Recommended
Recommended
More Related Content
Similar to Flag this QuestionQuestion 12 ptsStudies have shown that UV .docx
Similar to Flag this QuestionQuestion 12 ptsStudies have shown that UV .docx (20)
More from AKHIL969626
More from AKHIL969626 (20)
Recently uploaded
Recently uploaded (20)
Flag this QuestionQuestion 12 ptsStudies have shown that UV .docx
- 1. Flag this Question Question 12 pts Studies have shown that UV radiation rapidly depletes ______, which plays a crucial role in neural tube development of the embryo. carotene vitamin C melanin folate melanocytes Flag this Question Question 22 pts According to lecture, thus far, the oldest skeletal evidence for anatomically modern Homo sapiens could be as old as: 125,000 years 1.8 million years 400,000 years 600,000 years
- 2. 195,000 years Flag this Question Question 32 pts This tool is an example of a __________ tool using ________. They are found with increased frequency during the ______. compound; microliths; neolithic integrated; microliths; mesolithic compound; burian; neolithic composite; microliths; mesolithic composite; mousterian flakes; mesolithic Flag this Question Question 42 pts A person raised in the Andean highlands has relatively larger lung volume than does a person raised in the lowlands. This difference is best explained by: Physical adaptation Physiological adaptation Hormonal adaptation Developmental acclimatization
- 3. Genetic acclimatization Flag this Question Question 52 pts Which of the following are basic changes that mark the transition from Neolithic village life to life in the first urban centers? Choose all that apply: diversification of food resources. agricultural innovation. diversification of labor. central government. social stratification. Flag this Question Question 62 pts Which of the following are seen in the pattern of human evolution history? Choose all that apply. Natural selection acting on anatomically modern Homo sapiens within the last 10,000 years Evidence of an adaptive shift starting around 1.8 mya relating to changes in body size, subsistence patterns, and technology changes A shift from extractive foraging to food production starting about 40,000 years ago
- 4. Several groups of hominins that are not directly in the modern human lineage (our evolutionary cousins) Evolution of increased brain size then bipedal locomotion Flag this Question Question 72 pts As discussed in class, genetic adaptations to environmental stresses are seen only in nonhuman animals long term microevolutionary changes within a population always temporary short-term evolutionary changes within an individual the same as acclimatization responses Flag this Question Question 82 pts Molecular information from Ust’-Ishim Man, an anatomically modern Homo sapiensfossil dated to 45,000 years ago shows about _________% admixture with Neandertals. 10 50 2
- 5. 20 0 Flag this Question Question 92 pts Nonconcordant variation means: traits vary between populations at the same rate the presence of one trait can predict another traits vary gradually between neighboring populations traits vary between populations in a predictable pattern traits vary between populations, but not at the same rate Flag this Question Question 102 pts Primary innovation differs from secondary innovation because: it involves modification of primary knowledge it involves careful experimentation to create a new technique it involves chance discovery of a new idea it rarely leads to changes in technology Flag this Question Question 112 pts
- 6. Lactase persistence is a _________ that typifies __________ communities. developmental adaptation; foraging developmental acclimatization; pastoralist genetic adaptation; pastoralist genetic adaptation; agricultural genetic adaptation; foraging Flag this Question Question 122 pts In regards to hominin tool kits, a blade is defined as being: made only out of obsidian twice as wide as it is long a tool that takes fewer steps to make than a flake tool twice as long as it is wide a tool that occurs in high frequency during the middle paleolithic Flag this Question Question 132 pts Which is a term applied to an evolutionary process whereby humans modify, either intentionally or unintentionally, the
- 7. genetic makeup of a population of plants or animals? Transition Revolution Conversion Modification Domestication Flag this Question Question 142 pts Many characteristics that have traditionally been used to define 'races' in human populations: are polygenic. are the product of Mendelian inheritance. do not vary within groups. can easily be altered easily draw distinct boundaries between populations. Flag this Question Question 152 pts Admixture is a term used by population geneticists to indicate: the exchange of genetic information between different species
- 8. population separation due to behavioral boundaries population separation due to geographic boundaries the exchange of cultural information between populations that have been separated for a long time the exchange of genetic information between populations that have been separated for a long time Flag this Question Question 162 pts What is the benefit of an atlatl? It is used for fishing. It can be used as a drill It is used for starting fires. It is used to increase the force and distance of a spear throw. It is a unique type of projectile point Flag this Question Question 172 pts Bergmann’s rule is based on the principle that heat is retained at the body surface states that a linear body with long arms and legs is optimal for
- 9. cold climates states that bodies with increased mass or volume to surface area are optimal for cold climates is based upon the principle that as arms increase in length, there is a corresponding increase in surface area concerns the relationship between climate and shape and size of appendages Flag this Question Question 182 pts According to the complete replacement model, the transition from premodern to modern Homo sapiens only occurred once, in Africa began about 200,000 years ago in Asia occurred first in Europe occurred in several regions of the Old World simultaneously began about 10,000 years ago in Indonesia Flag this Question Question 192 pts Which of the following is NOT a physiological acclimatization to thermal stress: vasodilatation
- 10. vasoconstriction sweating increased hemoglobin production shivering Flag this Question Question 202 pts According to the Regional Continuity Model, ________ prevented local populations of pre-modern Homo sapiens from becoming separate species. gene flow displacement by African Homo sapiens genetic drift founder’s effect mitochondrial DNA Flag this Question Question 212 pts Ultraviolet radiation from the sun: stimulates the production of a vitamin D precursor causes mutations leading to darker skin
- 11. increases in northern latitudes provides vitamin D causes rickets Flag this Question Question 222 pts The word civilization connotes refinement and progress, but in anthropology, the term refers to central inhabited cities where transportation and communication hubs exist. societies in which large numbers of people live in political systems that lack stratification. societies in which small numbers of people live in socially stratified political systems. the independence of people to do what they desire. societies in which large numbers of people live in socially stratified political systems. Flag this Question Question 232 pts The distribution pattern of Neandertal DNA in the Ust’-Ishim Man sample as compared to its distribution pattern in modern humans relates to:
- 12. crossover (recombination) during mitosis there was no Neandertal DNA in Ust’-Ishim Man sexual selection the principle of independent assortment crossover (recombination) during meiosis Flag this Question Question 242 pts The potato, tomato, and peanut were all first domesticated in North America South America Europe Africa Southwest Asia Flag this Question Question 252 pts Who were the earliest Mesolithic people known to have stored plant food, as evidenced by basin-shaped depressions in the rocks found outside homes and plastered storage pits beneath the floors of the houses? Cro-magnon
- 13. Babylonians Natufians Denisovans Neandertals Flag this Question Question 262 pts Based on the distribution of human genetic variation, if a global disaster killed everyone on the planet except those people living in Asia, ______% of human genetic variation would still be represented. 90 85 15 5 10 Flag this Question Question 272 pts Biological systems are balanced systems maintained by the interaction of physiological mechanisms that compensate for both external and internal changes. Such a balanced system is in
- 14. heterostasis homeostasis acclimatization hypoxia polystasis Flag this Question Question 282 pts Blombos Cave is significant for accomplishments in art and technology that date to the ________________ but are similar to accomplishments dated to the __________________ in Europe. Middle Paleolithic, Lower Paleolithic Upper Paleolithic, Middle Paleolithic Lower Paleolithic, Middle Paleolithic Middle Paleolithic, Upper Paleolithic Flag this Question Question 292 pts The question of whether modern humans and Neandertals interbred at some point was settled about twenty years ago was never an issue among paleoanthropologists
- 15. is far from settled is established based on genetic evidence. was called into question with the discoveries at Zhoukoudian Flag this Question Question 302 pts All of the following are characteristics commonly associated with domesticated plants except: development of simultaneous ripening reduction of seed protective devices, such as husks increased size increase in natural seed dispersal mechanisms loss of delayed seed germination Flag this Question Question 312 pts The first hominin to spread to North and South America was______. Homo erectus Homo heidelbergensis
- 16. Homo sapiens Neandertal Homo habilis Flag this Question Question 322 pts Which of the following best describes accelerated breathing for a non-native at high altitude? Physical adaptation Genetic adaptation Hormonal adaptation Developmental acclimatization Physiological acclimatization Flag this Question Question 332 pts Hypoxia is the increased availability of oxygen is the reduced availability of oxygen is a problem for people living at sea level occurs at higher altitudes because the atmosphere contains less
- 17. oxygen than at sea level exerts no stress on humans Flag this Question Question 342 pts A polytypic species is one composed of local populations that differ from one another with regard to the expression of one or moretraits is one that has very little phenotypic variability is one composed of local populations that differ from one another with regard to the expression of no more than three traits is composed of narrowly dispersed populations has never been observed in nature Flag this Question Question 352 pts Scholars attribute the earliest form of writing to__________. health records for each of its citizens recordkeeping of state affairs of economic activity records of warfare accomplishments and titles Preserving a written form of story-telling and a collection of
- 18. cultural myths codification of formal law for judiciary purposes Flag this Question Question 362 pts The application of evolutionary principles to the study of human variation allowed scientists to ignore the adaptive significance of most traits reinforced traditional views of races as fixed biological entities that do not change allowed scientists to divide the human species precisely into well-defined races helped replace earlier views based solely on observed phenotypes has been of little value for understanding human variation Flag this Question Question 372 pts Indigenous Tibetan populations have a genetic adaptation to high altitude that: increases production of hemoglobin suppresses vasodilatation for oxygen delivery
- 19. suppresses the typical hypoxia response increases the risk of pregnancy difficulties due to vascular supply issues increases the typical developmental acclimatization response to high altitude Flag this Question Question 382 pts Upper Paleolithic toolkits are characterized by all except: bone tools blades regional specializations bronze tools burins Flag this Question Question 392 pts The Skhûl site is in ____________. One important aspect of this region in regards to Late Pleistocene hominin evolution is _____________. France, contemporaneous occupation by H. erectus and anatomically modern H. sapiens. East Africa, contemporaneous occupation by Neandertals and anatomically modern H. sapiens.
- 20. Israel, contemporaneous occupation by Neandertals and anatomically modern H. sapiens. France, contemporaneous occupation by Neandertals and anatomically modern H. sapiens. Israel, contemporaneous occupation by H. erectus and anatomically modern H. sapiens. Flag this Question Question 402 pts Which statement is NOT true about clinal variation: traits with clinal variation have clearly defined geographic boarders it explains similarities between neighboring populations traits with clinal variation differ gradually between neighboring populations human skin color is a trait with clinal variation clinal variation refutes typological classifications of modern humans Flag this Question Question 4114 pts Match the description/definition with the site/subsistence practice Located in East Africa and dated to 160,000-154,000 ya; cranial
- 21. remains with modern human traits; includes remains of a child Located in South Africa and dated to 165,000 ya; evidence of microliths cultivation of crops; uses simple hand tools Located in East Africa and dated to 196,000-104,000 ya; cranial framents with features identified as modern human Located in Central Africa and dated to 80,000 ya; hooks for fishing are found here farming that involves large plots of land and/or extensive irrigation Located in Southwest Asia and dated to ~110,000 ya; cranial remains considered to be modern human but have some Neandertal features; Flag this Question Question 422 pts One of the effects of larger population sizes during the Neolithic is: increase in subsistence variety increase tooth wear increase in infectious disease decrease in craft specialization
- 22. decrease innovation in farming techniques Flag this Question Question 432 pts Based on the genetic adaptations that have been found in modern human populations that have differing amounts of starch in their diet, what would you expect to find in a foraging population that utilizes taro roots and yams? A majority of people will have at least 6 copies of the amylase gene in their genome A majority of people will have only 3 copies of the amylase gene in their genome There have been no genetic adaptations found to be associated with increased frequency of starch in the diet A majority of people will have at least 6 copies of the lactase persistence gene in their genome Older individuals will have more copies of the amylase gene than do younger individuals Flag this Question Question 442 pts Consider a hypothetical human population with limited access to medical care. Which of the following diseases is likely to be affected by natural selection? Choose all that apply. a heritable disease that kills affected individuals by the age of 10 a disease caused by environmental factors that kills some
- 23. individuals by the age of 55. Some individuals have immunity to the effects of the disease. a disease caused by environmental factors that kills some individuals by the age of 10. Some individuals have immunity to the effects of the disease. a heritable disease that kills affected individuals by the age of 55 [ Choose ] [ Choose ] [ Choose ] [ Choose ] [ Choose ] [ Choose ] [ Choose ] The Art of Managing New Product Transitions S P R I N G 2 0 0 7 V O L . 4 8 N O . 3 R E P R I N T N U M B E R 4 8 3 1 1 Feryal Erhun, Paulo Conçalves and Jay Hopman
- 24. Please note that gray areas reflect artwork that has been intentionally removed. The substantive content of the article appears as originally published. Faster time to market and shorter product life cycles are pushing compa-nies into more frequent product transitions, requiring managers to confront the potential rewards and challenges associated with product intro- ductions and phaseouts. Several studies show that most new products fail in the marketplace for a variety of reasons,1 and both academics and practitio- ners have identified strategies for improving the chances of success.2 With a few exceptions, these studies focus on the success of a single product.3 However, companies often struggle with product transitions even when the new product meets all the requirements for success. Consider, for example, two consecutive generations of high-volume micropro- cessors that we observed at Intel Corp., the U.S. semiconductor manufacturer. For the sake of this discussion, we will refer to
- 25. the products as X and Y. (See “About the Research,” p. 74.) Intel originally designed X as a transitional product to pave the way for a stronger performance trajectory than was occurring with the previous platform. While X itself performed only slightly better than the previous generation at launch, its design allowed for perfor- mance gains later based on a wide array of computing benchmarks. Intel planned to move a substantial portion of the market to X and then complete the transition to Y, which offered similar performance at lower cost. Unfortunately, the transition to X did not go smoothly. With capac- ity in place to support a moderately strong ramp up, early production led to excess inventory. X’s failure to meet customers’ needs and inability to usurp sales from its predecessor resulted in continued demand and
- 26. short supply for the prior product. Consequently, competitors succeeded at increasing unit sales of their products. Intel quickly realized that there were problems with X’s components and pricing strategy. Management seized upon several measures to improve sales, including rebates, but X continued to languish. As the introduction of Y ap- proached, the company started an ambitious marketing campaign and price cut to spur sales and regain market share. These actions led to record demand for Y, exceeding all expectations. With limited production capacity, Intel SPRING 2007 MIT SLOAN MANAGEMENT REVIEW 73 P R O D U C T D E V E L O P M E N T The Art of Managing New Product Transitions Feryal Erhun is an assistant professor of management science and engineering at Stanford University, in Palo Alto, California. Paulo Gonçalves is an assistant professor of
- 27. management science at the University of Miami, in Coral Gables, Florida. Jay Hopman is a strategic analyst and researcher at Intel Corp., in Folsom, California. Comment on this article or contact the authors through [email protected] New product launches are highly complex and can pose major challenges to companies. But managing the interplay between product generations can greatly increase the chances for success. Feryal Erhun, Paulo Gonçalves and Jay Hopman P R O D U C T D E V E L O P M E N T struggled to meet demand for some products within the Y family.
- 28. Finally, after several months, Intel succeeded in balancing demand and supply, eventually regaining the market share it had lost. Coordinating supply and demand between two product gen- erations can be a difficult and costly problem. Although Intel’s Y met all the requirements for a successful product introduction, marketing and pricing decisions enacted in response to limited market acceptance of X significantly shaped the outcome of the Y launch. Intel’s operations management team did its best to satisfy customers through the transition. However, customers were frustrated by supply shortages, and the transition had sub- stantial costs: lost revenues from discounting Y, marketing campaign expenses, significant investments in capital equipment and expedited shipping. If the success of a single product is highly uncertain and can pose a major challenge to companies, the interplay between gen- erations of products greatly increases the level of complexity. For
- 29. example, when General Motors Corp. redesigned its Cadillac Se- ville and Eldorado models in 1992, supply and demand problems followed. Based on its initial forecasts, GM had allocated half of the capacity of its Detroit-Hamtramck plant to the redesigned Cadillacs, with the remainder going to Buicks and Oldsmobiles. But demand quickly exceeded supply, leading to the loss of thou- sands of potential customers. By the time GM was able to produce enough of the most popular models, the damage had already been done.4 Cisco Systems Inc. had a similar experience in early 1998 with the launch of product 3S-0, which was designed to ap- peal to the lower end of the market. Unfortunately, because of its impressive performance-price ratio, it cannibalized sales from higher-end products. As a result, sales of higher-end products suf-
- 30. fered, but the new product revenue did not compensate for the lost sales.5 Companies must learn to man- age transitions to sustain their competitive advantage. Our field studies at Intel show that while numerous factors affect the rate and success of product transitions, inadequate information sharing and coordination among groups is one of the more important chal- lenges to successful transitions.6 Lack of information can prevent managers from adequately assess- ing the state of the transition and impair the effective design and implementation of contingency
- 31. planning in the face of unexpected changes. For instance, during Intel’s product X-Y transition, the marketing team did not thoroughly investigate the production ca- pacity upside to support the new marketing plan for product Y, leading to supply shortages. The alignment of actions and decisions across different inter- nal groups and across organizations helps level expectations and synchronize responses across the various teams involved in the transition, thereby improving the company’s ability to anticipate and react to environmental changes. The ability to adapt to change while meeting market objectives is a critical aspect of managing product transitions. To promote alignment across groups and the development of prevention and mitigation strate- gies, we have developed a framework and a process for helping managers make decisions during product transitions. Using our framework, managers can design and implement appropriate policies to ramp up sales for new products and ramp
- 32. down sales for existing products, balancing the supply and the demand for both so that combined sales can grow smoothly. (See “Smooth and Troubled Product Transitions.”) Although the approach does not eliminate the uncertainty of product transitions, it provides managers with an overall under- standing of the risks and challenges and suggests possible courses of action. Early experience suggests that the process can lead to more robust, efficient and effective product transitions. 7 Managing Product Transitions The process of managing product transitions begins by identify- ing specific market objectives. Once these have been selected, companies need to understand the product drivers and risks and 74 MIT SLOAN MANAGEMENT REVIEW SPRING 2007 Our research is based on a three-year study between 2001 and 2004 at Intel Corp. on the risks and drivers affecting product transitions. We conducted about 40 semi-structured inter- views with managers in supply chain management, demand forecasting, sales, marketing
- 33. and product development. After studying multiple historical and current product transitions at Intel, we learned that smooth transitions are difficult to achieve. The complexity of de- mand and supply dynamics causes tremendous uncertainty before a product launch that is not fully resolved until several quarters after it. We observed that functional teams across the organization had access to specific information (for example, about macroeconomic condi- tions in Asia or the availability of a particular part) that had significant bearing on the relative demand and supply of old and new products. However, the lack of a formal mechanism to ag- gregate and utilize such diverse information frequently caused misalignment. We saw the need for a new process to overcome this obstacle. The process we designed begins with de- fining a specific market objective. Subsequent steps involve identifying and measuring a set of factors across departments for each product (old and new) to assess product drivers and risks; exploring possible risks arising from interactions between products using the transition
- 34. grid; and developing a transition playbook, including prevention and contingency strategies with which to manage and mitigate transition risks. About the Research SLOANREVIEW.MIT.EDU/SMR conduct a factor assessment, which involves monitoring and measuring the factors affecting both old and new products. The process also necessitates a detailed analysis of the risks arising from interactions between products and the development of a transition playbook, which amounts to a catalog of primary and contingency strategies for preventing and mitigating transition risks. As market conditions change, managers need to be pre- pared to initiate the process again. Identifying Product Drivers and Risks Our research on multiple generations of products at Intel suggests numerous factors that affect the adoption rate and success of a new product. The factors fall into two general categories of risks and drivers: demand and supply. Although either a demand risk or a supply
- 35. risk can lead to a complete product failure, successful product introductions depend on a balance between demand and sup- ply. Demand risks reflect the market’s uncertainty about a new product (for example, concerns about product attributes and transition policies). Supply risks often stem from the challenges of utilizing new manufacturing processes or product designs, or the difficulties of producing and distributing the product. Across demand and supply risks, we focused on a set of factors that influence the success of product transitions. (See “Product Drivers and Risk Factors,” p. 76.) The eight factors cover most of the risks affecting the adop- tion rate of a new product. They encompass product features (product capability); process features (internal execution); supply chain features (external alignment and execution); managerial policies (pricing, timing and marketing); and externalities (envi- ronmental indicators and competition). Although organizations may have access to de-
- 36. tailed information about the product drivers and the risk factors affecting them, individual func- tional groups rarely have a complete picture of the overall forces impacting a product introduction. Our process provides a method for developing a cross-organizational transition assessment. This structured and repeatable process benchmarks the prospects and sales forecasts of new products against the experience of current and prior genera- tions of products. Assessing Relevant Factors Effective planning de- pends on collaboration and shared insight across the organization. If the best information is distrib- uted among many different groups, the most one can expect is disjointed decisions. During the fac- tor assessment phase, managers conduct a complete evaluation of the risks impacting a product, high- lighting the different challenges. This provides managers with an opportunity to make decisions based on spe-
- 37. cific information. To assess the actual values of specific factors, it is necessary to interview key players in functional groups involved in managing the new product (including marketing, sales, planning and fore- casting). Each group scores all eight factors from their particular vantage point, using a five-point scale (with one very favorable and five very unfavorable). The scores can be compared with baselines from past products. Since different functional groups typically have privileged understanding and information about specific areas, each group scores every factor and documents the reasons motivating their scores. Sharing the comments and con- solidating the information provides everyone with an understanding of how each group assesses the overall risks for a given product. After meeting with all groups, a cross-functional product management team can develop a composite score for each factor, providing a simple metric for the state of a product. (See “Mapping Intel’s Transition from X to Y,” p. 78.)
- 38. Since managerial and environmental changes continually im- pact product sales, updating factor assessments allows managers to identify risky areas and evaluate the results of previously im- plemented strategies. In our experience, however, updating information too frequently can be a distraction since it often takes time for strategies to kick in. Frequent updates may also induce managers to take premature or unnecessary actions. The frequency of updates should depend on the industry in question and the life expectancy of the products. For example, in high tech, the appropriate interval between updates might be monthly, whereas in other industries it might be no more than every quar- ter or any time a significant change occurs in one of the factors SPRING 2007 MIT SLOAN MANAGEMENT REVIEW 75 New product transitions should be organized to allow companies to increase sales over time without disrupting sales or profitability. When transitions are rocky, total revenues decline.
- 39. Smooth and Troubled Product Transitions SLOANREVIEW.MIT.EDU/SMR Time (years) Sales (units/month) 71 2 3 4 5 6 Old Product New Product New Generation Total Sales P R O D U C T D E V E L O P M E N T 76 MIT SLOAN MANAGEMENT REVIEW SPRING 2007 (such as competitors launching a marketing campaign or lower- ing their prices). Managers should balance the availability of new information and the amount of time required for decisions to have a measurable impact.
- 40. Looking Across Product Generations To understand the risks of a transition from one product to another, it is important to evalu- ate the interplay between products. A simple method for doing this is to study the interactions between demand and supply risks for the products. Using the composite factor analysis, managers can assess an overall demand risk and an overall supply risk for each product by assigning weights to each factor that composes demand and supply, and then creating a weighted average. For example, by comparing the overall demand risk of a given prod- uct to a threshold value, managers can rate the risk above that level as high and below it as low. As a result, the demand and sup- ply risks for either the old or the new product can be either high or low. For any product transition, there are 16 possible combina- tions of risks, which can be represented in something we call a transition grid. (See “A Sample Transition Grid: Demand and Supply Risks of Two Products.”)
- 41. Generally, comparative rankings of demand and supply risks indicate that risks for the new product have a stronger impact on profitability than risks for the old product and that companies have less ability to manage demand risks than supply risks. Therefore, demand risks and new product risks tend to have higher risk scores than supply risks and old product risks, re- spectively. Based on comments from the functional groups, transition team members can use these comparisons to gain in- sight into key questions, including: Are we producing the right products? Can we meet customer demand? And do customers want the products we supply? Positioning a particular product transition within the grid enables transition teams to look beyond a single product and evaluate the potential impact that products may have on each other. Even when only one of the products is prone to supply or demand risks, managers should consider potential demand can- nibalization and spillover effects on the other product as well as the potential for supply imbalances.
- 42. Developing a Transition Playbook Companies often resort to contin- gency strategies to rescue a product after it is launched. However, their ability to rescue a product using contingency strategies is limited.8 Factor analysis and the transition grid provide strategic and tactical assessment tools for anticipating potential challenges in launching new products. However, they do nothing to generate Eight factors significantly contribute to demand and supply risk during product transitions. Risks Factors Definition (Example) D e m a n d R is k s
- 43. Environmental Indicators Demand due to macroeconomic and business forces/cycles (overall business climate) Competition Overall threat posed by competitive products (market share, manufacturing capacity) Product/Platform Pricing Product/platform price relative to alternative products (bill-of-material cost, expected price changes) Timing Timing relative to past, present and future alternative products (time since last introduction, time until next introduction) Marketing Indicators/Policies Positioning and measures of market response (market size, number of potential product applications, budget size, breadth and timing of advertising, promotions) S u p p ly R
- 44. is k s Product Capability Product capability relative to alternative products (performance, quality, longevity, reliability, compatibility with previous generations, complementarity with other products) External Alignment and Execution Acceptance and drive from supply chain partners (partners’ ability to manufacture products using state-of-the-art technology and standards, acceptance of the new product within the product platform) Internal Execution Ability to supply the product in volume (execution of internal design, designing products for manufacturability, manufacturing (or testing) capacity and flexibility, distribution) Product Drivers and Risk Factors SLOANREVIEW.MIT.EDU/SMR specific strategies or fallback alternatives when the original
- 45. plans don’t materialize. By assessing the state of a transition early on, companies can gain an overall understanding of the risks impact- ing the transition and factors requiring immediate attention, allowing them to adopt prevention strategies. Rather than having to react to problems in the heat of battle, companies can use prevention strategies to help identify the le- vers that may have the most direct impact on the outcomes they are trying to achieve. Some levers can impact several high-risk factors at once, but only in a longer time frame. As such, these holistic levers target the product road maps rather than the im- mediate transition. Others affect specific factors that hinder supply or demand during the transition at hand. Managers con- sidering prevention strategies need to consider cost as well as ease of implementation, recognizing which levers are available and which ones they control. For example, companies can have strong influence over pricing, the timing of product introductions,
- 46. product capability and internal execution but only indirect con- SPRING 2007 MIT SLOAN MANAGEMENT REVIEW 77 Rank Old Product New Product Comment Risk CategoryDemand Risk Supply Risk Demand Risk Supply Risk 1 Low Low Low Low Most desirable transition. 1 2 High Low Low Low Customers do not want old product (indifferent to line below). 1 3 Low High Low Low Limited availability of old product indifferent to line above). 1
- 47. 4 High High Low Low Customers do not want old product; challenging to supply it. 2 5 Low Low Low High Challenging to supply new product. 2 6 Low Low High Low Customers do not want new product. 3 7 Low Low High High Customers do not want new product; challenging to supply it. 3 8 High Low Low High Challenging to supply new product; customers do not want old. 4 9 Low High Low High Challenging to supply either product. 4 10 High Low High Low Customers do not want either product. 5 11 Low High High Low Customers do not want new product; challenging to supply old. 5 12 High High Low High Customers want new product; challeng- ing to supply it. 5 13 Low High High High Customers want old product; challenging to supply old and new.
- 48. 5 14 High High High Low Can only supply new product, but cus- tomers do not want it. 5 15 High Low High High Can only supply old product, but cus- tomers do not want it. 5 16 High High High High Customers do not want either product; challenging to supply them. 5 A Sample Transition Grid: Demand and Supply Risks of Two Products The table below provides a snapshot assessment of a typical transition. When both products have high demand or supply risks, the product interactions may further intensify the risks. For example, demand risk is high for both generations of products in rows 10, 14, 15 and 16, suggesting that managers need to monitor inventories closely. SLOANREVIEW.MIT.EDU/SMR
- 49. 78 MIT SLOAN MANAGEMENT REVIEW SPRING 2007 P R O D U C T D E V E L O P M E N T trol over what their competitors do. Managers need to be mindful that prevention strategies can have unintended consequences; once they signal a new strategy, competitors might follow suit. Weighing these kinds of considerations in advance allows managers to address potential weaknesses before they become crippling. Although a well-designed strategy often takes several factors into account, companies are frequently most vulnerable to factors they have the least control over and rely too heavily on the factors they can control most easily. For instance, a company might have several different ways to mitigate the risk of a supply problem caused by development or production issues. One op- tion may be to increase prices, thereby reducing the likelihood In transitioning from product X to product Y, Intel’s primary market objective was to recover market share lost by X. The transition
- 50. was built on four main factors. On the demand side, the product/platform pricing risk fell from high (for X) to medium (for Y) based on lower component costs and price cuts that accompanied the launch of Y. The risk linked to marketing indicators also improved, from medium to low, since the price-performance ratio made Y an attractive mainstream product. In addition, external alignment improved from medium to low as customers, many of whom had resisted X, looked forward to using Y. On the supply side, risk asso- ciated with internal execution rose (from low to medium) for two main reasons: Capacity for producing Y was limited, and the higher-speed products in the Y family reduced factory output. (Since Y was larger than X, it required more factory runs to produce the same number of units.) Overall, the factor assessment process highlighted the differences between the two products: There was high demand risk for X, whereas for Y there was little demand risk but some new supply risk. Based on this analysis, it should not have been surprising that Y would cannibalize sales of X. In fact, that is what happened: Intel faced shortages of Y and excess inventory of X. An effective
- 51. strategy for Intel would have been to set a higher price for Y rather than of- fering it at a discount. As contingencies, Intel could have lowered the price of X in hopes of promoting sales and allocated more manufacturing capacity to Y. Such actions would have rebalanced demand between the two products both in the short term and in the long term. Although price discounting and a marketing campaign potentially might have helped X, using them on Y led to shortages. Intel recouped its lost market share in the quarters following the launch of Y, so the transition achieved some success. However, the lack of supply strained customer relationships, and by pushing factories to the limit and operating with insufficient inventory, Intel’s operating costs rose during that period. Factor Product X Score Product Y Score Environmental Indicators Demand and economy relatively slow; no imminent improvement on horizon 3 Demand and economy relatively slow; no imminent improvement on horizon
- 52. 3 Competition Competing products are better aligned to mainstream market 3 Competitors’ sales strong relative to historical levels but limited by manufacturing capacity 2.75 Product/ Platform Pricing Platform cost significantly higher than prior generation 4 Reduction in overall platform cost and marketing decision to cut prices 2.5 Timing Released less than one year after prior generation; Y known to be only a few quarters away 3.5 Release closely follows X; Y will not be replaced in the near term
- 53. 3 Marketing Indicators Positioned toward higher end of market with higher price and performance 2.75 Price reduction brings product back to mainstream market segments 1.5 Product Capability Faster clock speed than prior generation, but benchmarks show only modest performance gains in many applications 3.5 Potential clock speed is high, but overall speed gains are impaired by localized bottlenecks 2.5 External Alignment and Execution
- 54. Strong resistance to adopting some new technologies in the platform; higher materials cost; platform architecture will change with Y 3.5 New architecture and accompanying plat- form materials cost reduction bring record number of design wins; price cuts enable greater performance at lower price points 2 Internal Execution/Risk Supply positioned for moderately paced ramp up 1 Decreased supply capability due to less efficient production and lower yields associated with road map acceleration 2 Mapping Intel’s Transition From X to Y SLOANREVIEW.MIT.EDU/SMR
- 55. SPRING 2007 MIT SLOAN MANAGEMENT REVIEW 79 that the products customers order are out of stock. This approach could shift demand to the future, but it may prompt customers to buy competing products. In con- sidering their options, companies need to evaluate the costs. Rather than increase prices, the company may be better off outsourcing ca- pacity to other producers. But that is not always feasible in light of concerns about proprietary infor- mation and lead times. To preserve the option of using outsourcing as a contingency strategy when the need arises, companies may need a
- 56. corresponding prevention strategy to line up alternative resources ahead of time. Once companies complete their transition risk assessments, man- agers can create playbooks containing relevant transition sce- narios, prevention strategies and contingency strategies. A good playbook identifies events or sce- narios that lead to major risks, assesses the impact these events may have on new and current products and lays out prevention and contingency strategies for the transition team. (See “A Sample Transition Playbook.”) Even well-planned and well-executed product transitions
- 57. often require strategy updates. By mapping out prevention strat- egies, risks and contingency strategies in advance, a transition playbook can minimize risks. It allows managers to monitor key supply and demand risk indicators, so they can make strategy revisions and invoke contingency strategies as needed. Although companies place enormous emphasis on new prod- uct introductions, products with many successful attributes still experience difficulty when they interact in unexpected ways with current products. Transition mapping provides a structured ap- proach to collecting information and coordinating actions across the organization. It pulls together the key differences in perspec- tives from different functional groups, saving companies from some of the second-guessing and manipulation that often occurs when important information is revealed later. While our process was developed at Intel and has been used successfully in transi- tions there, it can be applied broadly to different settings. The implementation details will change depending on the industry,
- 58. the company and the product, but the overall methodology will stay essentially the same. EVALUATING PRODUCT INTERACTIONS is central to the success of product transitions. By anticipating risks, companies can seek ways to align their products. Playbooks can help managers de- velop robust prevention and contingency strategies to deal with the supply and demand risks identified by the transition grid. They can help managers see potential shifts in the business envi- ronment before they occur, allowing managers to make timely adjustments that are particularly critical for products with short life cycles and long production delays. REFERENCES 1. See, for example, G.S. Lynn and R.R. Reilly, “Blockbusters: The Five Keys to Developing Great New Products” (New York: HarperBusiness, 2002); E.E. Bobrow and D.W. Shafer, “Pioneering New Products: A A transition playbook identifies relevant scenarios and maps their impact on old products
- 59. (OP) and new products (NP) to outline possible prevention and contingency strategies. Scenarios should be developed in response to risks identified in the factor assessment and the transition grid. Events/ Scenarios Demand for NP higher than expected Supply problems for NP Demand for NP lower than expected Impact on OP • Demand cannibalization • Demand spillover • Demand spillover Expected Outcome • Supply shortage for NP • Excess supply for OP
- 60. • Excess demand and hence possible supply shortage for OP • Supply shortage for NP • Supply shortage for OP • Excess supply for NP Prevention Strategies • Supply portfolio • Product pricing • Internal execution • Product design • Internal execution (process yield) • Product pricing • Product characteristics • External alignment and execution Contingency Strategies
- 61. • Gradually phase out OP • Outsource OP • Decrease OP price • Increase NP price • Allocate more capacity to NP • Gradually phase out OP • Outsource OP or NP • Decrease OP price • Increase NP price • Allocate more capacity to NP • Gradually phase out OP • Increase OP price • Increase production of OP • Accelerate road map • Decrease NP price (rebates/promos)
- 62. • Heavy marketing of NP • Work on external alignment and execution A Sample Transition Playbook SLOANREVIEW.MIT.EDU/SMR 80 MIT SLOAN MANAGEMENT REVIEW SPRING 2007 P R O D U C T D E V E L O P M E N T Market Survival Guide” (New York: Irwin, 1987); and R.M. McMath and T. Forbes, “What Were They Thinking?” (New York: Crown Business, 1998). 2. See R.G. Cooper, “How New Product Strategies Impact On Perfor- mance,” Journal of Product Innovation Management 1, no. 1 (January 1984): 5-18. 3. See N.P. Trepanning, “Understanding Fire Fighting in New Product Development,” Journal of Product Innovation Management 18, no. 5 (September 2001): 285-300. See also C. Billington, H.L. Lee and C.S. Tang, “Successful Strategies For Product Rollovers,” Sloan Manage-
- 63. ment Review 39, no. 3 (spring 1998): 23-30. 4. M.L Fisher, J.H. Hammond, W.H. Obermeyer and A. Raman, “Making Supply Meet Demand in an Uncertain World,” Harvard Business Review 72, no. 3 (May-June 1994): 83-93. 5. The Cisco Systems transition example is based on a 2001 white paper, “Strategizing for Success: Cisco Systems Overcomes a Product Transition Dilemma,” ZDNet UK, London, February 20, 2001, http:// whitepapers.zdnet.co.uk/0,39025945,60045032p- 39000468q,00.htm. 6. Billington, Lee and Tang corroborate this finding and present a high- level process for managing new product transitions. They recommend dual-product rollovers (that is, introducing the new product before the end of life of the old one) for transitions with high demand and supply risks and solo-product rolls (the new product introduction concurring with the old product’s end of life) for low demand and supply risk envi- ronments. Oftentimes, however, the industry dictates the choice of solo versus dual roll. Dual-product roll is standard in the high-tech industry where product platforms are common, even for products with low de- mand and supply risks. Further, the process proposed by
- 64. Billington, Lee and Tang does not provide much insight into tactical and operational de- cisions regarding pricing, capability, marketing budgets or product deployment, all of which can have a substantial impact in the success of a transition. 7. We tested the transition mapping process, particularly the factor analy- sis process, using a large-scale product transition at Intel. For this transition, Intel’s central business planning group felt that sales of the new product would come in fairly strong. Defining x as the realistic “whisper” estimate among forecasters, a figure of roughly 1.2x was cir- culated to drive supply. Meanwhile, estimates aggregated from the geographical sales organizations suggested lower sales, ranging over time from 0.65x to 0.9x. Based on the results of the factor analysis and historical sales in the same product family, the transition mapping team predicted that sales were unlikely to exceed 0.93x and would likely be lower. The drivers for this recommendation included solid evidence that component cost would reduce demand early in the transition and that the complexity of the new platform posed significant supply risk. Sales forecasts were revised downward from 1.2x prior to the launch
- 65. to about 0.9x six weeks after launch and then dropped even lower. By the begin- ning of the second quarter after launch, the forecast, informed by the transition mapping process, was trimmed to 0.79x for the first two quar- ters’ total sales. This helped avoid overbuilding supply for the new product while maintaining sufficient stocks of the old product. The pro- cess also supported decisions, such as increasing the marketing budget, that helped drive product sales early in the life cycle. 8. For example, refer to H.L. Lee and C. Billington, “Managing Supply Chain Inventory: Pitfalls and Opportunities,” Sloan Management Review 33, no. 3 (spring 1992): 65-73; or G.A. Zsidisin, A. Panelli and R. Upton, “Purchasing Organization Involvement in Risk Assessments, Contin- gency Plans, and Risk Management: An Exploratory Study,” Supply Chain Management 5, no. 4 (2000): 187-198. SLOANREVIEW.MIT.EDU/SMR Reprint 48311. Copyright © Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 2007. All rights reserved. PDFs ■ Reprints ■ Permission to Copy ■ Back Issues
- 66. Electronic copies of MIT Sloan Management Review articles as well as traditional reprints and back issues can be purchased on our Web site: www.sloanreview.mit.edu or you may order through our Business Service Center (9 a.m.-5 p.m. ET) at the phone numbers listed below. To reproduce or transmit one or more MIT Sloan Management Review articles by electronic or mechanical means (including photocopying or archiving in any information storage or retrieval system) requires written permission. To request permission, use our Web site (www.sloanreview.mit.edu), call or e-mail: Toll-free in U.S. and Canada: 877-727-7170 International: 617-253-7170 Fax: 617-258-9739 e-mail: [email protected] MIT Sloan Management Review 77 Massachusetts Ave., E60-100 Cambridge, MA 02139-4307 e-mail: [email protected] Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.