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Strategies for Education
Erasmus+
2017 – 2019

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An Overview οf Cooperative Learning
Types of Cooperative Learning
Formal Cooperative Learning
Formal cooperative learning consists of students working together, for
one class period to several weeks, to achieve shared learning goals
and complete jointly specific tasks and assignments (Johnson,
Johnson, & Holubec, 2008). In formal cooperative learning groups the
teachers’ role includes.
1. Making preinstructional decisions. Teachers (a) formulate both
academic and social skills objectives, (b) decide on the size of groups,
(c) choose a method for assigning students to groups, (d) decide which
roles to assign group members, (e) arrange the room, and (f) arrange
the materials students need to complete the assignment. In these
preinstructional decisions, the social skills objectives specify the
interpersonal and small group skills students are to learn. By
assigning students roles, role interdependence is established. The
way in which materials are distributed can create resource
interdependence. The arrangement of the room can create
environmental interdependence and provide the teacher with easy
access to observe each group, which increases individual
accountability and provides data for group processing.

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2. Explaining the instructional task and cooperative structure.
Teachers (a) explain the academic assignment to students, (b) explain
the criteria for success, (c) structure positive interdependence, (d)
structure individual
accountability, (e)
explain the behaviors
(i.e., social skills)
students are expected
to use, and (f)
emphasize intergroup
cooperation (this
eliminates the possibility of competition among students and extends
positive goal interdependence to the class as a whole). Teachers may
also teach the concepts and strategies required to complete the
assignment. By explaining the social skills emphasized in the lesson,
teachers operationalize (a) the social skill objectives of the lesson and
(b) the interaction patterns (such as oral rehearsal and jointly building
conceptual frameworks) teachers wish to create.
3. Monitoring students’ learning and intervening to provide assistance
in (a) completing the task successfully or (b) using the targeted
interpersonal and group skills effectively. While conducting the lesson,
teachers monitor each learning group and intervene when needed to
improve taskwork and teamwork. Monitoring the learning groups
creates individual accountability; whenever a teacher observes a

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group, members tend to feel accountable to be constructive
members. In addition, teachers collect specific data on promotive
interaction, the use of targeted social skills, and the engagement in
the desired interaction patterns. This data is used to intervene in
groups and to guide group processing.
4. Assessing students’ learning and helping students process how
well their groups functioned. Teachers (a) bring closure to the lesson,
(b) assess and evaluate the quality and quantity of student
achievement, (c)
ensure students
carefully discuss how
effectively they worked
together (i.e., process
the effectiveness of
their learning groups),
(d) have students make
a plan for improvement, and (e) have students celebrate the hard work
of group members. The assessment of student achievement
highlights individual and group accountability (i.e., how well each
student performed) and indicates whether the group achieved its goals
(i.e., focusing on positive goal interdependence). The group
celebration is a form of reward interdependence. The feedback
received during group processing is aimed at improving the use of
social skills and is a form of individual accountability. Discussing the

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processes the group used to function, furthermore, emphasizes the
continuous improvement of primitive interaction and the patterns of
interaction need to maximize student learning and retention.
Informal Cooperative Learning
Informal cooperative learning consists of having students work
together to achieve a joint learning goal in temporary, ad-hoc groups
that last from a few minutes to one class period (Johnson, Johnson, &
Holubec, 2008). During a lecture, demonstration, or film, informal
cooperative learning can be used to focus student attention on the
material to be learned, set a mood conducive to learning, help set
expectations as to what will be covered in a class session, ensure that
students cognitively process and rehearse the material being taught,
summarize what was learned and precut the next session, and provide
closure to an instructional session. The teacher’s role for using
informal cooperative learning to keep students more actively engaged
intellectually entails having focused discussions before and after the
lesson (i.e., bookends) and interspersing pair discussions throughout
the lesson. Two important aspects of using informal cooperative
learning groups are to (a) make the task and the instructions explicit
and precise and (b) require the groups to produce a specific product
(such as a written answer). The procedure is as follows.

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1. Introductory Focused Discussion: Teachers assign students to
pairs or triads and explain (a) the task of answering the questions in a
four to five minute time period and (b) the positive goal
interdependence of reaching consensus. The discussion task is aimed
at promoting advance organizing of what the students know about the
topic to be presented and establishing expectations about what the
lecture will cover. Individual accountability is ensured by the small
size of the group. A basic interaction pattern of eliciting oral
rehearsal, higher-level reasoning, and consensus building is required.
2. Intermittent Focused Discussions: Teachers divide the lecture into
10 to 15 minute segments. This is about the length of time a
motivated adult can concentrate on information being presented.
After each segment, students are asked to turn to the person next to
them and work cooperatively in answering a question (specific enough
so that students can answer it in about three minutes) that requires
students to cognitively process the material just presented. The
procedure is:
a. Each student formulates his or her answer.
b. Students share their answer with their partner.
c. Students listen carefully to their partner’s answer.

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d. The pairs create a new answer that is superior to each member’s
initial formulation by integrating the two answers, building on each
other’s thoughts, and synthesizing.
The question may require students to:
a. Summarize the material just presented.
b. Give a reaction to the theory, concepts, or information presented.
c. Predict what is going to be presented next; hypothesize.
d. Solve a problem.
e. Relate material to past learning and integrate it into conceptual
frameworks.
f. Resolve conceptual conflict created by presentation.
Teachers should ensure that students are seeking to reach an
agreement on the answers to the questions (i.e., ensure positive goal
interdependence is established), not just share their ideas with each
other. Randomly choose two or three students to give 30 second
summaries of their discussions. Such individual accountabilityensures
that the pairs take the tasks seriously and check each other to ensure
that both are prepared to answer. Periodically, the teacher should
structure a discussion of how effectively the pairs are working together

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(i.e., group processing). Group celebrations add reward
interdependence to the pairs.
3. Closure Focused Discussion: Teachers give students an ending
discussion task lasting four to five minutes. The task requires
students to summarize what they have learned from the lecture and
integrate it into existing conceptual frameworks. The task may also
point students toward what the homework will cover or what will be
presented in the next class session. This provides closure to the
lecture.
Informal cooperative learning ensures students are actively involved in
understanding what is being presented. It also provides time for
teachers to move around the class listening to what students are
saying. Listening to student discussions can give instructors direction
and insight into how well students understand the concepts and

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material being as well as increase the individual accountability of
participating in the discussions.
Cooperative Base Groups
Cooperative base groups are long-term, heterogeneous cooperative
learning groups with stable membership (Johnson, Johnson, &
Holubec, 2008). Members’ primary responsibilities are to (a) ensure all
members are making good academic progress (i.e., positive goal
interdependence) (b) hold each other accountable for striving to learn
(i.e., individual accountability), and (c) provide each other with
support, encouragement, and assistance in completing assignments
(i.e., promotive interaction). In order to ensure the base groups
function effectively, periodically teachers should teach needed social
skills and have the groups process how effectively they are
functioning. Typically, cooperative base groups are heterogeneous in
membership (especially in terms of achievement motivation and task
orientation), meet regularly (for example, daily or biweekly), and last
for the duration of the class (a semester or year) or preferably for
several years. The agenda of the base group can include academic
support tasks (such as ensuring all members have completed their
homework and understand it or editing each other’s essays), personal
support tasks (such as getting to know each other and helping each
other solve nonacademic problems), routine tasks (such as taking
attendance), and assessment tasks (such as checking each other’s

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understanding of the answers to test questions when the test is first
taken individually and then retaken in the base group).
The teacher’s role in using cooperative base groups is to (a) form
heterogeneous groups of four (or three), (b) schedule a time when they
will regularly meet (such as beginning and end of each class session or
the beginning and end of each week), (c) create specific agendas with
concrete tasks that provide a routine for base groups to follow when
they meet, (d) ensure the five basic elements of effective cooperative
groups are implemented, and (e) have students periodically process
the effectiveness of their base groups.
The longer a cooperative group exists, the more caring their
relationships will tend to be, the greater the social support they will
provide for each other, the more committed they will be to each
other’s success, and the more influence members will have over each
other. Permanent cooperative base groups provide the arena in which
caring and committed relationships can be created that provide the
social support needed to improve attendance, personalize the
educational experience, increase achievement, and improve the quality
of school life.

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Integrated Use of All Three Types of
Cooperative Learning
These three types of cooperative learning may be used together
(Johnson, Johnson, & Holubec, 2008). A typical class session may
begin with a base group meeting, which is followed by a short lecture
in which informal cooperative learning is used. The lecture is followed
by a formal cooperative learning lesson. Near the end of the class
session another short lecture may be delivered with the use of
informal cooperative learning. The class ends with a base group
meeting.
Basic Elements of Cooperation
Not all groups are cooperative (Johnson & F. Johnson, 2009). Placing
people in the same room, seating them together, telling them they are
a group, does not mean they will cooperate effectively. To be
cooperative, to reach the full potential of the group, five essential
elements need to be carefully structured into the situation: positive
interdependence, individual and group accountability, promotive
interaction, appropriate use of social skills, and group processing
(Johnson & Johnson, 1989, 2005). Mastering the basic elements of
cooperation allows teachers to:

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1. Take existing lessons, curricula, and courses and structure them
cooperatively.
2. Tailor cooperative learning lessons to unique instructional needs,
circumstances, curricula, subject areas, and students.
3. Diagnose the problems some students may have in working
together and intervene to increase the effectiveness of the student
learning groups.
The first and most important element is positive interdependence.
Teachers must give a
clear task and a
group goal so
students believe they
“sink or swim
together.” Positive
interdependence
exists when group
members perceive
that they are linked with each other in a way that one cannot succeed
unless everyone succeeds. If one fails, all fail. Group members
realize, therefore, that each person’s efforts benefit not only him- or
herself, but all other group members as well. Positive
interdependence creates a commitment to other people’s success as

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well as one’s own and is the heart of cooperative learning. If there is
no positive interdependence, there is no cooperation.
The second essential element of cooperative learning is individual and
group accountability. The group must be accountable for achieving its
goals. Each member must be accountable for contributing his or her
share of the work (which ensures that no one “hitch-hikes” on the
work of others). The group has to be clear about its goals and be able
to measure (a) its progress in achieving them and (b) the individual
efforts of each of its members. Individual accountability exists when
the performance of each individual student is assessed and the results
are given back to the group and the individual in order to ascertain
who needs more assistance, support, and encouragement in
completing the assignment. The purpose of cooperative learning
groups is to make each member a stronger individual in his or her
right. Students learn together so that they can subsequently perform
higher as individuals.
The third essential component of cooperative learning is primitive
interaction, preferably face-to-face. Primitive interaction occurs when
members share resources and help, support, encourage, and praise
each other’s efforts to learn. Cooperative learning groups are both an
academic support system (every student has someone who is
committed to helping him or her learn) and a personal support system
(every student has someone who is committed to him or her as a

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person). There are important cognitive activities and interpersonal
dynamics that can only occur when students promote each other’s
learning. This includes orally explaining how to solve problems,
discussing the nature of the concepts being learned, teaching one’s
knowledge to classmates, and connecting present with past learning.
It is through promoting each other’s learning face-to-face that
members become personally committed to each other as well as to
their mutual goals.
The fourth essential element of cooperative learning is teaching
students the required interpersonal and small group skills. In
cooperative learning groups students are required to learn academic
subject matter (taskwork) and also to learn the interpersonal and small
group skills required to function as part of a group (teamwork).
Cooperative learning is inherently more complex than competitive or
individualistic learning because students have to engage
simultaneously in taskwork and teamwork. Group members must
know how to provide effective leadership, decision-making, trust-
building, communication, and conflict-management, and be motivated
to use the prerequisite skills. Teachers have to teach teamwork skills
just as purposefully and precisely as teachers do academic skills.
Since cooperation and conflict are inherently related, the procedures
and skills for managing conflicts constructively are especially
important for the long-term success of learning groups. Procedures

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and strategies for teaching students social skills may be found in
Johnson (2009) and Johnson and F. Johnson (2009).
The fifth essential component of cooperative learning is group
processing. Group processing exists when group members discuss
how well they are achieving their goals and maintaining effective
working relationships. Groups need to describe what member actions
are helpful and unhelpful and make decisions about what behaviors to
continue or change. Continuous improvement of the process of
learning results from the careful analysis of how members are working
together.
These five elements are essential to all cooperative systems, no matter
what their size. When international agreements are made and when
international efforts to achieve mutual goals (such as environmental
protection) occur, these five elements must be carefully implemented
and maintained.
http://www.co-operation.org/what-is-cooperative-learning
Cooperative Learning
What Is It?
Cooperative Learning, sometimes called small-group learning, is an
instructional strategy in which small groups of students work together
on a common task. The task can be as simple as solving a multi-step

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math problem together, or as complex as developing a design for a
new kind of school. In some cases, each group member is individually
accountable for part of the task; in other cases, group members work
together without formal role assignments.
According to David Johnson and Roger Johnson (1999), there are five
basic elements that allow successful small-group learning:
 Positive interdependence: Students feel responsible for their
own and the group's effort.
 Face-to-face interaction: Students encourage and support one
another; the environment encourages discussion and eye
contact.
 Individual and group accountability: Each student is responsible
for doing their part; the group is accountable for meeting its
goal.
 Group behaviors: Group members gain direct instruction in the
interpersonal, social, and collaborative skills needed to work
with others occurs.
 Group processing: Group members analyze their own and the
group's ability to work together.
Cooperative learning changes students' and teachers' roles in
classrooms. The ownership of teaching and learning is shared by
groups of students, and is no longer the sole responsibility of the

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teacher. The authority of setting goals, assessing learning, and
facilitating learning is shared by all. Students have more opportunities
to actively participate in their learning, question and challenge each
other, share and discuss their ideas, and internalize their learning.
Along with improving academic learning, cooperative learning helps
students engage in thoughtful discourse and examine different
perspectives, and it has been proven to increase students' self-
esteem, motivation, and empathy.
Some challenges of using cooperative learning include releasing the
control of learning, managing noise levels, resolving conflicts, and
assessing student learning. Carefully structured activities can help
students learn the skills to work together successfully, and structured
discussion and reflection on group process can help avoid some
problems.
Why Is It Important?
The authors of Classroom Instruction that Works cite research showing
that organizing students in cooperative learning groups can lead to a
gain as high as 28 percentiles in measured student achievement
(Marzano, Pickering, and Pollock 2001).
Other researchers report that cooperation typically results in higher
group and individual achievement, healthier relationships with peers,

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more metacognition, and greater psychological health and self-esteem
(Johnson and Johnson 1989).
When implemented well, cooperative learning encourages
achievement, student discussion, active learning, student confidence,
and motivation. The skills students develop while collaborating with
others are different from the skills students develop while working
independently. As more businesses organize employees into teams
and task forces, the skills necessary to be a "team player" (e.g.,
verbalizing and justifying ideas, handling conflicts, collaborating,
building consensus, and disagreeing politely) are becoming more
valuable and useful. Using cooperative groups to accomplish academic
tasks not only provides opportunities for students to develop
interpersonal skills but also gives them authentic experiences that will
help them be successful in their future careers.
How Can You Make It Happen?
Beginning to Work in Groups
In classrooms where students are not familiar with working together in
small groups, start with short, highly-structured activities. It will take
time to develop a respectful and safe classroom community.
Successful cooperative groups depend on students who respect each
other, listen to one another, and feel safe enough to share their

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thoughts and feelings. You can help students learn the skills needed to
work in groups by starting with short, structured lessons aimed at
fostering turn-taking, involving all students in the discussion, and
clarifying the roles, rights, and responsibilities of group members.
One way to introduce cooperative groups is to work with one group to
get started, and allow the rest of the students to watch the group as
they engage in a discussion – a "fishbowl" experience. Intervene when
necessary to keep the thoughtful discussion going. With the large
group, discuss effective strategies that the small group is using or
should be using to continue and expand the discussion.
When beginning to use cooperative learning with students, it is also
important to establish team norms. Team norms are guidelines or
rules governing how group members agree to work together. Norms
for working in groups tend to be very different from traditional

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classroom norms. For example, in a traditional classroom, students
complete their own work. In cooperative classrooms, students work
with others to complete tasks. Have students discuss and develop the
norms that they will follow during group work. Team norms, if
designed well, can help to create a safe and supportive atmosphere.
Some examples of team norms include:
 We always treat one another with respect.
 We always encourage new ideas and value the consideration of
all suggestions.
 We always justify our opinions to the team.
 We always make decisions as a team.
Preparation
Students should be grouped for instruction to maximize opportunities
to learn, and the type of grouping can produce different results based
on the circumstances. Establish groups using a variety of criteria, such
as social skills, academic skills, student interests, and instructional
objectives.
Select the academic and collaborative objectives. For example,
"Students will present their opinion of a candidate, supported with
facts. Students will work cooperatively in groups of four, taking turns
when talking."

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Teachers should model positive interpersonal skills, have students
practice the skills, and encourage the students to reflect on how
effectively they are performing the skills.
Instruction
Once groups have been determined, the most important phase begins.
Instruction should be based on solid content, with grouping used to
enhance and customize student learning. Students should understand
the objectives, instructional tasks, and criteria for success. Review and
assign student roles in order to smooth the transition to cooperative
learning groups. During instruction, monitor groups and reinforce
collaborative behaviors, conduct observations, assess social skills, or
interview students.
Assessment
After instruction, assessments may include paper and pencil
achievement tests and/or measures of actual student performance or
group products. Develop a way to assess both group and individual
accountability. After working in groups, students should engage in
group processing activities where they discuss the interpersonal skills
that influence their effectiveness in working together.
Be sure to schedule a time for students to explain to the class how
they completed a task or solved a problem, as different groups may
have developed different solutions. Explaining their group's process is

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an important skill for students to develop. In addition, the whole class
benefits from the range of ideas from each group.
You will need to decide how students and groups will be made
accountable for their learning. In collaborative classrooms, it is often
difficult to assign individual grades. Some teachers give "group"
grades that each student receives, but this can be problematic if a few
students do the majority of the work within a group. Giving each
member both an individual and a group grade is another option. Each
student can receive a grade for the group task and can be responsible
for a subtask, which is graded as well. Some teachers average the
academic grade with a "group performance" grade. This makes group
interactions and processes as significant as academics. If you are
uncomfortable with this, a good solution is to have students complete
an individual task after the cooperative learning activity, such as
writing a reflection piece about what they learned and how their group
worked to complete the task. This may be a preferable way to evaluate
students because it can be used as an assessment of student learning,
metacognition, and group processing. Another possibility is to have
individual students each complete a final draft of a report that the
group has started.
Student Roles
Some tasks are complex and may benefit from clear roles and
responsibilities assigned to each student within a group. Create team

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roles that are simple, clear, and important. Roles that are frivolous,
unclear, or too complex may frustrate one or more team members.
Some sample roles are:
 Organizer—provides the group with the overall process structure
 Recorder—writes down important information (e.g., directions or
group work)
 Checker—Makes sure that all team members understand the
concepts and the team's conclusions.
 Questioner—generates questions and involves all students
 Assessor—evaluates the progress of each work session
 Encourager—models and reinforces appropriate social skills
 Summarizer: Restates the team's conclusions or answers.
 Spokesperson—represents the group and presents group work
to rest of the class
 Timekeeper—keeps group on task and on time
 Team facilitator—Moderates discussions, keeps the team on
schedule, ensures that work is completed by all, and makes sure
that all have the opportunity to participate and learn.
 Elaborator—Relates the discussion with prior concepts and
knowledge.

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 Research runner—Gets needed materials and is the liaison
between teams and between their team and the instructor.
At the start of a course, consider allowing team members to pick their
own roles. As students become more comfortable with teamwork,
however, it is a good idea to rotate roles within the teams so that
students experience a variety of responsibilities.
Challenging Group Dynamics
Like all groups of people trying to work together, student groups
sometimes run into difficulties. Be proactive and have ways prepared
to prevent or solve problems. Some suggestions include:
 Brainstorm how groups could handle a specific difficult
situation, such as one person not letting others talk. Have each
group come up with a solution to the problem.
 Use a checklist to help students resolve conflicts. The checklist
could have students assess how they are listening to each other,
working together, and respecting each participant.
 Give clear written guidelines for each student role. Make sure
that roles are clear before the activity begins.
 Establish a specific signal if the noise level is too high. Award
points to each group for working quietly.

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 Have students use their journals to record how they would like
their group to implement a specific collaborative skill. For
example, if students know that the collaborative skill they will
work on in their small group is "disagreeing nicely" they could
write down what they could say. They could also reflect on why
that skill is important to them and to the group.
Find other suggestions on improving group dynamics.
How Can You Stretch This Strategy?
As students become more familiar with cooperative group structures,
have them take more ownership of the process. Have students
determine how to break into groups, determine their group needs, and
create and assign student roles. Students can create a list of
collaborative and other social skills that they think could be improved,
and develop a plan to work on those skills in their groups.
As groups begin to develop, have students reflect on how the group is
functioning. Have students discuss their group's progress in
interpersonal skills, and have them problem-solve the challenging
dynamics of the group. This type of reflection will help students
develop their metacognition and articulation skills. Students can
reflect on their contributions to the group and monitor their own
progress either as part of a discussion or in a written reflection.
In groups that stay together over a long period of time, and as
students become familiar with each other's strengths and challenges,

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they should be given more autonomy in choosing roles and developing
a process for completing the task. Encourage students to think about
how they are progressing as a group and the challenges that they face,
as well as how they are progressing academically and how to improve
the quality of their work as a team.
When Can You Use It?
Cooperative learning can be used in any class at any level with any
subject area. Cooperative learning works well when it is a part of the
culture of a classroom, and when students are familiar with working
together and know what is expected of them. The following are some
ideas for using cooperative groups in your classroom.
Reading/English
Use cooperative groups during partner reading. Have students read
silently and then take turns reading aloud. The listener can guide the
reader when necessary. Use cooperative groups after Sustained Silent
Reading. Have students gather in groups to summarize what books or
chapters they read. This also could be a time for students to "sell" the
book they are reading and encourage others to read it as well.
Writing
Use cooperative groups during the writing process to brainstorm
topics, to pre-write, and during peer review conferences. Use
cooperative groups to write a "how-to" piece. Students, in groups, can
write about how to make a model or drawing, exchange what they've

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written with another group, and collaborate to make the model or
drawing.
Have students read texts and use a double-entry journal to list critical
points and their responses. They can exchange their double-entry
journals and create a summary of the assigned readings with a
partner.
Math
Use cooperative groups to practice problem-solving strategies. Have
student pairs use manipulatives to act out a problem. After solving a
math problem, students can explain their thinking to a partner.
In cooperative groups, students can decide on a set of criteria to
categorize geometric figures, and then explain their criteria to other
groups.
Social Studies
Use Jigsaw to review concepts and prepare for a test. In jigsaw groups,
have students list important skills or concepts that are important
enough to be on the test. In expert groups, have them write review
questions. Then have students return to jigsaw groups to ask their two
or three best questions, giving others in their group a chance to
answer.

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Science
Use cooperative groups to create and discuss hypotheses before
completing experiments. Students can combine their prior knowledge
about a topic and collaborate to make an educated guess.
https://www.teachervision.com/professional-
development/cooperative-learning?page=3

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Peer Tutoring
What is peer tutoring?
Peer tutoring is a flexible, peer-mediated strategy that involves
students serving as academic tutors and tutees. Typically, a higher
performing student is paired with a lower performing student to
review critical academic or behavioral concepts.
Why choose peer tutoring?
 It is a widely-researched practice across ages, grade levels, and
subject areas
 The intervention allows students to receive one-to-one
assistance
 Students have increased opportunities to respond in smaller
groups
 It promotes academic and social development for both the tutor
and tutee
 Student engagement and time on task increases
 Peer tutoring increases self-confidence and self-efficacy
(Spencer, 2006)
 The strategy is supported by a strong research base (e.g.,
Calhoon, Al Otaiba, Cihak, King, & Avalos, 2007; Kunsch, Jitendra, &
Sood, 2007; Vasquez & Slocum, 2012)

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What are the most frequently used peer tutoring models?
Classwide Peer Tutoring (CWPT): Classwide peer tutoring involves
dividing the entire class into groups of two to five students with
differing ability levels. Students then act as tutors, tutees, or both
tutors and tutees. Typically, CWPT involves highly structured
procedures, direct rehearsal, competitive teams, and posting of scores
(Maheady, Harper, & Mallette, 2001). The entire class participates in
structured peer tutoring activities two or more times per week for
approximately 30 minutes (Harper & Maheady, 2007). While the
procedures and routines in CWPT remain the same, student pairings or
groups may change weekly or biweekly. In CWPT, student pairings are

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fluid and may be based on achievement levels or student
compatibility. Students may
Cross-age Peer Tutoring: Older students are paired with younger
students to teach or review a skill. The positions of tutor and tutee do
not change. The older student serves as the tutor and the younger
student is the tutee. The older student and younger student can have
similar or differing skill levels, with the relationship being one of a
cooperative or expert interaction. Tutors serve to model appropriate
behavior, ask questions, and encourage better study habits. This
arrangement is also beneficial for students with disabilities as they
may serve as tutors for younger students.
Peer Assisted Learning Strategies (PALS): PALS, a version of the CWPT
model, involves a teacher pairing students who need additional
instruction or help with a peer who can assist (Fuchs, Fuchs, & Burish,
2000). Groups are flexible and change often across a variety of
subject areas or skills. Cue cards, small pieces of cardstock upon
which are printed a list of tutoring steps, may be provided to help
students remember PALS steps (Spencer, Scruggs, & Mastropieri,
2003). All students have the opportunity to function as a tutor or
tutee at differing times. Students are typically paired with other

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students who are at the same skill level, without a large discrepancy
between abilities.
Reciprocal Peer Tutoring (RPT): Two or more students alternate
between acting as the tutor and tutee during each session, with
equitable time in each role. Often, higher performing students are
paired with lower performing students. RPT utilizes a structured
format that encourages teaching material, monitoring answers, and
evaluating and encouraging peers. Both group and individual rewards
may be earned to motivate and maximize learning. Students in RPT
may prepare the instructional materials and are responsible for
monitoring and evaluating their peers once they have selected a goal
and reward as outlined by their teacher.
Same-age Peer Tutoring: Peers who are within one or two years of age
are paired to review key concepts. Students may have similar ability
levels or a more advanced student can be paired with a less advanced
student. Students who have
similar abilities should have
an equal understanding of
the content material and
concepts. When pairing
students with differing levels, the roles of tutor and tutee may be

33. 33
alternated, allowing the lower performing student to quiz the higher
performing student. Answers should be provided to the student who
is lower achieving when acting as a tutor in order to assist with any
deficits in content knowledge. Same-age peer tutoring, like classwide
peer tutoring, can be completed within the students’ classroom or
tutoring can be completed across differing classes. Procedures are
more flexible than traditional classwide peer tutoring configurations.
How should tutors and tutees be selected?
One common method for determining dyads, or groups, involves
ranking students from the highest performing to the lowest
performing student for the particular activity or subject. Pairs can be
formed by cutting the list in half and then matching the top
performing student with the first lowest performing student, the

34. 34
second highest performing student with the second lowest performing
student, and so forth (Fuchs, Fuchs, & Kazdan, 1999). If
heterogeneous groups are desired, the number of students in each
team should be determined. The list of students can then be
numbered from one to the desired number of persons in a group and
then repeated until the entire class is included (Harper & Maheady,
2007).
When selecting tutors, teachers should be cognizant of which
students can be most helpful in the process. Teachers should be
mindful of differing student personalities, needs, and preferences.
Dyads or groups should be established accordingly.
How should peer tutoring models be selected?
Peer tutoring models are flexible and can be altered to meet
individual student or class learning needs. The academic task should
dictate the appropriate model based on content and learning goals.
While there is some upfront planning and instruction, once students
develop an understanding of procedures, groups or dyads can be
altered dependent upon the setting, activity, or desired learning
outcomes.

35. 35
How much instruction is needed to use peer tutoring?
Depending on the subject area and model selected, one to four, 30- to
45-minute sessions can be devoted to teaching and modeling (see
Mastropieri & Scruggs, 2007; Spencer, 2006; Polloway, Patton, &
Serna, 2008). Students should master each step of the model selected
before learning additional skills. A teacher will need to closely
monitor student progress to ensure that established procedures are
followed, students utilize interpersonal skills, and content is covered.
How should peer tutors be trained?
 Establish rules for confidentiality of student progress.
 Define and develop procedures for social skills students may
need throughout peer tutoring (i.e., sharing, taking turns, using
respectful language, and accepting criticism or feedback).
 Define and develop procedures for moving into peer tutoring
groups quickly and quietly.
 Explain and model peer tutoring and allow students to practice
prior to the first peer tutoring session. Consider using a prepared
script for practicing interactions (Fulk & King, 2001).
 Train students how to provide feedback for correct and incorrect
peer responses, including praise.

36. 36
 Teach students how to carefully monitor their own and their
partner’s progress.
What can be done to support peer tutoring initiatives?
 Provide direct, systematic instruction for the peer tutoring
process selected.
 Consider providing cue cards summarizing procedures or post
procedures until automaticity is established.
 Model error correction procedures.
 Chart, and consider posting, student or group progress.
 Praise use of tutoring procedures in addition to correct
responses.
 Share with students the link between peer tutoring and
increased achievement.
What is an ideal schedule for peer tutoring implementation?
Like the models and formation of groups, the development of a peer
tutoring schedule is flexible. However, it should be consistent. For
example, peer tutoring can occur two to three times per week for 20
minutes, with increasing student responsibility and fading of supports
as students master the selected peer tutoring process. However, it is

37. 37
important that student progress and procedures are consistently
monitored to ensure that accurate review and error correction occurs.
What steps are needed to plan for peer tutoring implementation?
Planning and Implementing a Peer Tutoring Program
 Clarify the specific objectives of the tutoring program, including
both academic and social objectives when appropriate.
 List objectives in a form that can be easily measured. For
example:
 “Students serving as tutees will improve reading fluency by 30%
on classroom reading materials in the next 12 weeks.”
 “Performance of all students on weekly spelling tests will
improve to an average of 85%; no student will score lower than 60%.”
 “Within 8 weeks, students involved in tutoring will report that
math is at least their third favorite class.”
 Choose tutoring partners carefully. No firm conclusions can be
drawn to direct tutoring choices; nevertheless, several considerations
should be taken into account. Some teachers have recommended
choosing students as tutors who are conscientious in class, and who
generally have to work for their grades. These teachers have believed
that the brightest students may have less empathy for students who
do not learn easily (Jenkins & Jenkins, 1981), although, exceptions to

38. 38
this are commonly found. Other considerations include the
compatibility of the tutoring pair. Teachers should find pairs who will
work together well; however, they should also encourage pairing
students who are different in gender, race, or socioeconomic status
whenever possible, and not exclusively support established groupings.
 Establish rules and procedures for the tutoring program. These
rules should cover how students are to interact with each other, and
specify the type of interactions that are not acceptable. Procedures
should specify the times and dates of tutoring, the materials to be
used, and the specific activities to be undertaken.
 Implement the tutoring program, monitor it carefully, and be
consistent in enforcing the rules and procedures. Modify rule and
procedures as necessary.
 Evaluate the program frequently, and do not wait for the end of
the program to determine whether it was effective. Collect
information throughout the program, and predict whether it will be
successful. If progress is not being made, modify the program.
What are some strategies for avoiding behavioral challenges?
 Use multiple sources of data to establish groups(Sutherland &
Snyder, 2007).
 Provide cue cards.
 Post procedures.
 Review and model steps for providing constructive feedback.
 Reinforce students using specific, clear feedback.

39. 39
 View challenges as teachable moments.
 Evaluate and re-evaluate student pairings to determine success,
and if necessary, rearrange pairs accordingly.
What would a CWPT session look like in a classroom?
After determining the desired content for CWPT, three 20-minute
sessions were scheduled for the first week. A list of key vocabulary
from the current science unit was identified and the method of
tutoring was established as flashcard review. Key questions relevant
to the unit concepts were printed on one side of index cards while the
other side of the card was printed with the answer. Students were
ranked from highest performing to lowest performing. The student
list was cut in half and the top performing student was paired with the
highest lower performing student. In addition, all students were split
into two teams, independent of tutor/ tutee pairings.
Students were reminded of procedures, rules, and expectations during
CWPT. Students were instructed to collect flash card materials and to
select the first tutor. Procedures were outlined to include having the
tutor pose each question to the tutee as written on the flash card, and
upon receiving an answer from the tutee, placing the card into either a

40. 40
correct or incorrect pile. Tutors were instructed to praise tutees for
correct answers and to providing corrections for incorrect answers.
Once instructions were provided, a timer was set for 10 minutes for
the first tutor and tutee rotation. At the end of the 10 minutes, tutors
recorded the number of correct and incorrect answers on a progress
monitoring worksheet. Tutors and tutees switched roles and the
remaining flash cards were used to quiz the second student. Again, at
the end of another 10 minute session, the second tutor recorded the
tutees progress, tallying correct and incorrect answers. Each student’s
progress for the daily peer tutoring session was recorded on the class-
wide team tally sheet displayed in the classroom. At the end of the
week, winning teams are presented with certificates and new teams
were generated for the following week.
What would a PALS session look like in a classroom?
To assist students with math concepts, two 30-minute sessions were
scheduled for the first week. Math problems from the current math
unit were compiled and a worksheet covering each component of the
unit was created to highlight the most important material. Students
were placed into pairs based on an alphabetical list of student last

41. 41
names. Students were reminded of procedures, rules, and
expectations during PALS.
Roles were determined for each pair. A “coach” and a “player” were
assigned for the first day. Coaches were instructed to ask the player
guided questions as a way to review math problems in each unit
component. Each coach in each pair was provided with the same
guide as a way to prompt players to think about solutions to the math
problems. In addition, all students were trained to correct peers who
made mistakes in a polite and constructive manner. The coach
questioned and guided the math problem activity for approximately 15
minutes. For the remaining 15 minutes of the PALS activity, all
students received a worksheet that covered the material presented.
During the first 10 minutes, each student individually completed the
worksheet task that included both review and more challenging
problems. During the last five minutes, students exchanged papers
and, using a key provided by the teacher, corrected one another’s
papers. Each paper was scored and collected by the teacher who used
the information as a means of assessing student progress. For the
second session during the first week, the roles of “coach” and “player”
were reversed, allowing each student to assume a tutor and tutee role.
https://council-for-learning-disabilities.org/peer-tutoring-flexible-
peer-mediated-strategy-that-involves-students-serving-as-
academic-tutors

42. 42
Team Teaching
What is Team Teaching?
As the name suggests it is a group of teachers, working as a team and
teaching. The team can range from 2 to 5 teachers who will teach the
same group of students.
The different type of teaching may include- Teaching the same group
at the same time, shared teaching as per the area of expertise or
teaching different subgroup within a large group of students.
Team Teaching Method
The team-teaching method is one of the greatest innovation in the
teaching sector. It came into existence in the year 1954 in the USA and
was mainly focused on developing courses and teaching strategies.
Team teaching is also known as collaborative teaching or co-teaching
method. The definitions to team teaching are defined by different
people in different ways.
Team Teaching Definition:
“Team teaching is a type of instructional organization involving
teaching personnel and the students assigned to them in which two or
more teachers are given responsibility, looking together, for all or a

43. 43
significant part of the instruction for some group students”. – as
per Spanish.
“In this teaching strategy two or more than two teachers involve to
make a plan of any given subject, or subjects cooperatively, carry it
out, and always evaluate its effect on the students periodically” –
by educationist
“It is a form of organization in which
individual teachers decide to pool
resources, interest, and expertise in
order to device and implement a
scheme of work suitable to the needs
for their pupils and the facilities of
their school”.- as per David Warwick
Characteristics of Team Teaching:
 The team-teaching method is flexible
 In team teaching, teachers need to decide their activities by
themselves
 It is a collective responsibility
 In team teaching, the whole responsibility is on all the
teachers
 The requirements of pupils, schools and other things are also
considered

44. 44
 Teaching and evaluation are both done on the co-operative
basis
Few other characteristics are,
 Economic factors
 Enthusiasm is structured
 Staff development
 Experience-centered work
Types of Team Teaching:
There are mainly 2 types of team teaching methods, they are
1. Hierarchic team teaching:
This type of team teaching method is just similar to a pyramid where
different levels of teachers are organized in a structure from top to
bottom. The team leader is placed at the top, mid-level teachers just
below the team leader and normal teachers at the bottom.
2. Synergetic team teaching:
In this type of teaching method, there is no differentiation between
teachers. Through the cooperation of two or more teachers working
together, synergetic team teaching groups can be formed.

45. 45
Six Approaches to Co-Teaching:
Co-teaching or team teaching is basically a collective understanding of
two or more teachers focusing on a single group of students with the
best use of strategies, methodology and joint accountability.
1. One Teach, One Observe
2. One Teach, One Assist
3. Parallel Teaching
4. Station Teaching
5. Alternative Teaching
6. Team Teaching
Objectives of Team-Teaching:
The team-teaching method is practiced mainly at a single classroom
or space and it is developed so as to improvise the learning strategies
for the students.
1. Improve the quality of the instructions provided.
2. Effective teaching methods as per the interests of the pupils.
3. Make the best usage of abilities, interests, and expertise in
the teacher’s community.

46. 46
Advantages of Team Teaching in Education:
1. Low cost:
One can get an efficient form of learning at a very low cost; as such no
new resources are required to start team teaching.
2. Support to teachers:
Usually, teachers are overburdened with the fact that they have to
complete the curriculum by the end of the term, even if they have
creative ideas to
teach students
they do not have
enough time to
plan and impart
the same to the
students.
Moreover, it can
also happen that teachers have ideas but need guidance to develop the
skill and impart the same to the students.
Team teaching eliminates such problems and other problems of a
similar kind. When teachers collaborate they could play on their
strengths and weaknesses and together as a team can make a
successful way to teach and learn.

47. 47
3. Closer integration of staff:
Very often teachers in schools and colleges lack bonding and
friendship among themselves. Even worse a competitive environment
is seen among the teachers.
The main motive of educational institutes is to impart value to
students and work as a whole for being efficient knowledge importers.
Envy or competition among teachers can have a negative impact on the
Institute and on the student’s mind.
With team teaching, teachers are bound to bond, as frequent
discussions and planning make them develop a good relationship. A
happy staff can effectively inculcate the vision of the Institute
4. Variety of ideas:
When teachers come together with their teaching style, ideas and
expertise come together, if planned perfectly, the mixture of best
ideas and styles will put forth many ways out of a single topic. It thus
helps in better learning
5. Better involvement of students:
A new method is always appealing; students might wonder what new
thing they are going to learn. A team of teacher will have various ways
and ideas to put forth, which make the students, put on their thinking

48. 48
cap and question ‘why’ for all things. They will come up with various
questions, queries, and ideas.
A dynamic discussion session will increase student’s involvement and
thus helps in bringing out the best in students
6. Mental stimulation to students:
In traditional lecture only one teacher is teaching, the ideas, thoughts
are only one way. Often students are forced to accept whatever taught
and they do not bother to think the other way around.
Team teaching helps them question the theories and facts. When the
students are totally involved it brings out the creativity and the habit
of questioning things.
7. Breaks traditional lecture boredom:
Let’s be very honest, in lectures, we are often distracted, either
chatting with our friends or checking our phones. Or maybe jotting
down notes, in all the mentioned cases we are giving divided attention.
An interactive session, debates, help of visual aids and the like evokes
interests among students. Team teaching exactly does that.
8. Better bonding between student and teacher:

49. 49
Humans bond when they interact, it is as simple as that. The bonding
is increased when teachers often ask questions and listen to what
students have to say. People when heard and appreciated, will
ultimately be more engaged.
9. Provokes participation / interaction:
Teachers will often find students who rarely participate in any activity
and are aloof, mostly students with a shy personality will not speak
much in class. But during team-teaching, a variety of ideas are put
forth.
A perfectly planned lecture will provoke even the most notorious and
most aloof people to be engaged. Team teaching helps teachers deal
with students of all personalities well and get better engagement
10. Imparts the lesson of team management:
When students see the way teachers work in a team, they indirectly get
the lesson of team management and the importance of working in a
team. Everyone in their career will need to work in teams.
Students get to see how teachers capitalize on each of their strengths
how they respect each other’s ideas and how as a whole they put the
best picture forward. Indirectly, team teaching is helping reduce the
extra lecture on team management.

50. 50
11. Develops interpersonal skills and logic of students:
Students interaction and logic is improved drastically as they learn to
question things and learn how to communicate their ideas effectively.
While in case of a debate, students get to learn how to respect the
contradicting ideas, accept them and also tell their own thoughts in
return.
12. Teachers can give individual attention:
When a teacher is teaching solely, he or she cannot give attention to
the students who have a problem learning. The main focus is to make
the whole group of student understanding at the same time. But we all
know that all students are different and everyone has their own
learning pace.
In team teaching, if one teacher is speaking the other one can solve
the queries student raises, without disturbing the whole class.
13. Staff development:
There is no limit to learning, provided if one wishes to, team teaching
gives teachers an opportunity to learn and grow themselves.
Teachers also get a chance to brush up their skills, work up to their
fullest potential and along with that their creativity, motivation,
and team management skills get a solid boost too.

51. 51
14. Long-term knowledge retention:
With a dynamic and interactive session students are engaged and they
learn better. Knowledge retention is much higher than the traditional
learning approach
Disadvantages of Team Teaching:
1. Acceptance of change by teachers:
Let’s face it, we humans dislike change, teachers may not accept the
idea of team teaching, they are often rigid and want to stick to the
traditional teaching techniques. The idea that they will have to put
extra effort and work hard makes them reluctant.
Team teaching can only be effective if teachers are willing and happy
to involve in the new form of teaching. A forced approach is bound to
fail.
While traditional teaching has been an attempted and tried technique,
likewise it has disadvantages of traditional teaching, especially
nowadays the innovation has improved adapting, more fun and
intelligence.
2. Rigidity in teachers:

52. 52
Apart from accepting the change in the form of teaching, teachers
often have the rigidity to accept and adjust with other teachers,
while working in a team we have to accept others idea and drop ours.
Teachers should not have an ego and should handle criticism openly.
3. Bad team management:
Internal coordination and good team tempo are extremely important,
internal conflict may result in a complete failure.
4. Personality conflict:
People with contradicting personality must devise a way to work
together effectively. A dominating person will overpower other people,
a collaborative approach will help everyone grow and devise an
effective process of team teaching.
5. Inability to complete curriculum:
While devising creative curriculum & engaging students in an
interactive session, the curriculum may fall behind.
Even though creative teaching is necessary, it is also important for
completing the course syllabus. This is one of the major challenges
faced during team teaching.
6. Time for coordination and planning:

53. 53
Teachers have to take out time from their busy schedules and sit
together to devise the lecture flow and activities that have to be
carried out.
Many times you could find them juggling through their own work and
the time required for planning out the course
7. Hard to keep track:
The sessions at times can get super interactive and teachers will forget
the link. The teachers have shared responsibility and have an
individual role to play. If anyone of the teachers is absent for some
reason then the whole session will be jeopardized.
8. Takes time to develop:
Teachers will have to refer many books and talk to several veteran
teachers for designing an effective teaching plan.
It will also involve deep research and planning out activities which will
be appealing to students. Thus it takes lots of time and efforts before
even starting a session.
9. Going overboard:
While being creative and lining up too many activities, it could get way
beyond the required amount.

54. 54
A little simulation to students brain will bring the best in them, but if it
gets too much they will find it too hard to comprehend. One needs to
find the right amount.
10. Resistance from students:
Since childhood, students get used to the traditional form of teaching,
they like the structure and the repetitiveness of the lectures. Most
probably they have devised their own ways to make it work, a sudden
change in the style of teaching will make them confused and they
might resist the change.
Some Students like the basic lecture and then they do their self-study
to learn in deep about it. You could find students coming up with
specific problems that they find difficult.
Teaching them everything in detail and inculcating activity, debate or
different methods to teach the same topic may make them feel that
their time is getting wasted.
11. Takes time to develop:
This new teaching style is fresh to students as well as teachers.
Teachers would not have perfect coordination at the first go, they will
have to do many trails for reaching a most effective format. There can
be an overlap of ideas among teachers or they could not impart
whatever they thought of.

55. 55
It could also happen that they overestimated or underestimated the
time required to complete the planned tasks. If one of the teachers
finds it too difficult to carry out and opts out of it then the whole team
will be disrupted.
Teachers can also face resistance from the students. Too many ideas
and discussion will make the classroom chaotic. Patience from
teachers as well as students is required for a successful team-teaching
12. The expectation of higher compensation:
If we compare the efforts required for teaching solely with the efforts
required to teach in a team, then the later one is undoubtedly much
harder and would require deep study, time and planning.
Thus teachers may demand a higher salary. It could ultimately bring
financial pressure on the educational institute.
Necessary Skills Required in the Team of Teachers:
1. A team of teachers with a various set of skills perspective and
expertise.
2. Vision and sense of direction.
3. Ability to coordinate internally.
4. Excellent team planning.
5. Friendly nature and ability to keep the environment
conducive.

56. 56
Tips To Make Team Teaching Effective:
1. The openness of mind- Teachers and students must be open
to change and must embrace this new form of learning.
2. An effective strategy is necessary which requires undivided
attention and time, willingness to make the learning effective.
The strategy should involve coverage of course syllabus,
activities and quizzes to be carried out, a flow of lecture and
documenting and developing a database of the same.
3. Regular meetings and follow up.
4. Rotation of roles to enhance learning and reduce boredom.
5. An effective way to assess students performance.
6. Respecting others idea.
7. Training to new teachers who are new to the concept of team
teaching.
Main Ingredients of Team Teaching Strategy:
1. Scheduling
2. Grouping of students
3. Teachers assign themselves responsibilities
4. New building arrangement
5. The pupils are provided independent study time
6. Make use of paraprofessionals
7. The centralized libraries are replaced by resource centers

57. 57
Example of Team Teaching:
Let’s say that your college has 4 teachers who teach sociology. Here
each teacher will be teaching a few sections to your class. The sections
or topics of the whole subject will be divided by the teachers
themselves. The senior-most teacher will be the team leader of the
whole process.
We can see the advantages outweighs the disadvantages if done
properly team teaching can be an effective tool for successful learning.
Though it requires a lot of efforts and coordination, it promotes
overall growth and development for teachers and for students.
https://content.wisestep.com/advantages-disadvantages-team-
teaching-method/

58. 58
Project-Based Learning
Project-based learning is an instructional approach designed to give
students the opportunity to develop knowledge and skills through
engaging projects set around challenges and problems they may face
in the real world.
Project-based learning, or PBL, is more than just projects. As the Buck
Institute for Education (BIE) explains, with PBL students "investigate
and respond to an authentic, engaging, and complex problem, or
challenge" with deep and sustained attention. ArchForKids LLC put it
even more succinctly: PBL is "learning by doing."
Why Project-Based Learning? We Live in a Project-Based World.
The truth is, many in education are recognizing we live in a modern
world sustained and advanced through the successful completion of
projects. Or, as Swiss Psychologist Jean Piaget put it, “knowledge is a
consequence of experience.”
It’s true! Your weekend chores, an upcoming presentation, or
organizing a fundraising event—they’re all projects.

59. 59
For most modern workers, it will be a series of projects that mark their
career rather than years of service to a specific organization. “Solving
real-world issues that matter is important to us as adults—and it’s
important to our students,” explain Lathram, Lenz, and Vander Ark in
their ebook, Preparing Students for a Project-Based World.
In short, if we are to prepare students for success in life, we need to
prepare them for a project-based world.
What are the Essential Elements of Project-Based Learning?
Although definitions and project parameters may vary from school to
school, and PBL is sometimes used interchangeably with "experiential
learning" or "discovery learning," the characteristics of project-based
learning are clear and constant.
In essence, the PBL model consists of these seven characteristics:
 Focuses the student on a big open-ended question, challenge,
or problem to research and respond to and/or solve.
 Brings what students should academically know, understand,
and be able to do into the equation.
 Is inquiry-based.

60. 60
 Uses 21st-century skills such as critical thinking,
communication, collaboration, and creativity, among others.
 Builds student choice into the process.
 Provides opportunities for feedback and revision of the plan and
the project.
 Requires students to present their problems, research process,
methods, and results.
Following fifteen years of literature review and distilled educational
experience, the Buck Institute for Education also identified seven
essential elements for PBL but focsed them on project design.
Collectively these elements are called Gold Standard PBL.
According to the BIE, the key elements to project design include:
 A Challenging Problem or Question
 Sustained Inquiry
 Authenticity
 Student Voice and Choice
 Reflection
 Critique and Revision

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 Public Product
All these elements, if combined well, result in students learning key
knowledge, understanding, and skills for success.
An example where all these elements come together is in our high
school Business Incubator class. Teams of students propose and
design a product based upon a challenging need or intricate problem.
These young entrepreneurs pitch their ideas to business and
community leaders in an effort to gain support for launching their
product.

62. 62
One team of students designed a mobile app providing real-time air
quality readings at locations around the world. Raising awareness
about air pollution, supporting health-conscious travelers, and making
global connections were galvanizing real-world provocations for their
project.
It’s worth noting that while project-based learning may seem like
some specific or isolated instructional practice, the lists above should
look familiar. They are really the elements of great learning
experiences. You don’t have to subscribe to project-based learning to
incorporate elements of it in your classrooms.
Having said that, there are benefits that true project-based learning
provides.
Benefits of Project-Based Learning
Too often, traditional learning never ventures beyond the realm of the
purely academic. Project-based learning connects students to the real
world. PBL prepares students to accept and meet challenges in the real
world, mirroring what professionals do every day.
Instead of short-term memorization strategies, project-based learning
provides an opportunity for students to engage deeply with the target

63. 63
content, bringing about a focus on long-term retention. PBL
also improves student attitudes toward education, thanks to its ability
to keep students engaged. The PBL structure lends itself to building
intrinsic motivation because it centers student learning around an
essential central question or problem and a meaningful outcome.
Daniel Pink, in his TEDTalk and influential book, Drive, says people are
intrinsically motivated by three things—autonomy, mastery, and
purpose. Popular terms like grit and rigor become embedded
dispositions when learners sink their teeth into meaningful endeavors.
A recent collaborative study conducted by the University and Michigan
and Michigan State University suggests the implementation of project-
based learning correlated positively with student achievement,
particularly in schools serving high-poverty communities. This
research emphasizes the importance of projects being standards-
aligned and supported with research-proven instructional strategies.
Because of its focus on 21st-century skills, the PBL model also
enhances students' technology abilities. Jennifer Gonzalez noted how
project-based learning helps students develop teamwork and
problem-solving skills, along with the ability to communicate
effectively with others. The collaborative nature of projects also
reinforces the social-emotional learning (SEL) programs being
implemented at progressive schools around the world.

64. 64
These interpersonal aspects of PBL dovetail perfectly with the use of
technology in the classroom. Technology-based projects are
interdisciplinary, collaborative, inquiry-based, self-directed,
motivating, and address the full range of student needs and learning
styles, according to Christa Love of TechnoKids. Additionally, digital
literacies and digital citizenship objectives become ingrained in tech-
based projects.
Speaking of learning objectives, a quick review of ISTE’s recently
revised standards for students will disclose the relevance of PBL to
modern learning. By highlighting standards including empowered
learner, innovative designer, creative communicator, and global
collaborator, you would think these standards were tailor-made with
PBL in mind.
Challenges of Project-Based Learning
The Intel Corporation identified several reasons why project-based
learning can represent such a radical departure from what we are used
to in education. PBL requires you to coach more and instruct less, to
embrace interdisciplinary learning instead of remaining locked in
single-subject silos, and to be more comfortable with uncertainty and
discovery during the learning process.

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For many instructors, PBL is a stark contrast to the traditional
education they experienced. Change takes time and is seldom without
apprehension and challenges. However, when we consider the types of
educational experiences we value for our modern learners, it becomes
apparent the traditional “sage on the stage” instructional model falls
significantly short.
The truth is, though, you can overcome these PBL challenges. Good
problems or ideas can come from your students, parents, or
community members. Instead of lectures and book learning, teachers
can think through the steps required to solve a problem and use those
steps as project-learning activities. Instead of planning a massive
project, the learning process can be made more manageable by

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chunking the project into smaller parts, with frequent checkpoints
built into the timeline. Instead of a traditional summative exam,
authentic assessments can be developed by communicating with
professionals in the field regarding what a presentation would look
like related to a particular project.
Examples of Project-Based Learning in Action
In one science-based project, students begin with a visit to a zoo,
learning about animal habitats and forming opinions on which habitats
best suit a selected animal. For this example, the project component
included teams of students collaborating to develop a research-
supported habitat plan for presentation to professional and student
zoologists.

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While the sciences fit neatly into PBL environment, the instructional
strategy lends itself naturally to interdisciplinary learning. In an
example that blends English language arts and the social studies,
students answer the classic essential question, "What role does
censorship play in society?" Following introductory instruction,
students select a banned book, read it, compose a persuasive essay
and take part in a censorship-related mock trial experience conducted
in the presence of experts.
Want to find solace from the boring, "drill and kill" Math lessons?
In this example, students assume the role of a National Security
Agency code breaker, with a life-or-death project scenario in which
they must decode a message potentially revealing the location of a
planned terror attack on the United States. Students decrypt the
message, send a coded message of their own and present their work.
A professional in a related field visits the class to launch the project
and connect it to real-world experience.
Are you looking for more examples of PBL schools? John Larmer, Editor
and Chief for the Buck Institute for Education PBL Blog, shares several
shining examples of schools making a commitment to deeper learning
through PBL instruction. Larmer suggests investigating schools
belonging to the Deeper Learning Network. These innovative schools
include the essential elements frequently mentioned in BIE’s Gold
Standard PBL.

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Project-Based Learning Lesson Plans
The Buck Institute also provides a hub for PBL lesson plans that align
to Common Core standards. They make it easy to search their
database by the source of the lesson plan, the subject, and the course.
A few quick examples of the more than 100 PBL lessons include:
 The Ultimate Design Challenge—Students design solutions to a
current problem using mathematical models.
 Lending a Helping Hand—Students become financial advisors
and are challenged to make the best use of $25 in a way that
impacts their community most.
 Lost!—In this project, students are isolated somewhere in the
world and must design a civilization that stands the test of time.

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It’s important to note that some of the lesson plans in this resource
library are free while others come at a cost. Many of the lesson plans
that require payment do provide sample pages, so you can get an idea
on how to recreate it in your own way.
Now that you know what PBL is, what it looks like in the classroom,
and where to find lesson plans, let’s look at how you can actually get
started.

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Getting Started With Project-Based Learning
Every journey may begin with a single step, but sometimes that step
can seem daunting. Carol Ann Tomlinson, writing about differentiation
in the classroom, advised teachers to start with "small, well-
orchestrated changes," selecting a few targeted goals each year,
focusing on doing those things well and concentrating on growth.
The same concept applies to project-based learning. Dream big,
but start small. Writing for Edutopia, Andrew Miller advised teachers to
keep things simple by limiting the scope and duration of a project,
using or renovating an existing project, and taking the time to get
meaningful feedback and engage in professional reflection.
You can also flip your understanding of how to get started with
project-based learning by approaching it from the students'
perspective and providing them with the resources they need to make
sense of PBL as a concept and the practical steps once they are
engaged in the process.
Tom Vander Ark, writing for Getting Smart, shares a
helpful introductory framework for high-quality PBL. This framework
includes six criteria meant to support students, parents, and educators
as they embark on their PBL journeys. These criteria include;
authenticity, challenge, collaboration, and reflection. Additional

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examples and resources related to project-based learning can be
found here.
Project-based learning is easier than you may think and well within
your grasp. Sometimes coming up with project ideas can present an
initial stalemate for students. This post from Teach Thought includes
resources for teachers, as well as, project ideas for students. How
would you like 42 prompts for your students so they can design their
own projects? You can start small, think practically, and change the
way you and your students view content learning and mastery.
It’s Time to Seriously Consider Project-Based Learning
What does learning look like? Under what conditions does our most
profound and best learning occur? For most of us, we learn best by
doing, examining, reflecting, and iterating.
Successful entrepreneur, Richard Branson said, “You don't learn to
walk by following rules. You learn by doing … and by falling over.” In
contrast, but still in line with PBL principles, PBL guru John Dewey said,
“We do not learn from experience. We learn from reflecting on
experience.”

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Project-based learning takes the essential characteristics of what we
value most about education and puts them front and center of our
formal learning environments. It is a popular and noble aspiration for
educators to inspire and develop life-long learners. Undeniably, PBL
helps prepare students for the “real world” since that is naturally where
their learning occurs.
https://www.schoology.com/blog/project-based-learning-pbl-
benefits-examples-and-resources
Personalized Learning Strategies
It happens all too often: the bell rings to signal the end of class, but
some children are left with doubts and questions — while others are
bored because the last hour was spent on material they already
understood.
These differences are often down to students’ learning styles, and are
fuelling a surge in the use of personalized learning
strategies and adaptive learning technology in the field of K-12
education.

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Teachers can’t always stop the entire class just to help one or two
students who have fallen behind. But they also can’t ignore students
who learn at a different pace.
Perhaps you’re wondering:

o What is personalized learning?
o How does a personalized learning program benefit
teachers and students?
o How can I start using a personalized learning program in
my school?
In this article, we’re going to discuss the definition and key aspects of
personalized learning, as well as examples of schools that have
implemented such programs.
We’ll also detail seven practical steps to building a personalized
learning program in your school, available in a condensed and
printable list for your desk!
What is Personalized Learning?
In short, personalized learning involves an educational environment
and curriculum that revolves around each individual student’s needs
and abilities.

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When schools implement a personalized learning program, the method
and speed of learning can vary for each student. However, the end
goal and academic standards don’t differ. Each student must reach a
certain mastery level of the topic by the end of the unit or school year.
Why does this type of customized learning work?
Because — generally speaking — the learning process is non-linear.
Teachers can’t expect all the students in their classroom to learn in
the exact same way or at the exact same pace.
Customizing the learning experience and tailoring that to each student
means each individual gets the right kind of education based on how
they learn and what interests them.
But what are the results of such a program?
The Benefits of using a Personalized Education program

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Students learn skills that go beyond academia and will help them in
the future
Personalized learning normally involves students in deciding their own
learning process, as we’ll discuss below. This teaches the students
vital skills that will serve them throughout their lives.
For example:
 Sharing in goal-setting helps students develop motivation and
reliability
 Engaging in self-assessment helps students develop self-
reflective abilities
 Determining their best learning activities helps students
develop self-advocacy skills
Students in a personalized learning environment improve their
knowledge significantly
In one study by the Gates Foundation, using personalized learning to
supplement math instruction substantially improved students’ test
scores. The average scores of students in the study went from far
below the national average to exceeding the national average, with
researchers observing that:
students attending [schools using personalized learning] made gains
in math and reading over the last two years that are significantly

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greater than a virtual control group made up of similar students
selected from comparable schools.
While the results are not directly attributable to personalized learning
practices, they were “widespread,” with two-thirds of schools involved
in the study experiencing statistically positive results on student
performance based on the use of personalized learning.
Students with specific weaknesses are able to learn without the stigma
of ‘special-ed’
In the Belmont-Cragin Elementary School in Chicago, personalized
learning allows all students to get the information they need, and fill in
necessary gaps.
For example, one teacher may notice that some students understand a
literacy place at their grade level in Spanish, but struggle in English.
Those kids are able to sit with the special-education teacher and have
personalized literacy lessons without receiving a special-ed status.

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This helps all students maintain the same level, with each individual
being treated according to his or her individual strengths and
weaknesses.
Teachers are able to focus their time more effectively
Since many personalized learning programs include solo or
collaborative activities, teachers are free to address smaller groups of
students for more targeted teaching.
Let’s talk about seven practical strategies that will help you start a
personalized learning program in your school.
7 Strategies to Implement Personalized Learning in Your School
1. Train teachers how to assess students and customize their
experience accordingly
The first step in creating a personalized learning program is educating
your teachers. When teachers fully understand the process, methods,
assessments, tech, and goals involved, then personalized learning can
run smoothly.
However, when teachers are not trained thoroughly, your customized
learning program won’t function properly.
So, before you start, get together with your teachers to discuss ideas,
study personalized learning methods, and set up steps to implement
this kind of program together.

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Then, send teachers on specific training to make personalized learning
part of their every day work life.
This is what the Verona Area School District in Verona, Wisconsin did.
It all started with courses for teachers and school admins on the
subject of personalized learning.
Teachers then went back to their schools and continued conversations,
and subsequently practiced with personalized learning workshops. As
a result, teachers were better prepared to implement and execute a
personalized learning plan for students.
It’s essential that teachers understand how to assess the interests,
strengths, and weaknesses of each student. Then, they are able to
place them correctly in their own personalized learning process.
2. Use Ed-Tech to create a personalized learning environment
Using technology to connect with and engage students is an excellent
way to provide personalized learning.
In fact, technology’s role can be critical. As educator Mary Ann Wolf
observes:
Personalized learning requires not only a shift in the design of
schooling, but also a leveraging of modern technologies. Personalized
learning is enabled by e-learning systems which help dynamically
track and manage the learning needs of all students…everywhere at

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anytime, but which are not available within the four walls of the
traditional classroom.
For example, using game-based learning systems allows students to
learn at their own individual pace, and have fun while doing it! In one
study, schools using a math game in the classroom saw an 11.6%
improvement on standardized test scores.
One example is Prodigy Game — a free, curriculum-aligned math
game used by more than a million teachers and 30 million students
around the world. Prodigy offers content from every major math topic
and covers 1st to 8th Grade.
Other types of commonly-used tech can also be useful in a
personalized classroom. For example, some schools encourage
students to use Google Docs for easy collaboration. This also allows
teachers to monitor the works-in-progress of their students.
3. Allow students to have a part in their learning experience

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Students who are allowed to have a say in their own learning
experience develop essential skills such as self-advocacy.
When given the chance to take part in goal setting within the
classroom, students are also more motivated to reach those goals.
For example, the Middletown, NY, school district implemented a
personalized learning program that helped students to focus on their
goals. Even younger grades were involved in setting goals and, goal
artifacts around the classroom helped encourage them to stick with
the goals they had set.
As a result, this school district saw an increase in students reaching
their NWEA MAP growth targets.
After four years using a personalized learning program, the
percentage of students reaching growth targets in reading went from
44% to 65%. In math, the percentage went up to 67%.
Personalizing content delivery and interaction also helps students
improve by giving them control over their own learning environment.
For example, give students the choice between reading a short story
or listening to an audio version while reading. Allow students to pick
whether they’ll take notes online, on paper, or record their notes
verbally.
Allowing this kind of customized learning gives students the ability to
choose the process that best fits their needs.

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4. Give students multiple opportunities to show their knowledge
While standard test results and essays should never be overlooked,
giving students other ways to show their understanding of topics helps
them take responsibility for their education.
For example, one teacher from the Middletown School District,
mentioned earlier, said:
[Students] use a Google form, and the forms are sent to me
automatically so I am able to instantaneously see how they are self-
assessing. It gives them a sense of accountability and it also lets me
be aware of how they think they did… I use their self-assessment to
help guide my instruction and to help group them for math and ELA.
Constant assessment of students as they move through course
material gives teachers a unique insight into the knowledge level of
each student. Knowing that a student is struggling with a topic today
gives teachers the ability to help them understand on a 1:1 basis
tomorrow.
Teachers can use Google Forms to check the pulse of student
engagement in their class
Otherwise, kids who are struggling go unnoticed until the end of a
unit, and the issue becomes harder to correct.
To personalize a lesson even further, teachers can give students the
opportunity to show what they’ve learned in a practical setting. For
example, a math teacher can have his or her students cook a simple

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meal, using math in a practical way to measure the right amount of
each ingredient.
5. Build personalized learning playlists
When teachers use playlists for self-guided learning activities,
students are enabled to choose the types of learning activities that
work best for them. This, in turn, helps each individual student to do
their best work every day.
So, how does a personalized learning playlist work?
First, teachers set a rotation of learning activities related to the topic.
These could be individual learning activities, digital content, group
collaboration, or peer-to-peer activities.
The choice of activity can be completely up to the student, giving them
the freedom to pick whichever type of learning activity works best for
them.
To make sure every student is doing the right amount of work, assign
a point value to each activity and set a minimum point
requirement. That way, students accomplish all the necessary learning,
but are allowed to do so in their own way and at their own pace.
Lastly, teachers can set learning checkpoints where students are
required to demonstrate their mastery over a certain subject before
moving on to the next step.

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Allowing students to interact as peers or even complete assignments
solo gives teachers valuable time to spend with students who need
extra instruction.
6. Make the classroom flexible
Flexible seating arrangements have become more popular in recent
years, and for good reason. After rearranging their classrooms for a
more flexible seating arrangement, teachers noted benefits such as:
 Decrease in discipline issues
 Improvements in attendance and grades
 A more positive atmosphere in the classroom

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 More comfort for students, leading to better focus (and
surprisingly, fewer sleepers in class!)
Another way personalized learning is seen in a flexible classroom is
through rotating stations. Having specific stations that cater to your
personalized learning playlists allows students to focus on the right
tasks in the right place. This encourages collaboration and makes it
easier for teachers to work with smaller groups for targeted
instruction.
Kayla Delzer,a passionate advocate of flexible seating, argues that
changing the physical space of a classroom directly maps to an impact
on student behavior and learning outcomes, arguing:
Our classroom environments should be conducive to open
collaboration, communication, creativity, and critical thinking. This
simply cannot be done when kids are sitting in rows of desks all day.
7. Flip instruction so students can learn at their own pace
Flipped instruction is a new trend that has been gaining speed since
the early 2000s. The idea behind this method involves inverting the
normal learning process: instead of having lectures at school and
activities at home, students watch recorded lectures at home and
engage in activities together during class time.

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This allows students to watch video lectures at their own pace, pausing
or rewinding whenever they feel necessary. Students can also interact
and ask questions via online chats with their classmates and teachers.
The University of Washington’s depiction of the Flipped Classroom
What are the results of flipped instruction?
One survey found that, of teachers who had tried flipped instruction,
96% said they’d recommend it.
Another study saw significant results in the students when using
flipped instruction. Before the flip, more than 50% of freshmen failed
English, and 44% of freshmen failed math. However, after
implementing flipped instruction, only 19% of freshmen failed English
and 13% failed math.
Like other instructional leadership strategies, it might take some
getting used to — but it’s obvious that flipped learning allows
students to personalize their learning experience, giving them the
ability to learn in a way that is best for them as individuals.

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Conclusion: Are you ready to implement personalized learning in your
school?
Each individual child in your school learns at a different pace. Each one
has needs and interests that are specific to their unique learning style.
Implementing a customized learning program gives all of them the
ability to learn at their own pace, and in the way that’s best for them.
So, are you ready to make this a reality in your school?
https://www.prodigygame.com/blog/personalized-learning/