Study of Fiber Reinforced Polymer Materials in Reinforced Concrete Structures As Reinforced Bar

Study of Fiber Reinforced Polymer Materials in
Reinforced Concrete Structures As Reinforced Bar
SEMINAR-I
REPORT
Girish Kumar Singh SPA/NS/BEM/612
IInd
SEMESTER
DEPARTMENT OF BUILDING ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT
SCHOOL OF PLANNING AND ARCHITECTURE
New Delhi – 110002
MAY 2015

CERTIFICATE
Certified that this Project Seminar titled "Study of Fiber Reinforced Polymer Materials in
Reinforced Concrete Structure As Reinforced Bar" submitted by Er. Girish Kumar Singh in
partial fulfillment for the award of the degree of Master in Building Engineering and
Management at the School of Planning and Architecture, New Delhi, is a record of student's
work carried out by him under my supervision and guidance. The matter embodied in this
seminar work, other than that acknowledged as reference, has not been submitted for the
award of any other degree or diploma.
Prof. Dr.V.Thiruvengadam Prof. Dr. V.K. Paul
Visiting Faculty & Seminar Guide Prof. & Head of the Department
Building Engineering & Management Building Engineering & Management
School of Planning and Architecture. School of Planning and Architecture
New Delhi. New Delhi

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to sincerely thank Prof. Dr. V.K. Paul, Head of the Department of Building
Engineering and Management, Prof. Kuldeep Chander, for helping in successfully
completing the seminar work.
I take this opportunity to express my gratitude to my guide, Prof. Dr.V.Thiruvengadam,
faculty, Department of Building Engineering and Management, for his constant and generous
support throughout the Seminar. His inputs and guidance proved vital to shape the Seminar
in the desired form.
My sincere thanks to Prof. Dr. V.K. Paul, Head of the Department of Building Engineering
and Management, for his valuable suggestions at various stages in the Seminar work.
I thank my family, Mom & Dad, for believing in me and incessantly encouraging me to take
up this course. They are and shall always be my greatest source of strength and a belief in
myself. May I always stand tall to all their expectations and excel beyond their dreams.
New Delhi
May 2015 Girish Kumar Singh

ABSTRACT
Around the world we are having several upcoming projects near the coast line so the
study is needed to understand the effect on cost when we use FRP in the structure because FRP
is a costly material compare to steel which may or may not increase the structure overall cost.
It will may or may not increase the structure cost because if we use FRP in a structure then we
can avoid the problem that we face in a structure caused due to corrosion which reduce strength
of the structure, foundation loosing plaster from the surface of the reinforced section due to
expansion caused due to rusting as well as in building envelopes.
The objectives of this seminar report are to study about FRP Manufacturing and its properties,
study about the various applications of FRP, design and analyze a FRP member, Finite element
analysis of a simple beam using FRP as a reinforcement, role of FRP in the sustainable world,
to find out the cost benefit of the elements used in a corrosive environment structure which can
be replaced by the FRP.
This study will cover all the forms of FRP that can be used in a building and give a brief about
FRP rebars its properties, design, analysis, uses and the effect on cost of a build during
construction as well as the cost analysis of the structure.
This study will give an idea on the advantage of FRP over steel when we are using FRP in a
corrosive environment like coast line and it will give an initial idea to the designer about the
advantage and disadvantage of FRP over steel.
In the final part of this seminar report analysis results are used to give a base that FRP can
sustain in structure as FRP reinforced bar and an example of a LCC is also used to give a
satisfactory conclusion and on the final page the summery of the seminar is present.

Study of Fiber Reinforced Polymer Materials in Reinforced concrete Structures As Reinforced bar
Contents
Chapter 1 - Introduction.................................................................................................................................6
1.1 General .................................................................................................................................................6
Table 1.1 Merit Comparison and Ratings for FRP and Steel ........................................................................9
Table 1.2 FRP Merits and Suitability of Applications ..................................................................................9
Table 1.3 FRP Use and Suitability for Marine Applications.......................................................................10
1.2 Need of Study .....................................................................................................................................11
1.3 Aim......................................................................................................................................................11
1.4 Objectives ...........................................................................................................................................11
1.5 Scope of study.....................................................................................................................................11
1.6 Methodology.......................................................................................................................................12
1.7 Seminar Organization.............................................................................................................................12
Chapter 2: Literature Review.......................................................................................................................15
1. General ...........................................................................................................................................15
2. Codes & Published Papers....................................................................................................................15
2.1 State-of-the-Art Report on Fiber Reinforced Plastic (FRP) Reinforcement for Concrete
Structures (ACI 440.04r, 2002) .................................................................................................................15
2.2 Serviceability of Concrete Beams Prestressed By fiber Reinforced Plastic Tendons (By Amr.
A Abdelrahman1995) ..................................................................................................................................16
2.3 Retrofitting of Existing Bridge Using Externally Bonded FRP Composite Applications and
Challenges (MEDIA)..................................................................................................................................16
2.4 The role of FRP composites in a sustainable world (Jain, 2009)................................................17
2.5 Bridge decks of fibre reinforced polymer (FRP): A sustainable solution.................................18
2.6 Guide for the Design and Construction of Externally Bonded FRP Systems for
Strengthening Concrete Structures (440, Guide for the Design and Construction of Externally Bonded
FRP Systems for Strengthening Concrete Structures, 2008).......................................................................18
2.7 Guide for the Design and Construction of Structural Concrete Reinforced with FRP Bars
(ACI 440, 2006)...........................................................................................................................................19
Chapter : 3 Materials Introduction (FRP)..................................................................................................20
3.1 History ............................................................................................................................................20
3.2 Manufacture Process.....................................................................................................................22
3.2.1 General ...................................................................................................................................22
3.2.2 Manufacturing Process .................................................................................................................23
3.2.3 Fibre................................................................................................................................................23
3.2.4 Forming processes .................................................................................................................26
• Glass fibre material .......................................................................................................................30
• Carbon fiber...................................................................................................................................30
Girish Kumar Singh, SPA/NS/BEM/615 Semester II, BEM, SPA, New Delhi 1 | P a g e

• Aramid fiber material ...................................................................................................................31
3.6.1 Corrosion Resistance.....................................................................................................................31
3.6.2 High Strength, Lightweight ..........................................................................................................32
3.6.3 Dimensional Stability ....................................................................................................................32
3.6.4 Parts Consolidation and Tooling Minimization..........................................................................32
3.6.5 High Dielectric Strength and Low Moisture Absorption...........................................................32
3.6.6 Minimum Finishing Required......................................................................................................32
3.6.7 Low to Moderate Tooling Costs ...................................................................................................32
3.6.8 Design Flexibility ...........................................................................................................................32
3.6.9 Thermal conductivity ....................................................................................................................33
3.6.10 EMI /RFI Transparency ...............................................................................................................33
3.6.11 Physical properties.........................................................................................................................33
• Density ............................................................................................................................................33
• Coefficient of thermal expansion..................................................................................................33
3.6.12 Mechanical properties and behavior ...........................................................................................34
• Tensile behavior.............................................................................................................................34
• Compressive behavior ...................................................................................................................36
• Shear behavior...............................................................................................................................38
• Bond behavior................................................................................................................................38
3.6.13 Time-dependent behavior .............................................................................................................39
• Creep rupture ................................................................................................................................39
• Fatigue ............................................................................................................................................40
• Effects of high temperatures and fire...........................................................................................43
3.6.14 Chemical Properties ......................................................................................................................44
3.7 Applications....................................................................................................................................45
3.7.1 Applications of FRP Composites in Industrial Construction ............................................45
3.7.2 Application of FRP Composite Systems in Strengthening ........................................................47
3.7.3 Army, Marine, and Related Applications............................................................................51
3.7.4 FRP Pipes for Marine Applications .....................................................................................52
3.7.5 FRP Piling ..............................................................................................................................53
3.7.6 Other FRP applications.........................................................................................................54
3.7.7 FRP Design, Development and Field Implementation by CFC-WVU and Others..........55
3.7.8 Application of FRP as Rebar................................................................................................57
Chapter 4 Code Provision.............................................................................................................................59
1.1 Standard test methods for FRP bars and laminates...................................................................59

Chapter 5 Manual Design of FRP Beam .....................................................................................................61
Chapter 6 Analysis of Beam Using FEM....................................................................................................74
Finite element model of concrete SOLID65 Description: ......................................................................76
SOLID65.................................................................................................................................................76
Input Summary......................................................................................................................................77
LINK8 Input Summary.........................................................................................................................78
Chapter 7 Costing..........................................................................................................................................92
INTRODUCTION ...........................................................................................................................................92
View of the Okinawa Road Park Bridge......................................................................................................93
THE STRUCTURES FOR THE CASE STUDY.............................................................................................93
Model cases of FRP and PC bridges............................................................................................................94
FRP footbridges .........................................................................................................................................95
Table 2: Model cases of PC bridges and initial costs （Unit: 1000JPY） ..................................................96
Table 3: Model cases of FRP bridges and initial costs （Unit: 1000JPY） ..............................................96
CASE-4........................................................................................................................................................96
CASE-5........................................................................................................................................................96
Modified points for the superstructure.........................................................................................................96
Standard FRP bridge based on the real bridge .............................................................................................96
Aluminum handrail......................................................................................................................................96
Change of joint parts of the main girders.....................................................................................................96
Sharing the mold by 2 bridges .....................................................................................................................96
Initial cost for the superstructure..................................................................................................................96
73,600 96
62,350 96
Substructure system .....................................................................................................................................96
Pier 1: 2 Steel pipe piles (φ500mm-9mm, L=15.0m)...................................................................................96
Pier 2: 4 Steel pipe piles (φ500mm-9mm, L=18.0m) Pier 3: 2 Steel pipe piles (φ500mm-9mm, L=12.0m)96
Initial cost for the substructure.....................................................................................................................96
6,910 96
Total Initial costs..........................................................................................................................................96
80,510 96
69,260 96
Maintenance costs......................................................................................................................................97
FRP footbridge...........................................................................................................................................97
LCC 98

Table 4: LCC results of both PC and FRP footbridges （Unit: 1000JPY） ...............................................99
CONCLUSION................................................................................................................................................99
Chapter 8 Summery ....................................................................................................................................101
Bibliography...................................................................................................................................................102
LIST OF FIGURE
Figure 1 Formation Process Of FRP............................................................................................................22
Figure 2 Structure of FRP................................................................................................................................23
Figure 3 Stress Strain Curve Fro FRP ........................................................................................................36
Figure 4 FRP Pultruded sections and chemical platform with these products........................................46
Figure 5 FRP composite tanks: a – horizontal tanks [7]; b – vertical tanks [8].......................................46
Figure 6 Large scale GFR polyester dome and skylight. ...........................................................................46
Figure 7 Folded skylight on an industrial workshop; double curved shells for an industrial roof........47
Figure 8 – a – Blades made of glass fibre reinforced polymer (GFRP) [4]; b – FRP composite
components for an offshore platform [6].....................................................................................................47
Figure 9 Strengthening solutions using FRP based solutions for an industrial hall: a – wall
strengthening with bidirectional strips (1) and unidirectional strips (2); b – column strengthening
using discrete strips (3), continuous wrapping (4) and combined discrete and continuous wrapping (5);
c – discrete bending strengthening solutions for reinforced concrete (RC) girders and continuous
membranes (6); d – shear strengthening solutions for RC girders using bottom flange clamping of
inclined strips for runway girders (7) and (8) and U-shaped bands (9); e – strengthening solution for
main transverse girders including end textile clamping (10), plate bonding (11) and discrete clamping
made of composite strips (12); f – plate bonded ribs for roof elements (13). ..........................................49
Figure 10 Composite based strengthening solutions for industrial chimneys: a – wrapping with
carbon fibre balanced fabric; b – confinement with composite hoop strips; c – helicoidal spiral made
of composite cable; d – prefabricated composite membranes [14]. ..........................................................50
Figure 11: Very large FRP pipe systems from Future Pipe Industries (www.futurepipe.com).............52
Figure 12 Composite marine piles from different manufacturers were tested. Shown in pictures:
SEAPILE, PPI and Trimax piles, (Juran and Komornik, 2006)...............................................................53
Figure 13 Composite marine piles from different manufacturers were tested. Shown in pictures:
SEAPILE, PPI and Trimax piles, (Juran and Komornik, 2006)...............................................................54
Figure 14 Boeing 787 Dreamliner, the world's first major commercial airliner to use composite
materials for most of its construction (www.boeing.com)..........................................................................54

Figure 15 FRP Design and Applications by the CFC-WVU, (Top L to R) – i) FRP dowels in highway
pavement (Elkins, WV), ii) FRP reinforcement for concrete highway pavement (Charleston, WV), and
iii) FRP thermoplastic tie for railroads (Moorefield, WV); (bottom L to R) - i) FRP pavement panels
(Morgantown, WV, iii) thermoplastic FRP offset block for guardrails, (Morgantown, WV) (Courtesy:
CFC-WVU).....................................................................................................................................................55
Figure 16 FRP bridge deck shapes designed and field implemented in WV and Ohio by the CFC-
WVU (Courtesy: CFC-WVU).......................................................................................................................56
Figure 17 FRP application for ship decks L); successful testing of fire resistant FRP panel at 5800
degree F with acetylene torch for 5 minute at CFC-WVU. (Courtesy: CFC-WVU)...............................56
Figure 18 FRP Inspection Walkway Blennerhassett Bridge, Parkersburg, WV (Courtesy: CFC-
WVU)..............................................................................................................................................................57
Figure 19 Examples of FRP application for bridges: (Top L to R)- i) Carbon cables used in bottom
chord, Kleine Emme Bridge, Switzerland (Courtesy: Dr. Urs Meier); ii) FRP pedestrian bridge over
9th
Street, NY; (bottom L to R)- iii) Neal Bridge, Maine with FRP tubes (courtesy: NYTimes.com); iv)
Proposed FRP Pedestrian Bridge at West Virginia University, Morgantown) .......................................57
Figure 20 Commercially available GFRP reinforcing bars.......................................................................58
Figure 21 Solid 65 Geometry ........................................................................................................................76
Figure 22 LINK8 GEOMETRY...................................................................................................................78
Figure 23 Model Of ANSYS .........................................................................................................................88
Figure 24 Model Showing 14.4 kN/m UDL with simply supported at both ends.....................................89
Figure 25 Nonlinear analysis graph during analysis..................................................................................89
Figure 26 Stress along the length of the beam. ...........................................................................................90
Figure 27 Top stress in the beam..................................................................................................................90
Figure 28 Deflection in the beam..................................................................................................................91
Figure 29 Initial crack in the beam Figure 30 Final crack of the beam ............................................91

Chapter 1 - Introduction
1.1 General
Fiber-reinforced plastic- FRP is a composite material made of a polymer matrix reinforced with
fibers. The fibers are usually glass, carbon, basalt or aramid, although other fibers such as paper or
wood or asbestos have been sometimes used. The polymer is usually an epoxy, vinyl
ester or polyester thermosetting plastic, and phenol formaldehyde resins are still in use. FRPs are
commonly used in the aerospace, automotive, marine, construction industries and ballistic armor.
First time FRP was introduced in 1980s and after 35 years the construction industries are still using
steel and aluminum in the building. Although FRP is costlier than the steel and other building metals
but the property of FRP makes it a very reliable and useful material which can be used in the building.
According to (Chris BURGOYNE, 2007) the cost of CFRP is about 4.21 times, GFRP is 2.25 times
and AFRP is 4.21 times of steel but it was the rate analysis done in year 2007 now we have so many
industries which manufacture FRP in most of the countries like Japan, china, India etc.
So this paper is all about the cost benefit analysis of a building situated in the corrosive environment
where we can replace contemporary material with FRP
There are three type of FRP materials in the market which are:
1. Carbon Fiber Reinforced Plastic
2. Glass Fiber Reinforced Plastic
3. Aramid Fiber Reinforced Plastic
Fiber Reinforced Polymer (FRP) composites with fibers/fabrics bonded together with the help of
organic polymers (resin system) are being referred to as the materials of 21st century because of
many inherent advantages. Some of the inherent advantages of FRPs over traditional materials are:
(1) Superior thermo-mechanical properties such as high strength and stiffness, and light weight,
(2) Excellent corrosion resistance,
(3) Magnetic transparency,
(4) Design flexibility (tailorability),
(5) Long-term durability under harsh service environments.

Composites can be three to five times stronger, two to three times stiffer, and three to four times
lighter than metals such as steel and aluminum. In addition, composites are dimensionally stable,
aesthetically pleasing and cost effective with better durability and lower maintenance than the
conventional mateirals. In the United States of America, FRP composites applications to civil
infrastructure started in the form of marine structures, piers, tanks and pilings for military
requirement. Since then, major field implementations of FRP composites have taken place in bridges,
roads, marine structures and retrofitting of structures, with great success in retrofits (Mallick, 1993;
Chakrabarti et al., 2002; CFC-Polymer Composites Conference Proceedings, 2002 and 2007).
In the last decade, significant efforts have been made to develop and implement design guidelines,
construction and maintenance standards, and specifications for FRP rebars, wraps, and shapes (I-
section, WF section, box section, angles etc.) including standardized test methods. Various
researchers and organizations have been contributing to cover a wide variety of applications. Large
volume usage of FRPs in civil infrastructure is drawing increased interest including field evaluation
and development of design and construction specifications. The construction of experimental and
demonstration structures using FRP composites in addition to the recent advances in guide
specifications has revealed the potential increase in structural efficiency and economic viability using
FRP components and systems (See list of references in addition to Appendixes B and C, and ASCE
LRFD draft code for FRP, 2010). In addition to providing a greater understanding on the FRP
composite design, optimization, reliability and manufacturing feasibility, the research and
development efforts have been resulting in extensive field implementations and an opportunity to
collect field data to develop better design and construction guidelines.
Advantages and Disadvantages of FRP
In addition to superior thermo-mechanical properties, FRP composites have many advantages over
conventional materials (Tables 1.1 and 1.2). These advantages are gradually being utilized in the
construction industry for infrastructure applications. Some of the marine and water way applications
such as miter gates will greatly benefit by the use of FRPs in terms of high strength, stiffness,
corrosion resistance, ease of installation, simple repair methods, excellent durability, long service
life, minimum maintenance and lower life cycle costs. Some of the advantages of FRPs are:
.
1. Rapid installation: FRPs can be fast implemented due to modular, pre-fabricated, and light
weight units that eliminate forming and curing efforts necessary for conventional materials such
as concrete decks or elaborate welding and riveting needed in heavy steel construction.

2. Light weight: FRP bars are so light weighted as compared to steel which can be transported in
a truck with more number of quantity. A typical 8" FRP deck including wearing surface weighs
25 psf vs. 120 psf for a standard 9.5" concrete deck. Reduction in dead load results in an increased
live load capacity with possible elimination of weight restrictions
3. Reduced interruption: Low down-time of an in-service structure by employing rapid
installation procedures can lead to lower user costs, lower maintenance, higher safety, and better
public relations.
4. Good durability: Excellent resistance to deicing salts and other chemicals results in eliminating
corrosion, cracking, and spalling associated with steel reinforced concrete.
5. Long service life: Large, non-civil FRP structures have performed extremely well in harsh
environments for decades. As an example, FRP bridge decks are expected to provide service life
of about 75-100 years with little maintenance.
6. Fatigue and impact resistance: FRPs have high fatigue endurance and impact resistance.
7. Quality control: Shop fabrication of FRP results in excellent quality control with lower
transportation cost.
8. Ease of installation: FRP structural systems or subsystems such as bridge decks have been used
by general contractors or maintenance crew using standard details with installation time reduction
of up to 80%, thus eliminating traffic congestion and construction site related accident.
9. Cost savings: structural rehabilitation using FRP costs a fraction (1/15th
to 1/10th
) of the
replacement cost and extends the service life by additional 25-30 years. Rehabilitation also results
in less environmental impact and green house gas emissions (Ryszard, 2010). Similarly, new FRP
construction provides superior FRP thermo-mechanical properties and lower life-cycle costs.
Some of the disadvantages of FRPs are: slightly higher initial costs, limited experience with these
materials by design professionals and contractors, lack of data on long-term field performance, and
absence of full spectrum of codes and specifications similar to conventional materials.

Table 1.1 Merit Comparison and Ratings for FRP and Steel
Property (Parameter) Merit/Advantage (Rating) Rating Scale
FRP Steel
Strength/stiffness 4-5 4 1: Very Low
2: Low
3: Medium
4: High
5: Very High
Weight 5 2
Corrosion resistance/
Environmental Durability
4-5 3
Ease of field construction 5 3-4
Ease of repair 4-5 3-5
Fire 3-5 4
Transportation/handling 5 3
Toughness 4 4
Acceptance 2-3 5
Maintenance 5 3
Note: Higher rating indicates better desirability of the property
Table 1.2 FRP Merits and Suitability of Applications
Parameter FRP Application
FRP Application
Strength/stiffness Very high aerospace
High marine, construction, pipes, bridges, reinforcing bars,
automotive
Weight Very high aerospace, marine, construction, pipes, bridges,
reinforcing bars, automotive
Corrosion resistance/
Environmental Durability
Very high marine, boat industry, construction industry,
aerospace
High automotive, leisurely applications
Ease of field construction High buildings, bridges, pavements, kiln linings, wind mill
blades, radomes
Ease of repair High Bridges, tunnels, underwater piles.

Fire Very high aerospace, marine, automotive, blast resistant FRP
construction.
Medium bridge decks, leisure products, marine boats
Transportation/handling Very high shapes, bridge decks, components and assembled
FRP systems
Toughness and impact High bullet proof vests, vandalism and graffiti proof walls.
Acceptance low construction and aerospace industries
Low offshore and fire resistant applications.
Some of the marine applications with FRP use are discussed in Chapter 3. Suitability of FRP usage for
offshore and marine applications is listed in Table 1.3.
Table 1.3 FRP Use and Suitability for Marine Applications
Marine/ off-
shore
Application
FRP Suitability
Advantages Examples
Boating/sports
related
moisture resistance, ease of use and repair,
high strength/ stiffness, light weight,
corrosion resistance
boats, seating and storage
compartments, fishing rods etc.
Naval
applications
high strength/stiffness, light weight,
corrosion resistance, ease of navigation,
longer service life
ship decks, aircraft landing platforms,
cabins, gun housings, walking
platforms, rails etc.
Off-shore
applications
moisture resistance, ease of use, high
strength/stiffness, corrosion resistance,
ease of construction, longer service life,
minimum maintenance, ease of repair, fire
resistance.
piles, retaining walls, pedestrian
walkways, bridges, pavement panels
for oil fields and off-shore structures,
buoys and floats etc.
Hydraulic
structures and
supporting
structural
elements
moisture resistance, high
strength/stiffness, light weight, corrosion
resistance, longer service life, minimum
maintenance and ease of construction.
hydraulic gates, pumps, pipes, dampers,
grating structures, access structures etc.
FRP is non corrosive material which can be used in the building reinforcement which reduce the
damage caused by the corrosion. In this paper we will discuss the areas where we can use FRP in the
structure and its stability in that member and at last Cost analysis will be done when we use FRP as
a reinforcement material in the building or any other structure.

1.2 Need of Study
Around the world we are having several upcoming projects near the coast line so the study is
needed to understand the effect on cost when we use FRP in the structure because FRP is a costly
material compare to steel which may or may not increase the structure overall cost.
It will may or may not increase the structure cost because if we use FRP in a structure then we can
avoid the problem that we face in a structure caused due to corrosion which reduce strength of the
structure, foundation loosing plaster from the surface of the reinforced section due to expansion
caused due to rusting as well as in building envelopes.
1.3 Aim
The aim of the paper is to give a brief about the FRP Products, There properties and the effect on
cost of a structure if we replace steel with FRP.
1.4 Objectives
The objectives of this paper are:-
o To study about FRP Manufacturing and its properties.
o To study about the various applications of FRP.
o To design and analyze a FRP member.
o Finite element analysis of a simple beam using FRP as a reinforcement.
o Role of FRP in the sustainable world.
o To find out the cost benefit of the elements used in a corrosive environment structure which
can be replaced by the FRP.
1.5 Scope of study
This study will cover all the forms of FRP that can be used in a building and give a brief about FRP
rebars its properties, design, analysis, uses and the effect on cost of a build during construction as
well as the cost analysis of the structure.
This study will give an idea on the advantage of FRP over steel when we are using FRP in a corrosive
environment like coast line and it will give an initial idea to the designer about the advantage and
disadvantage of FRP over steel

1.6 Methodology
• Initially study about the properties of FRP is needed to start the analysis and go through with
the relevant articles/journals, codes available globally.
• Then find out the cost of each element of a building where we can use FRP and to justify that
we can use FRP in the building.
• Analysis of a member where we can use FRP as reinforcement to justify that we can use FRP
as a Reinforcement material.
• The cost analysis for the building by calculating the total quantity and cost of the building
material according to the present market which can be replaced with FRP product to conduct
the cost benefit analysis of FRP
1.7 Seminar Organization
Chapter 1 – Introduction
This chapter describes the intent of this seminar work by describing about the need for the
study, Aim of the work with emphasis on the objective and Scope of the study along with the
methodology used to achieve them.
Chapter 2- Literature Review
This Chapter describes about the available literature on this topic in the form of Books,
Journals, Seminar works, Codes and Standards, Conference proceedings, Published and
unpublished papers etc to establish a theoretical framework for the study topic, define key
terms, definitions and terminology, identify studies, models, case studies etc supporting the
topic and to identify the research gap in available sources.
Chapter 3- Materials Introduction
This chapter gives an introduction of the FRP product, its manufacture process, properties and
the comparison of FRP material with the steel properties, stability, and conductivity etc.

Chapter 4 – Code Provision
In this chapter the various code used in the design, experiment and analysis is listed.
Chapter 5 – Manual Design Of FRP Beam
In this chapter manual design problem is explained with all the design procedure as per
ACI440.04r and all the tables and equations references are given which are explained in the code.
The design problem is A simply supported, normal weight concrete beam with fc’ = 27.6 MPa is
needed in a facility to support a machine. The beam is an interior beam. The beam is to be
designed to carry a service load of wLL =5.8 kN/m an a superimposed service load od wSDL =3.0
kN/m over a span of l =3.35m.
Chapter 6 – Analysis of Beam Using FEM
This chapter analysis of FRP reinforced beam is analyzed using Finite Element Analysis the
same section that we design in the previous chapter is analyzed and result of that section are
compared to give a relevant theory about its behavior.
Chapter 7 – Costing
This chapter covers costing of the FRP bars and the areas where we can use the FRP product in
the section and the procedure and area where we can save the cost when we are using FRP as
rebar.
Chapter 8- Summery
In this chapter the summer of full report is described

Study of Material Properties
Applications of FRP Materials
Design of a FRP Member
• Manual Design
• FEM Analysis of manual design
Costing and Cost analysis of FRP
Summery

Chapter 2: Literature Review
1. General
In this chapter the literature which are used to carry out this study is explained. In this section
we have some main division which are published, unpublished papers, Codes.
2. Codes & Published Papers
2.1 State-of-the-Art Report on Fiber Reinforced Plastic (FRP) Reinforcement for
Concrete Structures (ACI 440.04r, 2002)
In this code the ACI committee broadly explain about the history, property, and supplier of
the FRP in the different countries as well as they explain about some of the projects where they used
FRP in the construction industries.
Fiber Reinforced Plastic (FRP) products were first used to reinforce concrete structures in the mid
1950s (Rubinsky and Rubinsky 1954; Wines et al. 1966). Today, these FRP products take the form
of bars, cables, 2-D and 3-D grids, sheet materials, plates, etc. FRP products may achieve the same
or better reinforcement objective of commonly used metallic products such as steel reinforcing bars,
prestressing tendons, and bonded plates. Application and product development efforts in FRP
composites are widespread to address the many opportunities for reinforcing concrete members
(Nichols 1988). Some of these efforts are:
• High volume production techniques to reduce manufacturing costs
• Modified construction techniques to better utilize the strength properties of FRP and reduce
construction costs
• Optimization of the combination of fiber and resin matrix to ensure optimum compatibility with
Portland cement
• Other initiatives which are detailed in the subsequent
Chapters of this report The common link among all FRP products described in his report is the use
of continuous fibers glass, aramid, carbon, etc.) Embedded in a resin matrix, the glue that allows the
fibers to work together as a single element. Resins used are thermoset (polyester, vinyl ester, etc.) or
thermoplastic (nylon, polyethylene terephthalate, etc.). FRP composites are differentiated from short
fibers used widely today to reinforce nonstructural cementitious products known as fiber reinforced
concrete (FRC). The production methods of bringing continuous fibers together with the resin matrix
allows the FRP material to be tailored such that optimized reinforcement of the concrete structure is

achieved. The pultrusion process is one such manufacturing method widely practiced today. It is used
to produce consumer and construction products such as fishing rods, bike flags, shovel handles,
structural shapes, etc. The pultrusion process brings together continuous forms of reinforcements and
combines them with a resin to produce high-fiber volume, directionally oriented FRP products. This,
as well as other manufacturing processes used to produce FRP reinforcement for concrete structures,
is explained in more detail later in the report. The concrete industry's primary interest in FRP
reinforcement is in the fact that it does not ordinarily because durability problems such as those
associated with steel reinforcement corrosion. Depending on the constituents of an FRP composite,
other deterioration phenomena can occur as explained in the report. Concrete members can benefit
from the following features of FRP reinforcement: light weight, high specific strength and modulus,
durability, corrosion resistance, chemical and environmental resistance, electromagnetic
permeability, and impact resistance. Numerous FRP products have been and are being developed
worldwide. Japan and Europe are more advanced than the U.S. in this technology and claim a larger
number of completed field applications because their systematic research and development efforts
started earlier and because their construction industry has taken a leading role in development efforts.
2.2Serviceability of Concrete Beams Prestressed By fiber Reinforced Plastic
Tendons (By Amr. A Abdelrahman1995)
In this paper they shown that CFRP reinforcement can be successfully used for partial prestressing
of concrete beams. The advantages of using this technique to reduce the cost and to increase the
deformability of the structure and they have also done an experimental work to find out the stability
of the FRP as a reinforcement
2.3 Retrofitting of Existing Bridge Using Externally Bonded FRP Composite
Applications and Challenges (MEDIA)
The repair and rehabilitation of aging and deteriorating of concrete bridges and infrastructure poses
an urgent challenge for the civil engineering community. FRPs can play key roles in meeting these
challenges. FRP composite materials show great potential for integration into the bridge
infrastructure. Despite these beneficial superior properties over the other traditional materials,
widespread application of FRP composites to the bridge infrastructure has been slow and uneven.

With FRP composites, the Western and neighboring countries are already changing the way they
build and maintain their bridges. Although a large research base is already available about these
materials, only a small portion has resulted in actual applications in bridge infrastructure systems in
India.
However, there are several significant, but not insurmountable, challenges to overcome before
widespread implementation occurs. These challenges include a lack of familiarity with the material
among practicing bridge engineers, the cost of the material, and the lack of a unified effort (especially
from a widely accepted coordinating agency) to move implementation efforts forward. Practicing
civil engineers and even most newly graduated civil engineers typically have very little knowledge
of FRP composite materials. If successful widespread application is to occur, these engineers are the
ones who will apply FRP composite materials to the infrastructure. With the removal of certain
obstacles to implementation, FRP composite materials have a place in the bridge infrastructure.
Quality control is crucial to the successful application of FRP systems. Most FRP strengthening
systems are simple to install. However, improper installation (e.g., not properly mixing epoxy
components or saturating the fibers, misaligning the fibers, etc.) could be avoided with careful
attention.
Even though FRP component costs are higher than traditional materials on a square foot basis,
they may be competitive in terms of lifecycle costs. FRP composite materials may be the most cost-
effective solution for repair, rehabilitation, and construction of portions of the bridge infrastructure
if used intelligently.
2.4 The role of FRP composites in a sustainable world (Jain, 2009)
The ideal sustainable structure and material would have a closed life cycle where renewable
resources, energy, and zero waste, along with minimal impact on environment and society, are
considered. Certainly, there are few materials that could qualify as ideal sustainable materials and
still satisfy all the performance requirements of structural systems. Even more challenging are the
demands of sustainable design which essentially seeks to achieve tailored design, construction, and
maintenance plans depending on impact priorities, regional issues, and economic requirements.
In the case of FRP composites, environmental concerns appear to be a barrier to its feasibility as a
sustainable material especially when considering fossil fuel depletion, air pollution, smog, and
acidification associated with its production. In addition, the ability to recycle FRP composites is
limited and, unlike steel and timber, structural components cannot easily be reused to perform a
similar function in another structure. On the other hand, FRP composites’ potential benefits, as
described in the paper, may potentially mitigate some environmental impacts

2.5 Bridge decks of fibre reinforced polymer (FRP): A sustainable solution
(Valbona Mara, 2013)
Fibre reinforced polymer (FRP) bridge decks have become an interesting alternative and they have
attracted increasing attention for applications in the refurbishment of existing bridges and the
construction of new bridges. The benefits brought by lightweight, high-strength FRP materials to
these applications are well recognized. However, the sustainability of bridge concepts incorporating
FRP decks still needs to be demonstrated and verified. The aim of this paper is to bridge this
knowledge gap by examining the sustainability of these FRP solutions in comparison with traditional
bridge concepts. An existing composite (steel–concrete) bridge with a concrete deck that had
deteriorated was selected for this purpose. Two scenarios are studied and analyzed the total
replacement of the entire bridge superstructure and the replacement of the concrete deck with a new
deck made of GFRP. The analyses prove that FRP decks contribute to potential cost savings over the
life cycle of bridges and a reduced environmental impact.
2.6 Guide for the Design and Construction of Externally Bonded FRP Systems for
Strengthening Concrete Structures (440, Guide for the Design and Construction of
Externally Bonded FRP Systems for Strengthening Concrete Structures, 2008)
The strengthening or retrofitting of existing concrete structures to resist higher design loads, correct
strength loss due to deterioration, correct design or construction deficiencies, or increase ductility
has traditionally been accomplished using conventional materials and construction techniq ues.
Externally bonded steel plates, steel or concrete jackets, and external post-tensioning are just some
of the many traditional techniques available.
Composite materials made of fibers in a polymeric resin, also known as fiber-reinforced polymers
(FRPs), have emerged as an alternative to traditional materials for repair and rehabilitation. For the
purposes of this document, an FRP system is defined as the fibers and resins used to create the
composite laminate, all applicable resins used to bond it to the concrete substrate, and all applied
coatings used to protect the constituent materials. Coatings used exclusively for aesthetic reasons are
not considered part of an FRP system.
FRP materials are lightweight, noncorrosive, and exhibit high tensile strength. These materials are
readily available in several forms, ranging from factory-made laminates to dry fiber sheets that can
be wrapped to conform to the geometry of a structure before adding the polymer resin. The relatively
thin profiles of cured FRP systems are often desirable in applications where aesthetics or access is a
concern.

The growing interest in FRP systems for strengthening and retrofitting can be attributed to many
factors. Although the fibers and resins used in FRP systems are relatively expensive compared with
traditional strengthening materials such as concrete and steel, labor and equipment costs to install
FRP systems are often lower (Nanni 1999). FRP systems can also be used in areas with limited access
where traditional techniques would be difficult to implement.
The basis for this document is the knowledge gained from a comprehensive review of experimental
research, analytical work, and field applications of FRP strengthening systems. Areas where further
research is needed are highlighted in this document.
2.7 Guide for the Design and Construction of Structural Concrete Reinforced with FRP
Bars (ACI 440, 2006)
This document provides recommendations for the design and construction of FRP reinforced
concrete structures. The document only addresses non prestressed FRP reinforcement (concrete
structures prestressed with FRP tendons are covered in ACI 440.4R). The basis for this document is
the knowledge gained from worldwide experimental research, analytical research work, and field
applications of FRP
Reinforcement. The recommendations in this document are intended to be conservative. Design
recommendations are based on the current knowledge and intended to supplement existing codes and
guidelines for conventionally reinforced concrete structures and to provide engineers and building
officials with assistance in the specification, design, and construction of structural concrete
reinforced with FRP bars. ACI 440.3R provides a comprehensive list of test methods and material
specifications to support design and construction guidelines. The use of FRP reinforcement in
combination with steel reinforcement for structural concrete is not addressed in this document.

Chapter : 3 Materials Introduction (FRP)
Fibre Reinforced Plastic (FRP) is a composite material made of a polymer matrix reinforced with
fibres. The fibres are usually glass, carbon, aramid, or basalt. Rarely other fibres such as paper or
wood or asbestos have been used. The polymer is usually made up of some organic compound like
an epoxy vinylester or polyester thermosetting plastic and phenol formaldehyde resins are still in use.
There are three type of Fibe Reinforced Plastic:-
• Carbon Fibe Reinforced Plastic
• Glass Fibe Reinforced Plastic
• Aramid Fibe Reinforced Plastic
FRPs are commonly used in the aerospace, automotive, marine, construction industries and ballistic
armor.
3.1 History
Bakelite was the first fibre-reinforced plastic. Dr. Baekeland had originally set out to find a
replacement for shellac (made from the excretion of lac beetles). Chemists had begun to recognize
that many natural resins and fibres were polymers, and Baekeland investigated the reactions of phenol
and formaldehyde. He first produced a soluble phenol-formaldehyde shellac called "Novolak" that
never became a market success, then turned to developing a binder for asbestos which, at that time,
was moulded with rubber. By controlling the pressure and temperature applied
to phenol and formaldehyde, he found in 1905 he could produce his dreamed-of hard mouldable
material (the world's first synthetic plastic): bakelite (Amato, 1999) (Baekeland, 2000)He announced
his invention at a meeting of the American Chemical Society on February 5, 1909 (New Chemical
Substance, 1909).
The development of fibre-reinforced plastic for commercial use was being extensively researched in
the 1930s. In the UK, considerable research was undertaken by pioneers such as Norman de Bruyne.
It was particularly of interest to the aviation industry.(Synthetic Resin – Use in Aircraft Construction,
1936)
Mass production of glass strands was discovered in 1932 when Games Slayter, a researcher at Owens-
Illinois accidentally directed a jet of compressed air at a stream of molten glass and produced fibres.
A patent for this method of producing glass wool was first applied for in 1933 (US Patent Number

2133235: Method & Apparatus for Making Glass Wool, 1933). Owens joined with the Corning
company in 1935 and the method was adapted by Owens Corning to produce its patented "fibreglas"
(one "s") in 1936. Originally, fiberglass was a glass wool with fibres entrapping a great deal of gas,
making it useful as an insulator, especially at high temperatures.
A suitable resin for combining the "fiberglass" with a plastic to produce a composite material, was
developed in 1936 by du Pont. The first ancestor of modern polyester resins is Cyanamid's resin of
1942. Peroxide curing systems were used by then. (50 years of reinforced plastic boats, 2660) With
the combination of Fiberglas and resin the gas content of the material was replaced by plastic. This
reduced to insulation properties to values typical of the plastic, but now for the first time the
composite showed great strength and promise as a structural and building material. Confusingly,
many glass fiber composites continued to be called "fiberglass" (as a generic name) and the name
was also used for the low-density glass wool product containing gas instead of plastic.
Ray Greene of Owens Corning is credited with producing the first composite boat in 1937, but did
not proceed further at the time due to the brittle nature of the plastic used. In 1939 Russia was reported
to have constructed a passenger boat of plastic materials, and the United States a fuselage and wings
of an aircraft. (Notable Progress – the use of plastics, Evening Post, Wellington, New Zealand,
Volume CXXVIII, Issue 31, 1939) The first car to have a fibre-glass body was the 1946 Stout Scarab.
Only one of this model was built. ( Car of the future in plastics, The Mercury (Hobart, Tasmania),
1946)
The first fibre-reinforced plastic plane fuselage was used on a modified Vultee BT-13A designated
the XBT-16 based at Wright Field in late 1942 (American Warplanes of World War II, David Donald,
Aerospace Publishing Limited, 1995). In 1943 further experiments were undertaken building
structural aircraft parts from composite materials resulting in the first plane, a Vultee BT-15, with a
GFRP fuselage, designated the XBT-19, being flown in 1944. (Conrardy, 1971) (Moulded glass fibre
Sandwich Fuselages for BT-15 Airplane, Army Air Force Technical Report 5159,, 1944)
(Placeholder1) (Reinforced plastics handbook, 2004)A significant development in the tooling for
GFRP components had been made by Republic Aviation Corporation in 1943 (Tim Palucka and
Bernadette Bensaude-Vincent, n.d.) .
Carbon fibre production began in the late 1950s and was used, though not widely, in British industry
beginning in the early 1960s. Aramid fibres were being produced around this time also, appearing
first under the trade name Nomex by DuPont. Today, each of these fibres is used widely in industry
for any applications that require plastics with specific strength or elastic qualities. Glass fibres are

the most common across all industries, although carbon-fibre and carbon-fibre-aramid composites
are widely found in aerospace, automotive and sporting good applications (Erhard). These three
(glass, carbon, and aramid) continue to be the important categories of fibre used in FRP.
Global polymer production on the scale present today began in the mid 20th century, when low
material and productions costs, new production technologies and new product categories combined
to make polymer production economical. The industry finally matured in the late 1970s when world
polymer production surpassed that of Steel, making polymers the ubiquitous material that it is today.
Fibre-reinforced plastics have been a significant aspect of this industry from the beginning.
3.2 Manufacture Process
3.2.1 General
A polymer is generally manufactured by Step-growth polymerization or addition
polymerization. When combined with various agents to enhance or in any way alter the material
properties of polymers the result is referred to as a plastic. Composite plastics refer to those types of
plastics that result from bonding two or more homogeneous materials with different material
properties to derive a final product with certain desired material and mechanical properties. Fibre-
reinforced plastics are a category of composite plastics that specifically use fibre materials to
mechanically enhance the strength and elasticity of plastics. The original plastic material without
fibre reinforcement is known as the matrix. The matrix is a tough but relatively weak plastic that is
reinforced by stronger stiffer reinforcing filaments or fibres. The extent that strength and elasticity
are enhanced in a fibre-reinforced plastic depends on the mechanical properties of both the fibre and
matrix, their volume relative to one another, and the fibre length and orientation within the matrix
(Smallman). Reinforcement of the matrix occurs by definition when the FRP material exhibits
increased strength or elasticity relative to the strength and elasticity of the matrix alone (Erhard).
Figure 1 Formation Process Of FRP

3.2.2 Manufacturing Process
FRP involves two distinct processes, the first is the process whereby the fibrous material is
manufactured and formed, the second is the process whereby fibrous materials are bonded with the
matrix during moulding. (Erhard). Chemical Structure is shown in fig. 2
Figure 2 Structure of FRP
3.2.3 Fibre
Reinforcing Fibre is manufactured in both two-dimensional and three-dimensional orientations
1. Two Dimensional Fibre-Reinforced Polymer are characterized by a laminated structure in
which the fibres are only aligned along the plane in x-direction and y-direction of the
material. This means that no fibres are aligned in the through thickness or the z-direction,
this lack of alignment in the through thickness can create a disadvantage in cost and
processing. Costs and labour increase because conventional processing techniques used to
fabricate composites, such as wet hand lay-up, autoclave and resin transfer moulding, require
a high amount of skilled labor to cut, stack and consolidate into a preformed component.
Phenol Formaldehyde
Vinyl Ester
Epoxy

2. Three-dimensional Fibre-Reinforced Polymer composites are materials with three
dimensional fibre structures that incorporate fibres in the x-direction, y-direction and z-
direction. The development of three-dimensional orientations arose from industry's need to
reduce fabrication costs, to increase through-thickness mechanical properties, and to improve
impact damage tolerance; all were problems associated with two dimensional fibre-
reinforced polymers.
The manufacture of fibre preforms
Fibre preforms are how the fibres are manufactured before being bonded to the matrix. Fibre preforms
are often manufactured in sheets, continuous mats, or as continuous filaments for spray applications.
The four major ways to manufacture the fibre preform is through the textile processing techniques
of Weaving, knitting, braiding and stitching.
1. Weaving can be done in a conventional manner to produce two-dimensional fibres as well in
a multilayer weaving that can create three-dimensional fibres. However, multilayer weaving
is required to have multiple layers of warp yarns to create fibres in the z- direction creating
a few disadvantages in manufacturing, namely the time to set up all the warp yarns on
the loom. Therefore most multilayer weaving is currently used to produce relatively narrow
width products, or high value products where the cost of the preform production is
acceptable. Another one of the main problems facing the use of multilayer woven fabrics is
the difficulty in producing a fabric that contains fibres oriented with angles other than 0" and
90" to each other respectively.
2. The second major way of manufacturing fibre preforms is Braiding. Braiding is suited to the
manufacture of narrow width flat or tubular fabric and is not as capable as weaving in the
production of large volumes of wide fabrics. Braiding is done over top of mandrels that vary
in cross-sectional shape or dimension along their length. Braiding is limited to objects about
a brick in size. Unlike standard weaving, braiding can produce fabric that contains fibres at
45 degrees angles to one another. Braiding three-dimensional fibres can be done using four
step, two-step or Multilayer Interlock Braiding. Four step or row and column braiding utilizes
a flatbed containing rows and columns of yarn carriers that form the shape of the desired
preform. Additional carriers are added to the outside of the array, the precise location and
quantity of which depends upon the exact preform shape and structure required. There are
four separate sequences of row and column motion, which act to interlock the yarns and
produce the braided preform. The yarns are mechanically forced into the structure between

each step to consolidate the structure in a similar process to the use of a reed in weaving.
Two-step braiding is unlike the four-step process because the two-step includes a large
number of yarns fixed in the axial direction and a fewer number of braiding yarns. The
process consists of two steps in which the braiding carriers move completely through the
structure between the axial carriers. This relatively simple sequence of motions is capable of
forming preforms of essentially any shape, including circular and hollow shapes. Unlike the
four-step process, the two-step process does not require mechanical compaction the motions
involved in the process allows the braid to be pulled tight by yarn tension alone. The last type
of braiding is multi-layer interlocking braiding that consists of a number of standard circular
braiders being joined together to form a cylindrical braiding frame. This frame has a number
of parallel braiding tracks around the circumference of the cylinder but the mechanism allows
the transfer of yarn carriers between adjacent tracks forming a multilayer braided fabric with
yarns interlocking to adjacent layers. The multilayer interlock braid differs from both the
four step and two-step braids in that the interlocking yarns are primarily in the plane of the
structure and thus do not significantly reduce the in-plane properties of the preform. The
four-step and two-step processes produce a greater degree of interlinking as the braiding
yarns travel through the thickness of the preform, but therefore contribute less to the in-plane
performance of the preform. A disadvantage of the multilayer interlock equipment is that due
to the conventional sinusoidal movement of the yarn carriers to form the preform, the
equipment is not able to have the density of yarn carriers that is possible with the two step
and four step machines.
3. Knitting fibre preforms can be done with the traditional methods of Warp and [Weft] Knitting,
and the fabric produced is often regarded by many as two-dimensional fabric, but machines
with two or more needle beds are capable of producing multilayer fabrics with yams that
traverse between the layers. Developments in electronic controls for needle selection and knit
loop transfer, and in the sophisticated mechanisms that allow specific areas of the fabric to
be held and their movement controlled. This has allowed the fabric to form itself into the
required three-dimensional preform shape with a minimum of material wastage.
4. Stitching is arguably the simplest of the four main textile manufacturing techniques and one
that can be performed with the smallest investment in specialized machinery. Basically
stitching consists of inserting a needle, carrying the stitch thread, through a stack of fabric
layers to form a 3D structure. The advantages of stitching are that it is possible to stitch both
dry and prepreg fabric, although the tackiness of the prepreg makes the process difficult and

generally creates more damage within the prepreg material than in the dry fabric. Stitching
also utilizes the standard two-dimensional fabrics that are commonly in use within the
composite industry therefore there is a sense of familiarity concerning the material systems.
The use of standard fabric also allows a greater degree of flexibility in the fabric lay-up of
the component than is possible with the other textile processes, which have restrictions on
the fibre orientations that can be produced (Tong, 2002)
3.2.4 Forming processes
A rigid structure is usually used to establish the shape of FRP components. Parts can be laid up on a
flat surface referred to as a "caul plate" or on a cylindrical structure referred to as a "mandrel".
However most fibre-reinforced plastic parts are created with a mold or "tool." Molds can be concave
female molds, male molds, or the mold can completely enclose the part with a top and bottom mold.
The moulding processes of FRP plastics begins by placing the fibre preform on or in the mold. The
fibre preform can be dry fibre, or fibre that already contains a measured amount of resin called
"prepreg". Dry fibres are "wetted" with resin either by hand or the resin is injected into a closed mold.
The part is then cured, leaving the matrix and fibres in the shape created by the mold. Heat and/or
pressure are sometimes used to cure the resin and improve the quality of the final part. The different
methods of forming are listed below.
3.2.4.1 Bladder moulding
Individual sheets of prepreg material are laid up and placed in a female-style mould along with a
balloon-like bladder. The mould is closed and placed in a heated press. Finally, the bladder is
pressurized forcing the layers of material against the mould walls.
3.2.4.2 Compression moulding
When the raw material (plastic block,rubber block, plastic sheet, or granules) contains reinforcing
fibres, a compression molded part qualifies as a fibre-reinforced plastic. More typically the plastic
preform used in compression molding does not contain reinforcing fibres. In compression molding,
A "preform" or "charge", of SMC, BMC is placed into mould cavity. The mould is closed and the
material is formed & cured inside by pressure and heat. Compression moulding offers excellent
detailing for geometric shapes ranging from pattern and relief detailing to complex curves and

creative forms, to precision engineering all within a maximum curing time of 20 minutes (Composite
moulding , 2004).
3.2.4.3 Autoclave / vacuum bag
Individual sheets of prepreg material are laid-up and placed in an open mold. The material is covered
with release film, bleeder/breather material and a vacuum bag. A vacuum is pulled on part and the
entire mould is placed into an autoclave (heated pressure vessel). The part is cured with a continuous
vacuum to extract entrapped gasses from laminate.
This is a very common process in the aerospace industry because it affords precise control over
moulding due to a long, slow cure cycle that is anywhere from one to several hours (Dogan, Donchev,
& Bhonge, 2012).
This precise control creates the exact laminate geometric forms needed to ensure strength and safety
in the aerospace industry, but it is also slow and labour-intensive, meaning costs often confine it to
the aerospace industry (Composite moulding , 2004).
3.2.4.4 Mandrel wrapping
Sheets of prepreg material are wrapped around a steel or aluminium mandrel. The prepreg material
is compacted by nylon or polypropylene cello tape. Parts are typically batch cured by vacuum
bagging and hanging in an oven. After cure the cello and mandrel are removed leaving a hollow
carbon tube. This process creates strong and robust hollow carbon tubes.
3.2.4.5 Wet layup
Wet layup forming combines fibre reinforcement and the matrix as they are placed on the forming
tool (Erhard).]
Reinforcing Fibre layers are placed in an open mould and then saturated with a wet
[resin] by pouring it over the fabric and working it into the fabric. The mould is then left so that the
resin will cure, usually at room temperature, though heat is sometimes used to ensure a proper cure.
Sometimes a vacuum bag is used to compress a wet layup. Glass fibres are most commonly used for
this process, the results are widely known as fibreglass, and is used to make common products like
skis, canoes, kayaks and surf boards (Composite moulding , 2004).
3.2.4.6 Chopper gun
Continuous strands of fibreglass are pushed through a hand-held gun that both chops the strands and
combines them with a catalysed resin such as polyester. The impregnated chopped glass is shot onto
the mould surface in whatever thickness the design and human operator think is appropriate. This

process is good for large production runs at economical cost, but produces geometric shapes with
less strength than other moulding processes and has poor dimensional tolerance (Composite
moulding , 2004).
3.2.4.7 Filament winding
Machines pull fibre bundles through a wet bath of resin and wound over a rotating steel mandrel in
specific orientations Parts are cured either room temperature or elevated temperatures. Mandrel is
extracted, leaving a final geometric shape but can be left in some cases (Composite moulding , 2004).
3.2.4.8 Pultrusion
Fibre bundles and slit fabrics are pulled through a wet bath of resin and formed into the rough part
shape. Saturated material is extruded from a heated closed die curing while being continuously pulled
through die. Some of the end products of pultrusion are structural shapes, i.e. I beam, angle, channel
and flat sheet. These materials can be used to create all sorts of fibreglass structures such as ladders,
platforms, handrail systems tank, pipe and pump supports (Composite moulding , 2004).
3.2.4.9 Resin transfer molding
Also called resin infusion. Fabrics are placed into a mould which wet resin is then injected into.
Resin is typically pressurized and forced into a cavity which is under vacuum in resin transfer
molding. Resin is entirely pulled into cavity under vacuum in vacuum-assisted resin transfer molding.
This moulding process allows precise tolerances and detailed shaping but can sometimes fail to fully
saturate the fabric leading to weak spots in the final shape (Composite moulding , 2004).
3.3 Advantages and limitations
FRP allows the alignment of the glass fibres of thermoplastics to suit specific design programs.
Specifying the orientation of reinforcing fibres can increase the strength and resistance to
deformation of the polymer. Glass reinforced polymers are strongest and most resistive to deforming
forces when the polymers fibres are parallel to the force being exerted, and are weakest when the
fibres are perpendicular. Thus this ability is at once both an advantage and a limitation depending on
the context of use.
Weak spots of perpendicular fibres can be used for natural hinges and connections, but can also lead
to material failure when production processes fail to properly orient the fibres parallel to expected
forces. When forces are exerted perpendicular to the orientation of fibres the strength and elasticity
of the polymer is less than the matrix alone. In cast resin components made of glass reinforced

polymers such as UP and EP, the orientation of fibres can be oriented in two-dimensional and three-
dimensional weaves.
This means that when forces are possibly perpendicular to one orientation, they are parallel to
another orientation; this eliminates the potential for weak spots in the polymer.
3.4 Failure Mode
Structural failure can occur in FRP materials when:
• Tensile forces stretch the matrix more than the fibres, causing the material to shear at the interface
between matrix and fibres.
• Tensile forces near the end of the fibres exceed the tolerances of the matrix, separating the fibres
from the matrix.
• Tensile forces can also exceed the tolerances of the fibres causing the fibres themselves to
fracture leading to material failure (Erhard).
3.5 Material Requirements
The matrix must also meet certain requirements in order to first be suitable for FRPs and ensure a
successful reinforcement of itself. The matrix must be able to properly saturate, and bond with the
fibres within a suitable curing period. The matrix should preferably bond chemically with the fibre
reinforcement for maximum adhesion. The matrix must also completely envelop the fibres to protect
them from cuts and notches that would reduce their strength, and to transfer forces to the fibres. The
fibres must also be kept separate from each other so that if failure occurs it is localized as much as
possible, and if failure occurs the matrix must also debond from the fibre for similar reasons. Finally
the matrix should be of a plastic that remains chemically and physically stable during and after the
reinforcement and moulding processes. To be suitable as reinforcement material, fibre additives must
increase the tensile strength and modulus of elasticity of the matrix and meet the following
conditions; fibres must exceed critical fibre content; the strength and rigidity of fibres itself must
exceed the strength and rigidity of the matrix alone; and there must be optimum bonding between
fibres and matrix.

• Glass fibre material
"Fiberglass reinforced plastics" or FRPs (commonly referred to simply as fiberglass) use textile
grade glass fibres. These textile fibres are different from other forms of glass fibres used to
deliberately trap air, for insulating applications (see glass wool). Textile glass fibres begin as varying
combinations of SiO2, Al2O3, B2O3, CaO, or MgO in powder form. These mixtures are then heated
through direct melting to temperatures around 1300 degrees Celsius, after which dies are used to
extrude filaments of glass fibre in diameter ranging from 9 to 17 µm. These filaments are then wound
into larger threads and spun onto bobbins for transportation and further processing. Glass fibre is by
far the most popular means to reinforce plastic and thus enjoys a wealth of production processes,
some of which are applicable to aramid and carbon fibres as well owing to their shared fibrous
qualities.
Roving is a process where filaments are spun into larger diameter threads. These threads are then
commonly used for woven reinforcing glass fabrics and mats, and in spray applications.
Fibre fabrics are web-form fabric reinforcing material that has both warp and weft directions. Fibre
mats are web-form non-woven mats of glass fibres. Mats are manufactured in cut dimensions with
chopped fibres, or in continuous mats using continuous fibres. Chopped fibre glass is used in
processes where lengths of glass threads are cut between 3 and 26 mm, threads are then used in
plastics most commonly intended for moulding processes. Glass fibre short strands are short 0.2–
0.3 mm strands of glass fibres that are used to reinforce thermoplastics most commonly for injection
moulding.
• Carbon fiber
Carbon fibres are created when polyacrylonitrile fibres (PAN), Pitch resins, or Rayon are carbonized
(through oxidation and thermal pyrolysis) at high temperatures. Through further processes of
graphitizing or stretching the fibres strength or elasticity can be enhanced respectively. Carbon fibres
are manufactured in diameters analogous to glass fibres with diameters ranging from 9 to 17 µm.
These fibres wound into larger threads for transportation and further production processes
(Erhard). Further production processes include weaving or braiding into carbon fabrics, cloths and
mats analogous to those described for glass that can then be used in actual reinforcements
(Smallman).

• Aramid fiber material
Aramid fibres are most commonly known as Kevlar, Nomex and Technora. Aramids are generally
prepared by the reaction between an amine group and a carboxylic acid halide group (aramid)
(Smallman) commonly this occurs when an aromatic polyamide is spun from a liquid concentration
of sulphuric acid into a crystallized fibre (Erhard). Fibres are then spun into larger threads in order
to weave into large ropes or woven fabrics (Aramid) (Smallman). Aramid fibres are manufactured
with varying grades to based on varying qualities for strength and rigidity, so that the material can
be somewhat tailored to specific design needs concerns, such as cutting the tough material during
manufacture (Erhard).
Examples of polymers best suited for the process
Reinforcing Material Most Common Matrix
Materials
Properties Improved
Glass Fibres UP, EP, PA, PC, POM, PP,
PBT, VE
Strength, Elasticity, heat
resistance
Wood Fibres PE, PP, ABS, HDPE, PLA Flexural strength, Tensile
modulus, Tensile Strength
Carbon and Aramid Fibres EP, UP, VE, PA Elasticity, Tensile Strength,
compression strength,
electrical strength.
Inorganic Particulates Semicrystalline
Thermoplastics, UP
Isotropic shrinkage, abrasion,
compression strength
3.6 Material Property
FRP is a composite material so the property of FRP will be very different which are covered below
3.6.1 Corrosion Resistance
FRP/Composites do not rust, corrode or rot, and they resist attack from most industrial and
household chemicals. This quality has been responsible for applications in corrosive environments
such as those found in the chemical processing and water treatment industries. Resistance to

corrosion provides long life and low maintenance in marine applications from sailboats and
minesweepers to seawalls and offshore oil platforms.
3.6.2 High Strength, Lightweight
FRP/Composites provide high strength to weight ratios exceeding those of aluminum or steel.
High strength, lightweight FRP/Composites are a rational choice whenever weight savings are
desired, such as components for the transportation industry.
3.6.3 Dimensional Stability
FRP/Composites have high dimensional stability under varying physical, environmental, and
thermal stresses. This is one of the most useful properties of FRP/Composites.
3.6.4 Parts Consolidation and Tooling Minimization.
A single FRP composite molding often replaces an assembly of several metal parts and
associated fasteners, reducing assembly and handling time, simplifying inventory, and reducing
manufacturing costs. A single FRP/Composite tool can replace several progressive tools required in
metal stamping.
3.6.5 High Dielectric Strength and Low Moisture Absorption
The excellent electrical insulating properties and low moisture absorption of FRP/Composites
qualify them for use in primary support applications such as circuit breaker housings, and where low
moisture absorption is required.
3.6.6 Minimum Finishing Required
FRP/Composites can be pigmented as part of the mixing operation or coated as part of the
molding process, often eliminating the need for painting. This is particularly cost effective for large
components such as tub/shower units. Also, on critical appearance components, a class “A” surface
is achieved.
3.6.7 Low to Moderate Tooling Costs
Regardless of the molding method selected, tooling for FRP/Composites usually represents a
small part of the product cost. For either large-volume mass-production or limited runs, tooling cost
is normally substantially lower than that of the multiple forming tools required to produce a similar
finished part in metal.
3.6.8 Design Flexibility
No other major material system offers the design flexibility of FRP/Composites. Present
applications vary widely. They range from commercial fishing boat hulls and decks to truck fenders,
from parabolic TV antennas to transit seating, and from outdoor lamp housings to seed hoppers. What

the future holds depends on the imagination of today’s design engineers as they develop even more
innovative applications for FRP/Composites.
3.6.9 Thermal conductivity
Good insulator with low thermal conductivity. Thermal conductivity 4 (BTU in. /(hr ft2 °F)
Low thermal coefficient of expansion 7 - 8 (in./in./°F) 10-6
. Where steel have Thermal conductivity
260-460 (BTU/sf/hr/°F/in.) Thermal coefficient of expansion 6 - 8 (in./in./°F) 10-6
3.6.10 EMI /RFI Transparency
Not like steel but FRP is Transparent to radio waves and EMI/RFI transmissions.
3.6.11Physical properties
• Density—FRP bars have a density ranging from 77.8 to 131.3 lb/ft3 (1.25 to 2.1 g/cm3), one-
sixth to one-fourth that of steel (Table 3.1). Reduced weight lowers transportation costs and may
ease handling of the bars on the project site.
Table 3.1—Typical densities of reinforcing bars, lb/ft3 (g/cm3)
Steel GFRP CFRP AFRP
493.00
(7.90)
77.8 to 131.00
(1.25 to 2.10)
93.3 to 100.00
(1.50 to 1.60)
77.80 to 88.10
(1.25 to 1.40)
• Coefficient of thermal expansion—The coefficients of thermal expansion of FRP bars vary
in the longitudinal and transverse directions depending on the types of fiber, resin, and volume
fraction of fiber. The longitudinal coefficient of thermal expansion is dominated by the properties
of the fibers, while the transverse coefficient is dominated by the resin (Bank 1993). Table 3.2 lists the
longitudinal and transverse coefficients of thermal expansion for typical FRP and steel bars. Note that a
negative coefficient of thermal expansion indicates that the material contracts with increased
temperature and expands with decreased temperature. For reference, concrete has a coefficient of
thermal expansion that varies from 4 × 10–6 to 6 × 10–6/°F (7.2 × 10–6 to 10.8 × 10–6/°C) and is
usually assumed to be isotropic (Mindessetal. 2003).

Table 3.2—Typical coefficients of thermal expansion for reinforcing bars*
Direction
CTE, × 10–6/°F (× 10–6/°C)
Longitudinal, αL 6.5 (11.7) 3.3 to 5.6
(6.0 to 10.0)
–4.0 to 0.0
(–9.0 to 0.0)
–3.3 to –1.1
(–6 to –2)
Transverse, αT 6.5 (11.7) 11.7 to 12.8
(21.0 to 23.0)
41 to 58
(74.0 to 104.0)
33.3 to 44.4
(60.0 to 80.0)
*Typical values for fiber volume fraction ranging from 0.5 to 0.7.
3.6.12Mechanical properties and behavior
• Tensile behavior— When loaded in tension, FRP bars do not exhibit any plastic behavior
(yielding) before rupture. The tensile behavior of FRP bars consisting of one type of fiber material
is characterized by a linearly elastic stress-strain relationship until failure. The tensile properties of
some commonly used FRP bars are summarized in Table 3.3. The tensile strength and stiffness of an FRP
bar are dependent on several factors. Because the fibers in an FRP bar are the main load-carrying
constituent, the ratio of the volume of fiber to the overall volume of the FRP (fiber-volume fraction)
significantly affects the tensile properties of an FRP bar. Strength and stiffness variations will
occur in bars with various fiber-volume fractions, even in bars with the same diameter, appearance,
and constituents.
The rate of curing, the manufacturing process, and the manufacturing quality control also affect the
mechanical characteristics of the bar (Wu 1990). Unlike steel, the unit tensile strength of an FRP bar
can vary with diameter. For example, GFRP bars from three different manufacturers show tensile
strength reductions of up to 40% as the diameter increases proportionally from 0.375 to 0.875 in.
(9.5 to 22.2 mm) (Faza and GangaRao1993b). On the other hand, similar cross section changes do
not seem to affect the strength of twisted CFRP strands (Santoh 1993). The sensitivityof AFRP bars
to cross section size has been shown to vary from one commercial product to rupture strain, εfu (εfu=
εu,ave – 3σ) and a specified tensileanother.
For example, in braided AFRP bars, there is a lessthan 2% strength reduction as bars increase in
diameter from 0.28 to 0.58 in. (7.3 to 14.7 mm) (Tamura 1993). The strength reduction in a
unidirectionally pultruded AFRP bar with added aramid fiber surface wraps is approximately 7% for
diameters increasing from 0.12 to 0.32 in. (3 to 8 mm) (Noritake et al. 1993).

The FRP bar manufacturer should be contacted for particular strength values of differently sized
FRP bars.
Table 3.3—Usual tensile properties of reinforcing bars
Nominal yield
stress, ksi (MPa)
40 to 75 (276 to
517)
N/A N/A N/A
Tensile strength,
ksi (MPa)
70 to 100 (483 to
690)
70 to 230 (483 to
1600)
87 to 535 (600 to
3690)
250 to 368 (1720 to
2540)
Elastic modulus,
×103 ksi (GPa)
29.0 (200.0)
5.1 to 7.4 (35.0 to
51.0)
15.9 to 84.0 (120.0
to 580.0)
6.0 to 18.2 (41.0 to
125.0)
Yield strain, % 0.14 to 0.25 N/A N/A N/A
Rupture strain,
%
6.0 to 12.0 1.2 to 3.1 0.5 to 1.7 1.9 to 4.4
*Typical values for fiber volume fractions ranging from 0.5 to 0.7.
Determination of FRP bar strength by testing is complicated because stress concentrations in and
around anchorage points on the test specimen can lead to premature failure. An adequate testing grip
should allow failure to occur in the middle of the test specimen. Proposed test methods for
determining the tensile strength and stiffness of FRP bars are available in ACI 440.3R.
The tensile properties of a particular FRP bar should be obtained from the bar manufacturer. Usually,
a normal (Gaussian) distribution is assumed to represent the strength of a population of bar specimens
(Kocaoz et al. 2005). Manufacturers should report a guaranteed tensile strength f * , defined by
this guide as the mean tensile strength of a sample of test specimens minus three times the standard
deviation (f * = f – 3σ), and similarly report a guaranteed modulus, Ef (Ef = Ef,ave).

Figure 3 Stress Strain Curve Fro FRP
These guaranteed values of strength and strain provide a 99.87% probability that the
indicated values are exceeded by similar FRP bars, provided that at least 25 specimens are tested
(Dally and Riley 1991; Mutsuyoshietal. 1990). If fewer specimens are tested or a different
distribution is used, texts and manuals on statistical analysis should be consulted to determine the
confidence level of the distribution parameters (MIL-17 1999). In any case, the manufacturer should
provide a description of the method used to obtain the reported tensile properties.
An FRP bar cannot be bent once it has been manufactured (an exception to this would be an FRP
bar with a thermoplastic resin that could be reshaped with the addition of heat and pressure). FRP
bars, however, can be fabricated with bends. In FRP bars produced with bends, a strength reduction
of 40 to 50% compared with the tensile strength of a straight bar can occur in the bend portion due
to fiber bending and stress concentrations (Nanni et al. 1998).
• Compressive behavior—While it is not recommended to rely on FRP bars to resist
compressive stresses, the following section is presented to fully characterize the behavior of FRP
bars.
Tests on FRP bars with a length-diameter ratio from 1:1 to2:1 have shown that the compressive
strength is lower than the tensile strength (Wu 1990). The mode of failure for FRP bars subjected to
longitudinal compression can include transverse tensile failure, fiber micro buckling, or shear
failure. The mode of failure depends on the type of fiber, the fiber-volume fraction, and the type of
resin. Compressive strengths of 55, 78, and 20% of the tensile strength have been reported for GFRP,

CFRP, and AFRP, respectively (Mallick 1988; Wu 1990). In general, compressive strengths are
higher for bars with higher tensile strengths, except in the case of AFRP, where the fibers exhibit
nonlinear behavior in compression at a relatively low level of stress.
The compressive modulus of elasticity of FRP reinforcing bars appears to be smaller than its tensile
modulus of elasticity. Test reports on samples containing 55 to 60% volume fraction of continuous E-
glass fibers in a matrix of vinyl ester or isophthalic polyester resin indicate a compressive modulus
of elasticity of 5000 to 7000 ksi (35 to 48 GPa) (Wu 1990).
According to reports, the compressive modulus of elasticity is approximately 80% for GFRP, 85%
for CFRP, and 100% for AFRP of the tensile modulus of elasticity for the same product (Mallick
1988; Ehsani 1993). The slightly lower values of modulus of elasticity in the reports may be attributed
to the premature failure in the test resulting from end brooming and internal fiber micro buckling
under compressive loading.
Standard test methods are not yet established to characterize the compressive behavior of FRP bars. If
the compressive properties of a particular FRP bar are needed, these should be obtained from the bar
manufacturer. The manufacturer should provide a description of the test method used to obtain the
reported compression properties.

• Shear behavior—Most FRP bar composites are relatively weak in interlaminar shear where
layers of unreinforced resinlie betweenlayersof fibers.Becausethere isusually noreinforcement across
layers, the interlaminar shear strength is governed by the relatively weak polymer matrix.
Orientation of the fibers in an off-axis direction across the layers of fiber will increase the shear
resistance, depending upon the degree of offset. For FRP bars, this can be accomplished by braiding
or winding fibers transverse to the main fibers. Off-axis fibers can also be placed in the pultrusion
process by introducing a continuous strand mat in the roving/ mat creel.
Standard test methods are not yet established to characterize the shear behavior of FRP bars. If the
shear properties of a particular FRP bar are needed, these should be obtained from the bar
manufacturer. The manufacturer should provide a description of the test method used to obtain the
reported shear values.
• Bond behavior—Bond performance of an FRP bar is dependent on the design, manufacturing
process, mechanical properties of the bar itself, and the environmental conditions (Al Dulaijanetal.
1996; Nannietal. 1997; Bakisetal. 1998b; Banketal. 1998; Freimanisetal. 1998).
When anchoring a reinforcing bar in concrete, the bond force can be transferred by:
• Adhesion resistance of the interface, also known as chemical bond;
• Frictional resistance of the interface against slip and
• Mechanical interlock due to irregularity of the interface.
In FRP bars, it is postulated that bond force is transferred through the resin to the reinforcement
fibers, and a bond- shear failure in the resin is also possible. When a bonded deformed bar is
subjected to increasing tension, the adhesion between the bar and the surrounding concrete breaks
down, and deformations on the surface of the bar cause inclined contact forces between the bar and
the surrounding concrete. The stress at the surface of the bar resulting from the force component in
the direction of the bar can be considered the bond stress between the bar and the concrete.
The bond properties of FRP bars have been extensively investigated by numerous researchers
through different types of tests, such as pullout tests, splice tests, and cantilever beams, to determine an
empirical equation for embedment length (Faza and GangaRao 1990; Ehsani et al. 1996a,b;
Benmokrane 1997; Shield et al. 1999; Mosley 2002; Wambeke and Shield 2006; Tighiouart et al.
1999).

Study of Fiber Reinforced Polymer Materials in Reinforced Concrete Structures As Reinforced Bar

Study of Fiber Reinforced Polymer Materials in Reinforced Concrete Structures As Reinforced Bar

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