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2. o1488 and 1495 was a period of dynastic
struggles and domestic problems, Portugal
experienced a lull in exploration and the
Spanish rulers took advantage of this critical
prospect.
o Lorenzo's death encouraged charles the 8th
of France to march into the peninsula,
ushering two generations of struggle in Italy
between the Spanish and the French. It ended
with years in Spanish domination, giving Spain
right to use to Italian wealth and control over
the papacy.
o Additional countries dominated the north
and Eastern Europe in 1492. Sweden,
Denmark, and Norway were united in the
Kolmar union under sten sture 1, the elder.
The decedents of these European presents
would not recover their sovereignty for
centuries.

3. oThe ottoman sultan bayezid 2's, vast Muslim
domains stretched across North Africa, from Persia to
Serbia and the southern Ukraine. Christianity city of
Constantinople had ended the Byzantine Empire the
last of the ancient Roman Empire. According to a
poet it was the largest metropolis in the
Mediterranean basin, its population 100,000 in 1492
and would rise to 700,000 a century later.
o By the beginning of 1492 Turks and other Islamic
people dominated a great land from the south of
Spain across North Africa and down into Africa as
Mozambique. After the first Muslims spread into the
holy land and Persia from Arabia, they extended their
domain from India through south Asia and
penetrated into china and the Philippines. Islam
became the only religion established throughout the
length of the ecumene.

4. oIn1492 most of India was under Muslim domination, except for the Hindu
kingdom of vijayangar in the south. This next wave of invaders, the mughals, had
a government that was to be the envy of contemporary European rulers.
oThe liberal religious policy was two hundred year in advance of the later
enlightened society of the west.

5. oChina was under the paternal rule most venerated of its Ming emperors, xiao-zong. In 1492
the emperor was locked in a struggle with the Confucian bureaucracy. In the eyes of the
governing elite, he relied on a foreign-born minister and favored his wife's relatives too much.
o Earlier Zheng he expeditions, which had traversed the Indian Ocean from 1405 to1433. These
expeditions involved about 62 ships and 32,000 troops, contacted 30 centuries and reached as
far as the east coast of Africa.
oThe Confucian bureaucrats made sure that naval exploration would not be resumed. They
were successful because china lacked several of the elements that encouraged European naval
ventures. Commanders were expected to focus on the threat from the north and the rulers
spend most of the money building the great wall that was the most important thing at the
time.

6. oThe obliteration of the Mayan culture prevents us
from education of their society’s undertakings.
oThey had one of the most imaginative and superior
societies of the world.
oThey based their calendar on the astronomical
annotations.
oThey expanded and were a great achievement
in just about thirty years.
oThe empires came together by 7,000 miles of
roads. The roads were used to send massages to
other empires; they would travel up to 150 miles per
day.

7. oBy the 1492 the planet had
already reached the end of the
long warming trend that had
encouraged the exploration half a
millennium before.
o Expanded resources were
beginning to strain under the
weight of multiplying populations.
Fully 70% of humanity depends
upon 7% of lams being farmed.
7% Column1
humanity
depending
70% on farming

8. oThere were four forms of civilization flourished in
the broad landmass of Eurasia. Islam continually
expanded its boundaries by creating a succession of
gunpowder empires; the Hindu population of south
Asia relied upon its increasingly elaborate caste
structure for stability during the subsequent years of
mughal decline, and china focusing on familial form
of governmental organization.
o It alone among the four societies developed a
tradition of self-governing mercantile urban
republics. All four great centers of civilization had
elaborate bureaucratic structures, significant cities,
iron implements, writing, and high technology.
oThese characteristics created stable societies; even
if other try to over throw them it would be hard to
do so. The effective firearms and improved
fortifications would eventually stop the movement
of the nomads.

9. o Complex civilizations have developed in a half dozen
places-Mesopotamia, Egypt, and Indus valley, china,
Mesoamerica, and Andes. The longer cultures survive,
the more technology is developed, passed and
perfected.
Evolution of gun technology
oThe earliest drawings of guns are dated from the 1326
in Europe and from china in 1332. This shows rapid
transmission of the innovation, where it was first
invented.