoma
N-MYC Amplification Neuroblastoma,
small cell
carcinoma of lung
L-MYC Amplification Small cell
carcinoma of lung
59. MYCMYC
Encodes for transcription factorsEncodes for transcription factors
Also involved with apoptosisAlso involved with apoptosis
60. P53 and RASP53 and RAS
p53p53
Activates DNA repairActivates DNA repair
proteinsproteins
Sentinel of G1/SSentinel of G1/S
transitiontransition
Initiates apoptosisInitiates apoptosis
Mutated in more thanMutated in more than
50% of all human50% of all human
cancerscancers
RASRAS
H, N, K, etc., varietiesH, N, K, etc., varieties
Single most commonSingle most common
abnormality ofabnormality of
dominant oncogenes indominant oncogenes in
human tumorshuman tumors
Present in about 1/3 ofPresent in about 1/3 of
all human cancersall human cancers
64. DNA REPAIR GENE DEFECTSDNA REPAIR GENE DEFECTS
DNA repair is like a spell checkerDNA repair is like a spell checker
HNPCCHNPCC ((HHereditaryereditary NNon-on-PPolyposisolyposis CColonolon
CCancer [Lynch]): TGF-ancer [Lynch]): TGF-ββ,, ββ-catenin, BAX-catenin, BAX
Xeroderma Pigmentosum: UV fixing geneXeroderma Pigmentosum: UV fixing gene
Ataxia Telangiectasia: ATM geneAtaxia Telangiectasia: ATM gene
Bloom Syndrome: defective helicaseBloom Syndrome: defective helicase
Fanconi anemiaFanconi anemia
65. LIMITLESS REPLICATIVELIMITLESS REPLICATIVE
POTENTIALPOTENTIAL
TELOMERES determine the limitedTELOMERES determine the limited
number of duplications a cell willnumber of duplications a cell will
have, like a cat with nine lives.have, like a cat with nine lives.
TELOMERASETELOMERASE, present in >90% of, present in >90% of
human cancers, changes telomeres sohuman cancers, changes telomeres so
they will have UNLIMITEDthey will have UNLIMITED
replicative potentialreplicative potential
66. TUMOR ANGIOGENESISTUMOR ANGIOGENESIS
QQ: How close to a blood vessel must a cell be?: How close to a blood vessel must a cell be?
A: 1-2 mmA: 1-2 mm
Activation of VEGF and FGF-bActivation of VEGF and FGF-b
Tumor size is regulated (allowed) byTumor size is regulated (allowed) by
angiogenesis/anti-angiogenesis balanceangiogenesis/anti-angiogenesis balance
68. Invasion FactorsInvasion Factors
DetachmentDetachment ("loosening up") of("loosening up") of
the tumor cells from each otherthe tumor cells from each other
AttachmentAttachment to matrix componentsto matrix components
DegradationDegradation of ECM, e.g.,of ECM, e.g.,
collagenase, etc.collagenase, etc.
MigrationMigration of tumor cellsof tumor cells
71. CHROMOSOME CHANGES
in CANCER
TRANSLOCATIONS and INVERSIONS
Occur in MOST Lymphomas/Leukemias
Occur in MANY (and growing numbers) of
NON-hematologic malignancies also
73. Carcinogenesis is “MULTISTEP”
NO single oncogene causes cancer
BOTH several oncogenes AND several
tumor suppressor genes must be involved
Gatekeeper/Caretaker concept
Gatekeepers: ONCOGENES and TUMOR
SUPPRESSOR GENES
Caretakers: DNA REPAIR GENES
Tumor “PROGRESSION”
ANGIOGENESIS
HETEROGENEITY from original single cell
74. Carcinogenesis:
The USUAL (3) Suspects
Initiation/Promotion concept:
BOTH initiators AND promotors are needed
NEITHER can cause cancer by itself
INITIATORS (carcinogens) cause
MUTATIONS
PROMOTORS are NOT carcinogenic by
themselves, and MUST take effect AFTER
initiation, NOT before
PROMOTORS enhance the proliferation of
initiated cells
75.
76. Q: WHO are the usual suspects?
Inflammation?
Teratogenesis?
Immune
Suppression?
Neoplasia?
Mutations?
77. A: The SAME 3 that are
ALWAYS blamed!
1) ChemicalsChemicals
2) RadiationRadiation
3) InfectiousInfectious PathogensPathogens
78. CHEMICAL CARCINOGENS:
INITIATORS
DIRECT
β-Propiolactone
Dimeth. sulfate
Diepoxybutane
Anticancer drugs
(cyclophosphamide,
chlorambucil,
nitrosoureas, and others)
Acylating Agents
1-Acetyl-imidazole
Dimethylcarbamyl chloride
“PRO”CARCINOGENS
Polycyclic and Heterocyclic
Aromatic Hydrocarbons
Aromatic Amines, Amides,
Azo Dyes
Natural Plant and Microbial
Products
Aflatoxin B1 Hepatomas
Griseofulvin Antifungal
Cycasin from cycads
Safrole from sassafras
Betel nuts Oral SCC
80. CHEMICAL CARCINOGENS:
PROMOTORS
HORMONES
PHORBOL ESTERS (TPA), activate kinase C
PHENOLS
DRUGS, many
“Initiated” cells respond and proliferate
FASTER to promotors than normal cells
81. RADIATION CARCINOGENS
UV:UV: BCC, SCC, MM (i.e., all 3)
IONIZING:IONIZING: photons and particulate
Hematopoetic and Thyroid (90%/15yrs) tumors
in fallout victims
Solid tumors either less susceptible or require a
longer latency period than LEUK/LYMPH
BCCs in Therapeutic Radiation
86. How do tumor cells
escape immune surveillance?
Mutation, like microbesMutation, like microbes
↓↓ MHC molecules on tumor cell surfaceMHC molecules on tumor cell surface
Lack of CO-stimulation molecules, e.g.,Lack of CO-stimulation molecules, e.g.,
(CD28, ICOS), not just Ag-Ab recognition(CD28, ICOS), not just Ag-Ab recognition
Immunosuppressive agentsImmunosuppressive agents
Antigen maskingAntigen masking
Apoptosis of cytotoxic T-Cells (CD8), i.e.,Apoptosis of cytotoxic T-Cells (CD8), i.e.,
the damn tumor cell KILLS the T-cell!the damn tumor cell KILLS the T-cell!
87. Effects of TUMOR on the HOST
Location anatomic ENCROACHMENT
HORMONE production
Bleeding, Infection
ACUTE symptoms, e.g., rupture, infarction
METASTASES
88. CACHEXIA
Reduced diet: Fat loss>Muscle loss
Cachexia: Fat loss AND Muscle loss
TNF (α by default)
IL-(6)
PIF (Proteolysis Inducing Factor)
96. TUMOR MARKERS
HORMONES: (Paraneoplastic Syndromes)
“ONCO”FETAL: AFP, CEA
ISOENZYMES: PAP, NSE
PROTEINS: PSA, PSMA (“M” = “membrane”)
GLYCOPROTEINS: CA-125, CA-195, CA-153
MOLECULAR: p53, RAS
NOTE: These SAME substances which can
be measured in the blood, also can be stained
by immunochemical methods in tissue
97. MICRO-ARRAYS
THOUSANDS of genes identified from
tumors give the cells their own identity
and FINGERPRINT and may give
important prognostic information as well
as guidelines for therapy. Some say this
may replace standard histopathologic
identifications of tumors.
What do you think?
Editor's Notes
Poorly differentiated carcinoma of breast.
Best tumor pics are from the Iowa virtual microscope!
Iowa Histopathology
Outline of topics!
Papillary adenoma of colon. Note the fingerlike projections of the tumor.
Iowa Histopathology
Figure 7-2 Colonic polyp.. Gross appearance of several colonic polyps. Also called adenomas.
Sometimes called tubular adenomas, sometimes adenomatous polyp, sometimes “villous” adenoma.
Colonic polyp. This benign glandular tumor (adenoma) is projecting into the colonic lumen and is attached to the mucosa by a distinct stalk.
This view shows the transition from normal squamous epithelium into invasive carcinoma.
Can you tell by the appearance that the SCC “arose” from the squamous epithelium?
A hallmark of well differentiated squamous cell carcinoma is that the nests of invading cells still attempt to make keratin which then gets deposited in the center of the nests, resulting in a keratin "pearl". A “pearl” in a squamous cell carcinoma qualifies it to be “well” differentiated.
From the Iowa Collection
Another characteristic of a well differentiated squamous cell carcinoma is that it still makes visible intercellular bridges.
Squamous cell carcinomas in which intercellular bridges (i.e., desmosomes, or tonofibrils) can be identified, but NOT pearls are often called “moderately” differentiated.
Adenocarcinoma of colon arising in a case of ulcerative colitis.
Do you think that most adenocarcinomas arise from tissues or organs that are “glandular” themselves? Ans : YES!
Lymph node with undifferentiated large cell carcinoma of the lung. If these epithelial tumor cells formed little circular or tubular structures called “glands”, it might better be termed “adenocarcinoma”. If it showed any attempt at keratin formation, “pearls”, or intercellular bridges between tumor cells, it might best be termed “squamous cell” carcinoma.
From the Iowa collection
Misnomers are often REDUNDANT, to try to correct the misnomer.
Figure 7-4 A, Gross appearance of an opened cystic teratoma of the ovary. Note the presence of hair, sebaceous material, and tooth. You do not need a microscope to appreciate this tumor produces both connective tissue as well as epithelial derived elements.
Remember, pure “epithelial” tumors may evoke a fibrous response, such as breast or pancreas or prostate adenocarcinomas, but the connective tissue us regarded as NON-neoplastic.
A microscopic view of a similar tumor shows sebaceous glands, respiratory epithelium, bone, and bone marrow.
Don’t mistake this for a “fibrous reaction” to an epithelial tumor.
Dermoid cyst of ovary (a component of benign cystic teratoma)
Iowa Collection
Another linear process, such as the epics of inflammation or healing.
Can “undifferentiated” also be called very very very very very poorly differentiated? ANS: YES
Why might a “well” differentiated malignance be more difficult to diagnose than a “poorly” differentiated malignancy?
Every time you think you understand the concept of differentiation, guys like Dr. John B. Gurdon and Dr. Shinya Yamanaka come along.
The strong relationship between histology and biologic behavior
The Mormon Tabernacle Choir
Leiomyoma of the uterus. This benign, well-differentiated tumor contains interlacing bundles of neoplastic smooth muscle cells that are virtually identical in appearance to normal smooth muscle cells in the myometrium.
Looking “good” means looking like the cells they supposedly arose from!
Dysplasia means potential PRE-cancer. Anaplasia means cancer. The three words: pleomorphism, hyperchromasia, and increased mitoses, are the three most widely used terms to describe malignant tumors on pathology reports.
Anaplastic large cell carcinoma of lung showing cellular and nuclear variation in size and shape. No differentiation into squamous or glandular epithelium is evident. This is what we mean when we say, it looks “bad”, i.e., pleomorphic, hyperchromatic. This is a classic image of a tumor in which any pathologist would call malignant as a knee jerk reflex after looking at it for one nanosecond, even if it took him 10 minutes to put his key into his car ignition that morning. Ugly and nasty are also two more terms commonly used.
Looking “bad” means NOT looking like the cells they supposedly arose from!
Do you remember from chapter 1 that DYS- was one of the seven -plasia brothers?
Dysplastic cells are also often referred to as “atypical” cells.
This epithelium shows severe dysplasia: Note that dysplastic basal cells characterized by cuboidal shape, high nuclear cytoplasmic ratio, hyperchromatism, mitotic activity, and some loss of orientation to the basement membrane, occupy the lower two thirds of the surface rather than just the basal row of cells. More differentiated cells which occupy the outer third, though still retaining some dysplastic nuclear features have the appearance of maturing squamous cells rather than basal cells, and eventually become flattened on the surface.
Carcinoma in situ: This section shows that the dysplastic basiloid cells go all the way to the surface and never undergo significant differentistion towards more differentiated flattened squamous cells. Note however that the basement membrane is still intact. The torturingly and unnecessary insane pressure to differentiate “severe” dysplasias from carcinomas-in-situ has prompted the various “-IN” classification systems, e.g., CIN-III, VIN-III, PIN-III. Is high grade dysplasia any different from carcinoma-in-situ from a microscopic, behavioral, or medical-legal point of view? Ans: NO!
Does “maturation” or “differentiation” make a cell lose its clonality? Answer: NO
Figure 7-12 Biology of tumor growth. The left panel depicts minimal estimates of tumor cell doublings that precede the formation of a clinically detectable tumor mass. It is evident that by the time a solid tumor is detected, it has already completed a major portion of its life cycle as measured by cell doublings. The right panel illustrates clonal evolution of tumors and generation of tumor cell heterogeneity. New subclones arise from the descendants of the original transformed cell, and with progressive growth the tumor mass becomes enriched for those variants that are more adept at evading host defenses and are likely to be more aggressive. (Adapted from Tannock IF: Biology of tumor growth. Hosp Pract 18:81, 1983.)
Figure 7-13 Schematic representation of tumor growth. As the cell population expands, a progressively higher percentage of tumor cells leaves the replicative pool by reversion to G0, differentiation, and death. Radiation and chemotherapy work on dividing cells, so the size of the non-proliferative pool is important.
The MORE differentiated a cell is, the less likely it is to multiply.
Some wise ass pathologist my tell you he knows of some benign tumors which metastasize.
Can you imagine this tumor being well defined and/or being “encapsulated”?
Note the sharply demarcated border and a thin capsule in this neoplasm which is composed of both proliferating fibrous stroma (fibro) and glands (adenoma). The tumor is at the right and normal breast is at the left. As shown in this view the fibroadenoma, a benign tumor, is well circumscribed and has a fibrous capsule. This view shows the proliferation of benign appearing fibroblasts (arrows) (i.e. the "fibro" component), and several glands (the "adeno" component).
Can you imagine THIS tumor being well defined and/or being “encapsulated”? ANS: NO
The invasiveness aspect of solid tumors is how “cancer” got its name, i.e., “crab”-like
Invasiveness (aka, “infiltration”) has BOTH gross as well as microscopic connotations.
The fibrous (i.e., “scirrous”) response is NOT considered to be neoplastic , like a teratoma or carcinosarcoma, but a reaction to the neoplasm. This fibrous response is also called desmoplasia.
Adenocarcinoma of the breast. Note that the fibrous stroma of the beast is infiltrated by tumor cells arranged in nests with some gland formation. The dense fibrous stroma results in the tumor having a very firm consistency (scirrhous carcinoma). Every pathologist could look at this image, and instantly know it was carcinoma. You don’t have to zoom in and look at the nuclei, if the glands are growing every which way.
If you did this autopsy, and you were blind, could you still diagnose metastatic disease to the liver? ANS: YES
What if the “nodules” were all tiny and diffuse? Would you suspect cirrhosis instead? YES!
Lymph node with metastatic adenocarcinoma. In this case only a few remnants of normal lymph node tissue are seen. Find them.
In fact, this could even be a PRIMARY with some lymphoid tissue reacting to it, especially if you could not see the unique diagnostic features of a lymph node such as a subcapsular sinus.
Adjuvant chemotherapy in breast cancer reduces the incidence of recurrence and metastasis, but is toxic. Such treatment is not advised when the risk of recurrence is very low. Grade and stage are important prognostic factors, but are being supplemented by newer biologic markers.
Nodal dissections are NOT curative or even therapeutic, they are only PROGNOSTIC!!!!!!
In some tumors, like smooth muscle tumors, counting mitoses may be the main way to differentiate a benign from a malignant process!
“If you want to think od “anaplasia” as DE-differentiation, you can, but remember, differentiation NEVER occurs backwards!
“LOCAL INVASION” is in HUGE ALL CAPS font because it is the single most important differentiating feature.
ALL malignancies can potentially metastasize, but there is at least one common benign condition which is also said to “metastasize”. Can you name it?
Is there an absolute line of difference between benign and malignant? Probably not.
Figure 1 indicates the most common cancers expected to occur in men and women in 2005. Among men, cancers of the prostate, lung and bronchus, and colon and rectum account for more than 56% of all newly diagnosed cancers. Prostate cancer alone accounts for approximately 33% (232,090) of incident cases in men. Based on cases diagnosed between 1995 and 2000, about 90% of these estimated new cases of prostate cancer are expected to be diagnosed at local or regional stages, for which 5-year relative survival approaches 100%.
Cancer INCIDENCE
Cancer DEATH rates
Notice that although there are FIVE bullets on this slide, it really is the THREE USUAL SUSPECTS, isn’t it?
FAT is the biggest factor in the sex-specific, high incidence cancers, i.e., prostate and preast.
Figure 7-25 The change in incidence of various cancers with migration from Japan to the United States provides evidence that the occurrence of cancers is related to components of the environment that differ in the two countries. The incidence of each kind of cancer is expressed as the ratio of the death rate in the population being considered to that in a hypothetical population of California whites with the same age distribution; the death rates for whites are thus defined as 1. The death rates among immigrants and immigrants' sons tend consistently toward California norms. (From Cairns J: The cancer problem. In Readings from Scientific American-Cancer Biology. New York, WH Freeman, 1986, p. 13.)
EPIDEMIOLOGY of cancer
A proto-oncogene is a normal gene that can become an oncogene due to mutations or increased expression. Proto-oncogenes code for proteins that help to regulate cell growth and differentiation.
The various aspects of “malignant transformation”. Just like cancer itself is a progression of increasingly disturbing processes, so is malignant transformation. These are not necessarily exactly linear events, but close.
Look at these as being factors in growth regulation.
This is a BEAUTIFUL chart! Another way of understanding the development of malignancy in a logical way!
Cyclins are a family of proteins that control the progression of cells through the cell cycle by activating Cyclin Dependent Kinase (cdk) enzymes
CDK’s (kinases) are enzymes which PHOSPHORYLATE proteins in preparation for the next phase of the cycle.
G1SG2M is regulated by Cyclins DEAB, respectively, and CDKs 4221, respectively.
Signal transduction is a generic term which refers to any process by which a cell converts one kind of signal or stimulus into another.
Note, in every case, there is a NORMAL gene (proto-oncogene) MUTATED to become an ONCOGENE, ultimately resulting in the expression of as tumor.
Note, in every case, there is a NORMAL gene (proto-oncogene) MUTATED to become an ONCOGENE, ultimately resulting in the expression of as tumor.
Note, in every case, there is a NORMAL gene (proto-oncogene) MUTATED to become an ONCOGENE, ultimately resulting in the expression of as tumor.
Note, in every case, there is a NORMAL gene (proto-oncogene) MUTATED to become an ONCOGENE, ultimately resulting in the expression of as tumor.
Myc (cMyc) codes for a protein that binds to the DNA of other genes. When Myc is mutated, or overexpressed, the protein doesn't bind correctly, and often is a big step in the ultimate production of cancer.
These are the TWO other most important and widely studied genes in cancer.
P53 seems to have a variety of functions, and mutations of this gene have a carcinogenic effect at several levels.
A RAS protein
It would be a good idea to have a familiarity with these genes, recognizing that mutations of them result in cancers.
NOTE: Problems of GROWTH SUPPRESSION, result in GROWTH being UN-regulated.
THESE ARE ALL GROWTH SUPPRESSOR GENES WHICH, WHEN MUTATED, LOSE THEIR NORMAL ABILITY TO SUPPRESS cell crowth!!!
Mutations of genes resulting in EVASION of APOPTOSIS would also be a factor in carcinogenesis, wouldn’t it?
Telomeres are a sequence of repetitive bases at the ends of linear chromosomes that prevent adjacent chromosomes from attaching to each other.
Think about this? If a telomere is interfered with, perhaps by telomerase, it LOSES its ability to limit mitoses!
Think about this too: A tumor could NEVER be more than 1-2 mm, if it did not have the ability to generate blood vessels to feed it? Right? Ans: YES
Another AWESOME diagram! Most important diagrammatic explanation of malignancy I have ever seen.
LinearLinearLinearLinearLinearLinearLinearLinearLinearLinearLinearLinear
FOUR orderly steps of “INVASION” (aka, INFILTRATION, or INVASIVENESS)
It would be wise to remember that these THREE genes are often discussed in the ability of tumors to METASTASIZE.
They are metastatic SUPRESSOR genes. So once again, metastasis, like carcinogenesis, is a LOSS of regulation.
Often the term “gene rearrangement” has been used.
Many/Most leukemias/lymphomas have fairly predictable chromosome translocations.
God help you if you try to memorize this.
There is NO ONE SINGLE UNIFORM explanation as to what causes cancer.
I hope you were not expecting to find it here?
The Initiation/Promotion concept is what we have always know about the cause of cancer. You need TWO things: 2) carcinogens (i.e., initiators) and 2) proliferation (i,.e., promotors)
The concept of initiation and promotion is NOT a new concept. We always knew you needed two things to cause cancer:
Carcinogens, mutators
Factors which normally cause hyperplasia, such as steroid hormones, replicators
You know the drill by now!
Direct carcinogens initiators cause mutations DIRECTLY.
“Pro”-carcinogens initiators are metabolized into substances which are more direct.
A glancing familiarity with all these compounds is a good thing to have.
Having a vague recognition of these substances as being carcinogens would be a good idea.
An initiator might cause the necessary mutations in growth regulating genes, but does not have an effect on cell proliferation.
β-Propiolactone is a disinfectant, DMSO is an awesome solvent, Diepoxybutane is a preservative/textile-linking agent.
As you might suspect, promotors are NOT carcinogenic by themselves, but often are agents of hyperplasia, e.g., steroid hormones.
A “promotor” might cause hyperplasia in cells even without the effect of a carcinogen. You can think of a promotor as a “hyperplastic agent”.
A woman may as: “Will estrogens increase my risk of cancer?”. Estrogens and steroid hormones in general are “promotors”.
ALL THREE common types of skin cancer are related to UV radiation.
The FIVE common viruses associated with cancers should also be in your recollection.
CYTOTOXIC CD8+ T-CELLS are the main eliminators of tumor cells
T cells require two signals to become fully activated. A first signal, which is antigen-specific, is provided through the T cell receptor which interacts with peptide-MHC molecules on the membrane of antigen presenting cells (APC). A second signal, the CO-STIMULATORY signal, is antigen nonspecific and is provided by the interaction between co-stimulatory molecules expressed on the membrane of APC and the T cell.
Was the original name for TNF “cachexin”? Ans: Yes.
Would you suspect PIF would be increased in cancer patients who have experienced weight loss?
So if your patient presents with any of these conditions, should you always suspect an underlying malignancy? Ans: Yes.
Often, the term paraneoplastic syndrome is used synonymously with ectopic endocrine hormone production.
These words could not be seen in a real classroom, but they can be seen in a virtual one!
Which one of these two is more important? This is a CRUCIALLY important question!
The main question in grading is: HOW WELL do the tumor cells look like the NORMAL cells from which they arose?
If they look A LOT like “normal” cells, it is a LOW grade with a GOOD prognosis, but perhaps a TUFF diagnosis.
If they look NOT like “normal” cells, it is a HIGH grade with a BAD prognosis, but perhaps an EASY diagnosis.
Immunohistochemistry (IHC) has become the “magic bullet” of diagnostic surgical pathology, based on the theory that even if you do NOT know what kind of tumor cell you are looking at, if you can identify specific antigens by staining for them, then, you can feel sure you know the cell of origin.
IHC does NOT identify antigens which differentiate benign from malignant, but identify antigens common to certain types of cells!
Yesterday: H&E, blue and red
Today: Immunochemistry, brown
Tomorrow: Arrays, yellow, green, red