SKOLA

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Why become computer savvy?

Know what computers can do for you

Know the limitations of computers

Know how computers can harm you

Know how to solve computer problems

Know when & how to get help

1- Discussion Question: What was your worst computer problem?

IT & Your Life: The Future Now

Definition: Information Technology (IT) describes any technology that helps to produce, manipulate, store, communicate, and/or disseminate information

Part 1: Computer Technology

Part 2: Communication Technology

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Discussion Question: How many times today did YOU use one of these technologies?

How is IT being used in Education?

99% of schools have internet access

85% of college students own their own computer

¾ of college students use the internet 4 or more hours per week

½ of all college professors require students to use email in their classes

Many college classes are either taught online or have a class website

Definition: Distance Learning is online education

1- Discussion Question: Have you ever used the computer in your classroom for something other than the work in that class?

Rules for Computers in Classrooms

Problem: Computers in the classroom can be used or misused.

What should they be used for?

Following the lecture slides

Working along with the instructor

Performing instructor-assigned internet searches

Completing assignments for this class

What is misuse?

Text messaging or emailing friends

Surfing the internet for entertainment

Doing assignments for other classes

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Health: High Tech for Wellness

Telemedicine: Medical care via telecommunications lets doctors treat patients from far away

3D Computer models allow accurate tumor location inside a skull

Robots permit precise microsurgery

Handheld computers allow patients to measure blood sugar

Medical implants allow stroke patients to directly control computers to talk for them

Health websites provide medical information

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Money: Cashless Society?

Definition: Virtual means something that is created, simulated, or carried on by means of a computer or a computer network

Virtual airline tickets

Virtual money

Online bill paying

PayPal

Electronic payroll deposit

Micropayments for online music

1- Discussion Question: How important is security if all your money is virtual?

Leisure: Infotech in Entertainment & the Arts

Videogames

Downloading

Movies

Music

Term papers????

Ethical/legal questions

Most movies use computer animation

Digital editing

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IT in Government & Democracy

Governments can’t control information

Individuals can find multiple viewpoints on internet

Email makes it easier to contact the government

Competing websites promote & criticize politicians

www.whitehouse.gov

www.whitehouse.org

Blogs are a tool for political candidates

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Jobs & Careers

Hotels: Desk clerks use computerized reservations systems

Law Enforcement: Officers use computers

On patrol

To check stolen cars

To check criminal records

To check arrest warrants

Entertainment:

Office uses like budgets, payroll, ticketing

Also virtual set design, 3-D animation, special effects

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Jobs & Careers

Office careers: Budget, payroll, letter-writing, email

Teaching: Automated grading systems, emailing parents

Fashion: Sales/inventory control systems, ordering, personnel

Job-hunting:

Use word processor to create resumes

Post resumes online

Online job searches

Discussion Question: Can anyone think of a career that does NOT require computer skills?

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The Telephone Grows Up

1973: First cellphone call

2006: Nokia estimates 2 billion mobile phone subscribers

Today’s cellphones:

Are mobile

Can take and send pictures

Can connect to the internet

Can send and receive text messages

1- Discussion Question: Why are cellphones banned in high-security military bases?

Internet, World Wide Web, & Cyberspace

Internet

The worldwide computer network

Links thousands of smaller networks

Links educational, commercial, military entities, and individuals

Originally developed to share only text and numeric data

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World Wide Web

The multimedia part of the internet

An interconnected system of servers that support specially formatted documents in multimedia form

Includes text, still images, moving images, sound

Responsible for the growth and popularity of the internet

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Cyberspace

Term coined by William Gibson in Neuromancer (1984)

Described a futuristic computer network people “plugged” into directly with their brains

Now means

The web

Chat rooms

Online diaries (blogs)

The wired and wireless communications world

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Email Tips

Always put a subject line in your message

For short messages, that’s all you need

Send attachments only when necessary

Every recipient gets a copy –

For 500 people that’s 500 copies!

For a short attachment, copy the text to the email itself instead of sending the attachment

Don’t open attachments unless you know the sender

It could contain a virus or malware

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Email Tips

Use discretion about sending emails

Emails aren’t secret

They can be easily forwarded to others

Check grammar, spelling to bosses, customers

Don’t use email to express criticism or sarcasm

Email received at work is the property of your employer

Deleting email messages does not remove them everywhere

Don’t neglect real personal contact

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5 Computer Types

Supercomputers

Priced from $1 million to $350 million

High-capacity machines with thousands of processors

Multi-user systems

To learn more about one, go to http://www.llnl.gov/asci/platforms/bluegenel/

Mainframe Computers

Workstations

Microcomputers

Microcontrollers

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5 Computer Types

Supercomputers

Mainframe Computers

Until late 1960’s, the only computer available

Cost $5,000 - $5 million

Multi-user systems; accessed using a terminal

Terminals only have a keyboard and monitor; can’t be used alone

To see one, go to

http://www-03.ibm.com/servers/eserver/zseries/

Workstations

Microcomputers

Microcontrollers

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5 Computer Types

Supercomputers

Mainframe Computers

Workstations

Introduced in early 1980s

Expensive, powerful personal computers

Used for scientific, mathematical, engineering, computer-aided design (CAD), computer-aided manufacturing (CAM)

A less-expensive alternative to mainframes

To see some examples with current pricing, go to

http://www.mce.com

Microcomputers

Microcontrollers

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5 Computer Types

Supercomputers

Mainframe Computers

Workstations

Microcomputers

Personal computers that cost $500 to $5000

Used either stand-alone or in a network

Types include: desktop, tower, notebooks, or Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs)

Microcontrollers

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5 Computer Types

Supercomputers

Mainframe Computers

Workstations

Microcomputers

Microcontrollers

Also called embedded computers

Tiny, specialized microprocessors inside appliances and automobiles

They are in: microwaves, programmable ovens, blood-pressure monitors, air bag sensors, vibration sensors, MP3 players, digital cameras, e-pliances, keyboards, car engine controllers, etc.

1- Discussion Question: Now, how many of you would say you have NOT used a computer today?

Servers

Are central computers

May be any of the 4 larger computer types.

“ Server” describes a function

Hold data (databases) and programs

Connect to and supply services for clients

Clients are other computers like PCs, workstations, other devices

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Understanding Your Own Computer

3 key concepts

Purpose of a computer

Turn data into information

Data: the raw facts and figures

Information: data that has been summarized and manipulated for use in decision making

Hardware vs. Software

Hardware is the machinery and equipment in the computer

Software is the electronic instructions that tell the computer how to perform a task

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Understanding Your Own Computer

3 key concepts (continued)

The basic operations

Input: What goes in to the computer system

Processing: The manipulation a computer does to transform data into information

Storage:

Temporary storage: Memory is primary storage

Permanent storage: Disks and media such as DVDs and CDs are secondary storage

Output: What comes out

Numbers or pictures on the screen, printouts, sounds

Communications: Sending and receiving data

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Building Your Own PC

What would you need?

Keyboard & Mouse

Inside the system cabinet

Case and power supply

Processor chip – the Central Processor Unit (CPU)

Memory chips – Random Access Memory (RAM)

Motherboard – the system board

Memory chips plug in

Processor chip plugs in

Motherboard attaches to system cabinet

Power supply is connected to system cabinet

Power supply wire is connected to motherboard

Storage Hardware: Floppy, Hard Drive, Zip, CD/DVD, USB

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Storage Hardware: Floppy, Hard Drive, Zip, CD/DVD, USB

Storage capacity is represented in bytes

1 byte = 1 character of data

1 kilobyte = 1,024 characters

1 megabyte = 1,048,576 characters

1 gigabyte = over 1 billion characters

1 terabyte = over 1 trillion characters

1 petabyte = about 1 quadrillion characters

Permanently installed: floppy drives, hard drives, Zip drives, CD/DVD drives, USB ports

Removable media: floppy disks, Zip disks, CDs, DVDs, flash drives

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Output hardware

Video and sound cards

Monitor

Speakers

Printer

Joystick

Communications hardware

Modem (internal or external)

Network Card

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Software

System Software (Operating System)

Must be installed before application software

Operating System (OS) options for the PC

Linux

Windows

Unix

Operating System (OS) options for the Mac

Mac OS

Application Software

Install after the OS

Application depends on OS, for example

Linux applications won’t work on Windows

Windows applications won’t work on Linux

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Future of Information Technology

3 directions of Computer Development

Miniaturization

Speed

Affordability

3 directions of Communications Development

Connectivity

Interactivity

Multimedia

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Convergence, Portability, & Personalization

Convergence: the combination of

Computers

Consumer electronics

Entertainment

Mass media

Portability

Collaboration: software that allows

People to share anything instantly

People to enhance the information as they forward it

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Ethics

Definition: Ethics is the set of moral values or principles that govern the conduct of an individual or group

Is ethics relevant for Information Technology?

Let’s revisit the discussion question from slide 1-7

How important is ethics if all your personal information, health information, AND virtual money is stored on computers?

Would YOU trust a physician who downloaded his/her term papers from the Internet?

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The Internet & the World Wide Web

Exploring Cyberspace

Connecting to the Internet

How Does the Internet work?

The World Wide Web

Email & Other Ways of Communicating over the Net

Telephony, Multimedia, Webcasting, Blogs, E-Commerce

Snooping, Spoofing, Phishing, Pharming, Cookies, & Spyware

Internet History

Began with 1969’s ARPANET for US Dept. of Defense

62 computers in 1974

500 computers in 1983

28,000 computers in 1987

Early 1990s, multimedia became available on internet

To connect you need

An access device (computer)

A means of connection (phone line, cable hookup, or wireless)

An Internet Service Provider (ISP)

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Definition: Bandwidth is an expression of how much data – text, voice, video and so on – can be sent through a communications channel in a given amount of time.

Definition: Baseband is a slow type of connection that allows only one signal to be transmitted at a time.

Definition: Broadband is a high speed connection that allows several signals to be transmitted at once.

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Data Transmission Speeds

Originally measured in bits per second (bps)

8 bits are needed to send one character, such as A or a

Currently measured in kilobits per second (Kbps)

Kilo- stands for a thousand

A 28.8 Kbps modem sends 28,800 bits per second

How many characters per second would that be?

Mbps connections send 1 million bits per second

Gbps connections send 1 billion bits per second

2- 28,800 / 8 = 3600 characters per second

Modems

Can be either internal or external to your PC

Most ISPs offer local access numbers

Need call waiting turned off; either manually or in Windows

High-speed phone lines

ISDN line

DSL line

Cable Modems

Satellite

Wi-Fi & 3G

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Modems

ISDN line

Integrated Services Digital Network

Allows voice, video, & data transmission over copper phone lines

Can transmit 64 to 128 Kbps

DSL line

Uses regular phone lines, DSL modem

Receives data at 1.5-9 Mbps; sends at 128Kbps – 1.5 Mbps

Is always on

Cable Modems

Satellite

Wi-Fi & 3G

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Modems

28.8 Kbps takes 4 3/4 hours to download 6 minute video

ISDN line

1 hour to download 6 minute video

DSL line

11 minutes to download 6 minute video

Cable Modems

Connects the PC to a cable-TV system

2 minutes to download a 2 minute video

Satellite

Wi-Fi & 3G

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Modems

ISDN line

DSL line

Cable Modems

Satellite

Always-on connection using satellite dish to satellite orbiting earth

Send data at 56 – 500 Kbps; receive at 1.5 Mbps

Wi-Fi & 3G

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Modems

ISDN line

DSL line

Cable Modems

Satellite

Wi-Fi & 3G

Wi-Fi

Name for a set of wireless standards set by IEEE

Typically used with laptops that have Wi-Fi hardware

3G

High-speed wireless that does not need access points

Uses cell phones

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Internet Access Providers

Internet Service Providers (ISP)

Local, regional, or national organization that provides internet access

Examples: AT&T Worldnet, EarthLink

Commercial Online Service

A members-only company that provides specialized content and internet access

Examples: AOL, MSN

Wireless Internet Service Providers

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Internet Access Providers

Commercial Online Service

Wireless Internet Service Providers

Internet Access for laptops, notebooks, smartphones, PDA users

These devices contain wireless modems

Examples: AT&T Wireless, Verizon Wireless, Earthlink Net Zero

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How Does the Internet Work?

The internet consists of thousands of smaller networks

These link educational, commercial, nonprofit, and military organizations

Most are Client/Server networks

Client: a computer requesting data or services

Server or Host: a central computer supplying data or services requested of it

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Point of Presence (POP)

A local access point to the internet

A local gateway to the ISP’s network

Network Access Point (NAP)

A routing computer at a point on the internet where several connections come together

Owned by Network Service Providers (NAP)

Four major NAPs established in 1993 when the internet was privatized

Source of much internet congestion  PNAPS

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Private/Peer NAPs (PNAP)

Established in late 1990s

Provide more backbone access locations than the original 4 NAPs in Chicago, Washington D.C., New Jersey and San Francisco

>100 in U.S.A. at present

Facilitate more efficient routing since there are more backbone access locations

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Internet Backbone

High-capacity, high-speed data transmission lines

Use the newest technology

Providers include AT&T, Cable & Wireless, Sprint, Teleglobe, UUNET

Internet 2

Cooperative university/business research project

New standards for large-scale higher-speed data transmission

Requires state-of-the-art infrastructure

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Protocols

The set of rules a computer follows to electronically transmit data.

TCP/IP is the internet protocol

Developed in 1978

Used for all internet transactions

Packets

Fixed-length blocks of data for transmission

Data transmissions are broken up into packets

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IP Addresses

Every device connected to the internet has an address

Each IP address uniquely identifies that device

The address is four sets of 3-digit numbers separated by periods

Example: 95.160.10.240

Each number is between 0 and 255

Static IP addresses don’t change

Dynamic IP addresses don’t change

Since addresses are limited, and most PCs are not connected a lot of the time, dynamic addresses are common

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The board of trustees of the Internet Society (ISOC) oversees the standards

Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN) regulates domain names

American Registry for Internet Numbers (ARINN) administers the unique IP addresses for North & South America, Caribbean, and sub-Saharan Africa

Two other organizations administer the unique IP addresses for Europe and the Asia-Pacific region

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The World Wide Web

Browsers

Software for web-surfing

Examples: Internet Explorer, Netscape Navigator, Mozilla FireFox, Opera, Apple Macintosh browser

Website

The location on a particular computer that has a unique address

Example: www.barnesandnoble.com , www.mcgraw-hill.com

The website could be anywhere – not necessarily at company headquarters

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The World Wide Web

Web Pages

The documents and files on a company’s website

Can include text, pictures, sound, and video

Home page

The main entry point for the website

Contains links to other pages on the website

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The World Wide Web

Uniform Resource Locator (URL)

A character string that points to a specific piece of information anywhere on the web

A website’s unique address

It consists of

The web protocol, http

The domain name of the web server

The directory or folder on that server

The file within the directory, including optional extension

http:// www.nps.gov / yose / home.htm

2- protocol domain name file name . extension directory

The World Wide Web

Domain names

Must be unique

Identify the website, and the type of site it is

www.whitehouse.gov is NOT the same as www.whitehouse.org

.gov means government

.org means professional or nonprofit organization

2- Discussion Question: Have you ever mistyped a URL and gone to a website you weren’t expecting? As we learn later in this chapter, some unscrupulous websites take advantage of this.

The World Wide Web

HTTP

The internet protocol used to access the World Wide Web

HTTPS

The secure version of HTTP

Hypertext Markup Language (HTML)

The language used in writing and publishing web pages

The set of tags used to specify document structure, formatting, and links to other documents on the web

Hypertext links connect one web document to another

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The World Wide Web

Web Browsers

Your tool for using the internet

Comes preinstalled on most PCs

5 basic elements

Menu bar

Toolbar

URL bar

Workspace

Status bar

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The World Wide Web

Home Page

The page you see when you open your web browser

You can change the Home Page on your browser

Back,Forward, Home & Search

Use the menu bar icons to move from one page to another

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The World Wide Web

Navigation

History Lists

A list of websites you visited since you opened up your browser for this session

Allows you to easily return to a particular site

Bookmarks

Allows you to store the URL from a site on your PC so you can find it again in another browser session

To save the URL for a site, click on “Bookmark” in Internet Explorer or Mozilla Firefox

Or just type in the URL of the page you want to visit

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The World Wide Web

Web portals

A gateway website that offers a broad array of resources and services, online shopping malls, email support, community forums, stock quotes, travel info, and links to other categories.

Examples: Yahoo, AOL, Microsoft Network (MSN), Lycos, or Google

Most require you to log in, so you can

Check the home page for general information

Use the subject guide to find a topic you want

Use a keyword to search for a topic

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The World Wide Web

Search Services

Organizations that maintain databases accessible through websites to help you find information on the internet

Examples: portals like Yahoo Search and MSN, and Google, Ask Jeeves, and Gigablast

Databases are compiled using software programs called spiders

Spiders crawl through the World Wide Web

Follow links from one page to another

Index the words on that site

2- Discussion Question: If you publish an embarrassing web page and then take it down, is it REALLY gone?

The World Wide Web

4 web search tools

Keyword Indexes

Type one or more search keywords, and you see web pages “hits” that contain those words

For phrases with two or more words, put phrase in quotes

Examples are Google, Gigablast, HotBot, MSN Search, Teoma

Subject Directories

Search by selecting lists of categories or topics

Example sites are Beaucoup, Galaxy, LookSmart, MSN Directory, Netscape, Open Directory Project, Yahoo

Metasearch Engines

Specialized Search Engines

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The World Wide Web

4 web search tools

Keyword Indexes

Subject Directories

Metasearch Engines

Allows you to search several search engines simultaneously

Examples are Dogpile, Ixquick, Mamma, MetaCrawler, ProFusion, Search, Vivisimo

Specialized Search Engines

Help locate specialized subject matter, like info on movies, health, jobs

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The World Wide Web

Multimedia Search Tools

Allow you to search for nontext resources

Search Tool Site

2- A9 (Amazon.com) http://a9.com Blinkx www.blinkx.com Google www.google.com/video ShadowTV www.shadowtv.com StreamSage www.streamsage.com Virage www.virage.com Yahoo! http://video.search.yahoo.com

The World Wide Web

Should you trust information you find online?

There is no central authority that verifies all internet sites

Guidelines to evaluate Web Resources

Does the information appear on a professional site maintained by a professional organization?

Does the website authority appear to be legitimate?

Is the website objective, complete, and current?

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Email Program

Enables you to send email by running email software on your computer that interacts with an email server at your ISP

Incoming mail is stored on the server in an electronic mailbox

Upon access, mail is sent to your client’s inbox

Examples: Microsoft’s Outlook Express, Netscape’s Mail, Apple Computer’s Apple Mail, QualComm’s Eudora

2- Discussion Question: If your email is stored at the server and servers are backed up, when you delete an email is it gone for good?

Web-based Email

You send and receive messages by interacting via a browser with a website

Advantage: You can easily send and receive messages while traveling

Examples: Yahoo! Mail, Hotmail, Bluebottle, Sacmail

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Using email

Get an email address, following the format [email_address]

Type addresses carefully, including capitalization, underscores, and periods

Use the reply command to avoid addressing mistakes

Use the address-book feature to store email addresses

Sort your email into folders or use filters

2- User Name Domain name

Email Attachments

A copy of a file or document that you send attached to an email to one or more people

Be careful about opening attachments

Many viruses hide in them

Know who is sending it to you before you open it

The recipient must have compatible software to open the attachment. If they don’t have Excel, they probably can’t read the spreadsheet you sent them.

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Instant Messaging

Any user on a given email system can send a message and have it pop up instantly on the screen of anyone logged into that system

Examples: AOL Instant Messenger, MSN Messenger, ICQ, AT&T IM Anywhere, Yahoo Messenger

Not all IM systems interoperate

To get it, you:

download the software

connect to the internet

register with the service

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FTP – File Transfer Protocol

A software standard for transferring files between computers with different Operating Systems

Microsoft Windows  Linux

Unix  Macintosh OS, and so forth

You can transfer files from an FTP site on the internet to your PC

Know your FTP site!

If the FTP site is offering copyrighted material such as music and movies for free, you are breaking US law if you download files!

You may also get a virus or spyware on your PC from them

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Newsgroups

A giant electronic discussion board

There are thousands of free internet newsgroups

Usenet is the worldwide public network of servers on the internet www.usenet.com

To participate you need a newsreader

Listserv

An email-based discussion group

Uses an automatic mailing-list server that sends email to subscribers on selected topics

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Real-Time Chat (RTC)

Participants have a typed discussion while online at the same time

This is not allowed in most college classrooms

IM is one-on-one, but RTC has a list of participants

Netiquette – appropriate online behavior

Before you ask a question, consult the FAQ

Avoid flaming

Don’t SHOUT – use all capital letters

Be careful with jokes

Don’t send huge file attachments unless requested

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Internet Telephony

Uses the internet to make phone calls

Long-distance calls are either very inexpensive or free

With no PC, dial a special phone number to packetize your call

With a PC that has a sound card, microphone, Internet connection, and internet telephone software such as Netscape Conference or Microsoft NetMeeting

Currently inferior in quality to normal phone connections

Also allows videoconferencing

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Multimedia on the Web

Allows you to get images, sound, video, and animation

May require a plug-in, player, or viewer

A program that adds a specific feature to a browser so it can view certain files

Example: Adobe Acrobat Reader, RealPlayer, QuickTime

Multimedia Applets

Small programs that can be quickly downloaded and run by most browsers

Java is the most common Applet language

Microsoft’s Visual Studio creates ActiveX and com objects

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Multimedia on the Web

Animation

The rapid sequencing of still images to create the appearance of motion

Used in video games and web images that seem to move

Video

Streaming video is process of transferring data in a continuous flow so you can begin viewing a file before it is all completely sent

Audio may be transmitted either:

Downloaded completely before the file can be played, or

Downloaded as streaming audio

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RSS newsreaders

Programs that scour the web and pull together “feeds” from several websites to one place

Blog

Short for web log, a diary-style web page

Have become popular, both privately and in politics

Podcasting

Recording internet radio or similar internet audio programs

Some radio stations webcast their audio programs over the internet

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E-Commerce

Conducting business activities online

B2B Commerce is business-to-business e-commerce

Online Finance now involves online banking, stock trading online, and e-money such as PayPal

Online auctions link buyers with sellers

eBay is the most well-known example of person-to-person auctions

OnSale is a vendor-based auction that buys merchandise and sells it at a discount

Priceline is an auction site for airline tickets and other items

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The internet was founded as a collaborative tool based on trust

Not everyone on the internet is honest

Snooping

Email is not private

Corporate management has the right to view employees’ email

Email that travels over the internet may be captured and monitored and read by someone else

Not all ISPs protect their customers’ privacy

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Spam: Electronic Junk Mail

Unsolicited email that takes up your time and may carry viruses or spyware

Delete it without opening the message

Never reply to a spam message

When you sign up for something, don’t give your email address

Use spam filters

Fight back by reporting new spammers to www.abuse.net or www.spamhaus.org or www.rahul.net/falk

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Spoofing

Using fake email sender names so the message appears to be from a different source, so you will trust it.

If you don’t know the sender, don’t open it.

Phishing

Using trusted institutional names to elicit confidential information

Some common schemes look like they are from your bank or from eBay and ask you to “update” your account.

Don’t do it – the legitimate company already knows your account information!

If you want to update your information, CALL the number in the phone book, not the number in the email!

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Pharming

Redirecting you to an imposter web page.

Thieves implant malicious software on your PC

Redirects you to an imposter web page even when you type the correct URL!

To foil it, type the URL with https first (for http secure)

https://www.microsoft.com Use this one with https, not

http://www.microsoft.com Since it has http, it could be spoofed

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Cookies

Little text files left on your hard disk by some websites you visit

Can include your log-in name, password, and browser preferences

Can be convenient

But they can be used to gather information about you and your browsing habits

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Spyware

Applications that download without your knowledge

They hide on your PC and capture information about what is on the PC and what you are doing

That information is then transmitted to the spyware master’s website on the internet

Information may be used against you to steal your identity, get credit cards in your name, or for other crimes

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Spyware (continued)

To prevent spyware, you must install and use “Antispyware software” at all times

Examples: Ad Aware, AntiSpyware, Spybot Search & Destroy, Pest Patrol, SpyCatcher, Yahoo toolbar with Anti-Spy

Be careful about free and illegal downloads since they are a source of spyware

Don’t say “I agree” when you are downloading something – read the fine print

Beware of unsolicited downloads

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3-

Software 3.1 System Software: The Power behind the Power 3.2 The Operating System: What It Does 3.3 Other System Software: Device Drivers & Utilities 3.4 Common Features of the User Interface 3.5 Common Operating Systems 3.6 Application Software 3.7 Word Processing 3.8 Spreadsheets 3.9 Database Software 3.10 Specialty Software Chapter 3 McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

System Software: The Power behind the Power

Software developed to solve a particular problem for users

Either performs useful work on a specific task

Or provides entertainment

We interact mainly with this software

System Software

Enables application software to interact with the computer

Helps the computer to manage its own internal and external resources

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System Software: The Power behind the Power

System Software has 3 basic components

Operating System (OS)

The principal component of system software

Low-level, master system of programs to manage basic computer operations

Some hardware requires specific Operating Systems

Macintosh computers run Macintosh OS

PCs run Microsoft Windows, Linux, or BSD Unix

IBM Mainframes run MVS or VM

Cray supercomputers run COS or UNICOS

Device Drivers

Help the computer control peripheral devices

Utility Programs

Used to support, enhance, or expand existing programs in the computer

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The Operating System: What It Does

Booting

The process of loading an OS into the computer’s main memory

The steps are:

Turn the computer on

Diagnostic routines test main memory, CPU, and other hardware

Basic Input/Output System (BIOS) programs are copied to main memory

BIOS contains instructions for operating the hardware

The computer needs those instructions to operate the hardware and find a copy of the OS

Boot program obtains the OS and loads it into computer’s main memory

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Central Processing Unit (CPU) Management

Kernel is the supervising software that manages CPU

Kernel must remain in memory while the computer runs

If another program uses the kernel’s memory when the kernel needs it, the computer will crash

Memory Management

OS keeps track of memory locations to prevent programs and data from overlapping each other

Swaps portions of programs and data into the same memory but at different times

Keeps track of virtual memory

Queues, Buffers, Spooling

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Central Processing Unit (CPU) Management (continued)

Queues, Buffers, Spooling

Queue: First-in, First-out (FIFO) sequence of data or programs that waits in line for its turn to be processed

Buffer: The place where the data or programs sit while they are waiting

To Spool: The act of placing a print job into a buffer

Needed because the CPU is faster than printers

The CPU can work on other tasks while the print jobs wait

3-

File Management

A file is either a

Data File: a named collection of data

Program File: a program that exists in a computer’s secondary storage

The File System arranges files in a hierarchical manner

Top level is Directories (aka Folders)

Subdirectories come below Folders

Find files using their pathname

C:/MyDocuments/Termpaper/section1.doc

3-

Task Management

Required for computers that accommodate multiple users

Required for computers that allow multiple simultaneous applications

Methods of processing two or more programs

Multitasking

By one user on one processor

Multiprogramming

By multiple users concurrently on one processor

Time-sharing

By multiple users in round-robin fashion on one processor

Multiprocessing

By one or more users simultaneously on two or more processors

3-

Security Management

Operating Systems permit users to control access to their computers

Users gain access using an ID and password

You set the password the first time you boot up a new computer

System Administrators can set up new accounts and assign new passwords

3-

Other System Software: Device Drivers & Utilities

Device Drivers

Specialized software programs that allow input and output devices to communicate with the rest of the OS

When you get a brand-new printer or monitor, you may also need to install the device driver for it

Device drivers come with new hardware, or download from the manufacturer’s website, or sites like www.driverguide.com or www.windrivers.com

Utilities

Service programs that perform tasks related to the control and allocation of computer resources

Some come with the OS, others can be bought separately like

Norton SystemWorks, McAfee Utilities

3-

Other System Software: Device Drivers & Utilities

Practical Utility programs perform the following tasks

Virus protection

Data compression

File defragmentation

Disk scanner & disk cleanup

Backup

Data recovery

3- Discussion Question: How many of you have lost important files such as a term paper? Didn’t you wish you had made a backup copy? ALL data media are subject to possible failure and data loss!

Common Features of the User Interface

User Interface

The user-controllable display screen you use to interact with the computer

Keyboard and Mouse

User input devices that you use to interact with the display screen

Both devices have special-purpose keys

Keyboard Special-purpose keys: Esc, Ctrl, Alt, Del, Ins, Home, End, PgUp, PgDn, Num Lock

Mouse special-purpose keys: left-click, right-click, and (on some mice) scroll wheel or center click

3-

Keyboard

Function Keys – let you quickly perform specific tasks

Escape Key – lets you quit a task

Ctrl and Alt – use combination with another key to bypass using the mouse – Ctrl + S will save a document, Alt + Tab will let you switch between running applications

3-

Keyboard continued

Application key – quickly displays the shortcut menu for any item on your screen

Status lights – indicate if your Num Lock or Caps Lock keys are on

Numeric Keypad – allows you to type in numbers when the Num Lock light is on

3-

Mouse

Handy tool for dragging and dropping text, graphics

Useful for navigating menus on unfamiliar applications

3-

Graphical User Interface (GUI)

Allows you to use a mouse or keystrokes to select icons and commands from menus

Replaces command-driven interfaces used in earlier programs

Three main features are: desktop, icons, and menus

Desktop: The system’s main interface screen

Icon: Small pictorial figure that represents a program, data file, or procedure

Rollover: A small text box that explains the icon when you roll your mouse over it

Menus: A list of built-in commands and/or options from which to choose

3-

To start an application, pick one of 3 methods:

Click on the Start button on the lower left corner of the Windows desktop

Click on the My Computer icon on the desktop, find the application executable on your hard disk, and click it

Click on the My Documents icon on the desktop, find the document you want to open, and click it. It should automatically open the application that created it, if you have that application installed

3-

Most Operating Systems have the following:

Title Bar: runs across the top of the display window

Menu Bar: shows the names of the pull-down menus available

Toolbar: Displays menus and icons representing the most-frequently used commands

Taskbar: The bar across the bottom of the Windows screen that contains the Start button

A window: A rectangular frame on the computer screen through which you can view a file of data or an application

3-

Common Operating Systems

Platform

The particular processor model and operating system on which a computer system is based

Operating Systems are platform-specific

PC (Wintel) platforms

Dell, Compaq, Hewlett-Packard, IBM PCs

Originally ran Disk Operating System (DOS)

Currently run Linux, Unix, Windows

Apple (Macintosh) platforms

Run Mac OS (System 9 was proprietary, OS X is Unix-based)

3-

Mac OS

The OS that runs on Apple Macintosh computers

Pioneered the easy-to-use GUI

Proprietary OS

System 9 is OS from 1999, but still popular

Mac OS X is based on BSD Unix kernel

Tiger is 2005 release of Mac OS X; features include

Spotlight – a desktop search engine for locating files on local hard disk

Dashboard – for creating desktop “widgets”

Automator – automatically helps users to script repetitive tasks

3-

Unix, Solaris, BSD

Developed at AT&T Bell Laboratories in 1969 as minicomputer operating system

Is a multitasking operating system with multiple users that has built-in networking capability and a version for every platform

Unix interface

GUI – An optional shell program that starts after the kernel

Command interface – starts when kernel loads

3-

Linux

A flavor (version) of Unix

A free, nonproprietary version of UNIX

May legally be downloaded and used for free

May legally be modified for free, as long as modifications aren’t copyrighted

In 2000, adopted by China as national standard OS

Linux vendors produce Linux Distributions

Software is distributed for free

Support services are sold for a profit

Many PCs are set up to dual-boot Linux and Windows

3-

Operating Systems for Handhelds

Palm OS

Dominant handheld OS

Proprietary OS requires proprietary software

Windows CE

Has familiar Windows look and feel

Can be directly programmed using Visual Basic 2005

Symbian OS

Symbian is world’s largest producer of smartphone software

Software is open-source

3-

There are 5 ways to legally obtain software

Commercial Software

Copyrighted – license must be purchased

Public-domain software

Not copyrighted – legal to copy

Shareware

Copyrighted – download for free, then pay if you use it

Freeware

Copyrighted – but available for free. Pay on honor system

Rentalware

Copyrighted – lease for a fee

3-

Software License Types

Site licenses

Allow software to be used on all computers at a specific location

Concurrent-user license

Allows a specified number of copies to be used at one time

May require additional license-monitoring software

Multiple-user license

Specifies the number of people who may use the software

Single-use license

Limits the software to one user at a time

3-

Other software categories

Pirated software

Software obtained illegally in violation of copyright

Software & Industry Information Association Anti-Piracy division prosecutes violators of software copyright laws http://www.siia.net/piracy/

Don’t pirate software!!!

Abandonware

Software that is no longer being sold or supported by its publisher

Subject to copyright for 95 years from date of publication

3-

Importing files

Getting data from another source and converting it into a format for the application you are using

Allows you to edit files from other applications

Exporting files

Transforming data into a format that can be used by a different application, then transmitting it

Common export files end in the .rtf extension

3-

Word Processing

Software that uses computers to create, edit, format, print, and store text.

Microsoft Word licensed for Windows and Mac OS

Lotus Smart Suite licensed for Windows

Sun Microsystems Star Office licensed for Windows- Linux- and Solaris-based systems (was free)

Corel Word-Perfect licensed for Windows

3-

Word Processing

Tools for creating documents

Cursor is on screen to show you where to enter text

Scrolling means moving quickly forward, up, down, or sideways through document test display

Word wrap automatically continues text to next line when you reach the right margin

Outline view puts tags on headings within a document to organize it

Inserting is the act of adding text to documents

Deleting is the act of removing text from documents

3-

Word Processing 3-

Word Processing

Find & Replace

Find lets you go straight to any text in your document

Replace lets you go to the text and automatically replace it with something else

Cut, Copy, & Paste

Select the text you want to move

Copy to clipboard, then paste in new location

Or drag the text to the new location

Spelling Checker

Tests for incorrectly spelled words

Often shows them with a squiggly line underneath

You may choose to use the “Autocorrect” feature

3-

Word Processing

Grammar Checker

Highlights poor grammar, wordiness, sentence fragments, and awkward phrases

Puts different-color squiggly line under suspect phrases

Thesaurus

Can be called up on-screen

Offers suggestions for alternative words with the same meaning

3- Discussion Question: How doze a spell-checker Handel different spellings for the same word? Should ewe trust the spell-checker for everything?

Word Processing

Formatting Documents using Templates & Wizards

A template is a preformatted document that provides basic tools for shaping a final document

You can customize a template with your company’s name, address, etc, then save it and use it again and again

Use them when you have to repeatedly create the same basic document

A wizard is an interactive computer utility program that leads the user through a task asking questions and using the user’s answers to customize a solution

Letter wizards create customized letters

Memo wizards help you to create memoranda

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Word Processing

Formatting

Font

The typeface, size, and color of your letters

Also lets you specify underlined , italic , or bold

Spacing & Columns

Choose how far apart the lines will be (single- or double-spaced)

Choose single-column or multi-columned text for your document

Margins & Justification

Indicate width of left, right, top, and bottom margins

Justify text left, right, or center

3-

Word Processing

Headers, footers, page numbers

A header is text printed at the very top of the page

A footer is text (like page number) at the page bottom

Other Formatting

You can specify a border around a document or around a paragraph – it can really highlight a point

You can also use shading, tables, and footnotes

Default Settings

These are the settings automatically used by the program unless you change them

3-

Word Processing

Saving a document

Store a document as an electronic file

File  Save or click Floppy icon or Ctrl + S

Save often, and save in two places

Print

Print individual pages, the whole document, or several copies

File  Print or click printer icon or Ctrl + P

Track Changes

Save as Web Document

3-

Spreadsheets

Electronic spreadsheets were created in 1978 by Daniel Bricklin at Harvard Business School and Daniel Fylstra at M.I.T. and HBS as a study tool

Spreadsheets are organized into columns and rows

Cells are where a row and a column meet

Cell address is the position of the cell

Range is a group of adjacent cells

Values are numbers or dates entered into a cell

Cell pointers or cursors are where the data is to be entered

3-

Spreadsheets 3-

Spreadsheets

Formulas, Functions, Recalculation, What-If

Formulas are instructions for calculations

They define mathematically how one cell relates to another cell

Example: =SUM(A5:A15) sums the values of the cells A5, A6, A7, and so forth up through cell A15

Functions are built-in formulas, such as SUM()

Recalculation is the process of recomputing values

What-If analysis allows users to see what happens to totals when one or more numbers change in cells

This is the powerful feature of spreadsheets over manual calculations

3-

Spreadsheets

Charting and Analytical Graphics

Spreadsheets allow you to automatically create graphs

When the cells change, the graphs change too

Charts are a type of graph that include

Bar charts

Column charts

Line graphs

Pie charts

Scatter charts

3-

Database Software

A database is a structured collection of interrelated files in a computer system with built-in data input and retrieval methods.

In databases

Data redundancy is minimized

Data is integrated and stored in a structured fashion

Data in databases has more integrity than does data stored in separate files

Data is organized into tables, records, and fields

Data may include text, numbers, and graphics

3-

Database Software 3-

Database Software

Database features include

Linking records using a key

Tables that contain the same field are linked together by fields, so the key can be updated just once

Key fields can also be used to sort data

Querying and displaying records

Offer a quick way to locate records quickly

Saving, Formatting, Printing, Copying, Transmitting

Database software allows you to create custom input forms, custom reports, copy search results and paste them into Word, print out addresses to mailing labels, or attach to email

3-

Specialty Software

Presentation Graphics

Desktop Publishing

Financial Software

Drawing and Painting Software

Project Management Software

Video-audio Editing Software

Animation Software

Web Page Design Software

3-

Specialty Software

Presentation Graphics Software

Use graphics, animation, sound, data, or information to make visual presentations

For example, this presentation

Contains

Design and content templates

Slide sorters

Outline view

Slide view

Notes Page View

3-

Specialty Software 3-

Specialty Software

Financial Software

Ranges from personal-finance managers to entry-level accounting programs to business financial-management packages

Common features

Track income and expenses

Allow checkbook management

Do financial reporting

Offer tax categories to assist with tax recordkeeping

May also offer financial-planning and portfolio-management features

3-

Specialty Software

Desktop Publishing

Involves mixing text and graphics to produce high-quality output for commercial printing

Uses a mouse, scanner, printer, and DTP software

Has the following features

Mix of text with graphics

Offers varied type and layout styles

Allows import of files from other programs

Drawing programs

Graphics software used to design and illustrate objects and products

3-

Specialty Software

Painting programs

Graphics programs that allow users to simulate painting on-screen

Produce bit-mapped or raster images

Also called image-editing software

Graphics file formats

.bmp (bit-map)

.gif (Graphic Interchange Format) – copyrighted format used in web pages

.jpeg (Joint Photographic Experts Group)- high-resolution

.tiff (Tagged Image File Formats) – PC and Macs for high-resolution images to print

.png (Portable Network Graphics) – public domain alternative to gif

3-

Specialty Software

Video editing software

Allows import to and editing of video footage on PC

Video editing examples include Adobe Premiere, Sony Pictures Digital Vegas, Apple Final Cut Express, Pinnacle Studio DV, and Ulead VideoStudio

Audio editing software

Allows import to and editing of sound files on PC

Sound editing examples include Windows Sound Recorder, Sony Pictures Digital Sound Forge, Audacity (freeware), Felt Tip Software’s Sound Studio (shareware), GoldWave, and WavePad.

3-

Specialty Software

Animation Software

Simulates movement by rapidly displaying a series of still pictures, or frames

GIF is the first format to catch on

3-

Specialty Software

Multimedia Authoring Software

Combines text, graphics, video, animation, and sound in an integrated way to create stand-alone multimedia applications

Requires fast computer, lots of memory, and good, fast graphics card

Macromedia Director and Macromedia Authorware are popular examples

Web Page Design Software

Used to create web pages with sophisticated multimedia features

Not required to create simple web pages

3-

Specialty Software

Project Management Software

A program used to plan and schedule the people, costs, and resources required to complete a project on time

Shows project broken down into steps and tasks

Each task has a beginning and end date

Tasks can be scheduled concurrently or consecutively

Computer-Aided Design (CAD)

Programs intended for design of products, structures, civil engineering drawings, and maps

Provide precise dimensioning and positioning of design elements

Examples include AutoCAD, ProEngineer, CorelCAD, CATIA

To see an example, go to http://www.3ds.com/flashgallery/discover-3d-xml/ for CATIA

3-

4-

Hardware: The CPU & Storage 4.1 Microchips, Miniaturization, & Mobility 4.2 The System Unit: The Basics 4.3 More on the System Unit 4.4 Secondary Storage 4.5 Future Developments in Processing & Storage Chapter 4 McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Microchips, Miniaturization, & Mobility

Vacuum Tubes vs. Transistors

Vacuum tubes were the original logic gates of computers

They looked like light bulbs, were hot, and burned out like them too

The original transistors were 1/100 th the size of vacuum tubes (less power, faster, more reliable too)

Transistors vs. Integrated Circuits

Compare 1955’s 45 lb “portable” color TV to today’s 7 oz Casio 2.3 inch color TV

One integrated circuit contains thousands of transistors

4-

Semiconductor

A material whose electrical properties are intermediate between a good conductor and a nonconductor of electricity

Perfect substrate to overlay complex circuits on

Microchips are made from semiconductors

Contain millions of microminiature integrated circuits

4-

Microprocessor

The miniaturized circuitry of an entire computer processor on a single chip

Contains the CPU, which processes data

Microcontroller or Embedded Computer

A microprocessor that was modified for use in a machine that isn’t a computer

4-

The System Unit: The Basics

Binary System: the basic unit of computing

Uses just two numbers: 0 and 1

All data and program instructions in the computer are represented as binary

Bit: each 0 or 1 is a bit

Byte: a group of 8 bits

Kilobyte: ~1,000 (1,024) bytes

Megabyte: ~1 Million (1,048,576) bytes

Gigabyte: ~1 Billion (1,073,741,824) bytes

Terabyte: ~ 1 Trillion (1,009,511,627,576) bytes

Petabyte: ~ 1 quadrillion bytes

Exabyte: ~ 1 quintillion bytes

All the printed material in the world is ~ 5 exabytes

4-

Binary coding schemes assign a unique binary code to each letter

EBCDIC

Requires 8 bits per character

Used for IBM mainframes

ASCII

Requires 7 or 8 bits per character, depending on the version

8 bit Extended ASCII provides 256 characters

Used for PCs, Unix hosts, Macs

Unicode

Requires 16 bits per character

Handles 65,536 characters

4-

Error Checking: Parity Bits

Used in modems & communications to verify correctness

One check bit is added to 7 bit byte

The check bit is defined as either odd or even

For odd parity, if the data sent is correct, the parity bit plus the first 7 data bits is an odd number

For even parity, if the data sent is correct, the parity bit plus the first 7 data bits is an even number

4- Discussion Question: If the 7 data bits are 1101011, and the modem is sending odd parity, what should the parity bit be set to? Answer: Since the data bits add up to 5, an odd number, the parity bit will be 0.

Machine Language

A binary-type programming language built into the CPU that is run directly by the computer

Each CPU type has its own machine language

Language Translators

System programs convert the programming instructions for you into machine language

4-

The System Unit: The Basics 4-

The System Unit: The Basics Computer Terms

Names

Bay

Power Supply

Surge Protector

Voltage Regulator

UPS

Motherboard

Microprocessor

Chipset

Definitions

Shell or opening used for the installation of electrical equipment.

This converts AC to DC to run the computer.

Protects the computer from being damaged by power spikes. Plug your computer into one.

Protects a computer against brownouts or low power conditions that happen a lot in summer.

Uninterruptible Power Supply. Battery-operated device that provides power for a time when there is a blackout.

The main system board of the computer.

The miniaturized circuitry of a computer processor.

Groups of interconnected chips on the motherboard that control information flow between the microprocessor and other system components connected to the motherboard.

4-

The CPU

Older CPUs processing speeds are in MegaHertz

1 MHz = 1 Million ticks per second

Current CPUs processing speeds are in GigaHertz

1 GHz = 1 Billion ticks per second

The faster a CPU runs, the more power it consumes, and the more heat it generates

4-

The CPU Continued

Mainframe and minicomputer speed is measured in MIPS

MIPS stands for millions of instructions per second

Workstations perform at 100 MIPS or more

Mainframes perform at 200 – 1,200 MIPS

Supercomputer processing speed is measured in flops

Flops stands for floating point operations per second

IBM’s Blue Gene/L cranks out 70.72 teraflops (tera = trillion) per second

4-

More on the System Unit Parts of the CPU

Name

Word size

Control unit

Arithmetic Logic Unit

Registers

Buses

4-

Definition

The number of bits the processor can process at any one time

The part of the CPU that deciphers instructions and carries them out

The ALU performs mathematical and logical operations and controls the speed of them

High-speed storage areas that temporarily store data during processing

Electrical data roadways used to transmit bits within the CPU and between CPU and other motherboard components

More on the System Unit How Memory Works

Memory Chip

RAM

ROM

CMOS

Flash

Explanation

Random Access Memory chips are volatile and hold:

Software instructions

Data before & after the CPU processes it

Read only memory

Cannot be written on or erased without special equipment

Are loaded at factory with fixed start-up instructions

Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor

Powered by a battery

Contains time, date, calendar, boot password

Nonvolatile memory that can be erased and reprogrammed more than once

Doesn’t require a battery

Used in newer PCs for BIOS instructions

4-

More on the System Unit Expansion Buses

Bus

PCI bus

AGP Bus

Description

Peripheral Component Interconnect

For high-speed connections

32 or 64 bits wide

Typically used for sound cards, modems, high-speed network cards

Accelerated Graphics Port

Twice the speed of PCI bus

For Video and 3-D graphics cards

4-

Secondary Storage

Storage Types

Floppy and Zip disks

Hard disks

Optical disks

Magnetic tape

Smart Cards

Flash memory

Online secondary storage

Descriptions

Removable disks.

Floppies store 1.44 MB

Zip disks store 100, 250, or 750 MB

Made from thin rigid metal covered with magnetizable substrate. Most disks have 2 or more platters

Removable CDs and DVDs

Thin plastic tape coated with magnetizable substance

Like a credit card, but contains a microprocessor and memory chips

Nonvolatile memory – no moving parts

Lets you store data on an online vendor’s server

4-

Secondary Storage Floppies and Zip Disks

Floppies

Flat piece of mylar plastic inside a 3.5” plastic case

Store about 1.44 MB

Have a write-protect notch

Data is recorded in tracks: concentric recording bands

Formatting breaks the tracks into small wedge-shaped sectors

Read/Write head transfers data between the computer and disk

Floppies DO wear out!

Zip Disks

Disks with a high-quality magnetic coating

Store 100, 250, or 750 MB

Require a Zip drive; won’t work on floppy drives

Used to store larger files than floppies can hold

Zip disks wear out too!

4-

Secondary Storage Hard Disks

Thin, rigid metal, glass, or ceramic platters covered with a substance that allows data to be held in the form of magnetized spots

The more platters there are, the higher the drive capacity

Store data in tracks, sectors, and clusters

Formatting creates a file allocation table that maps files to clusters or inodes

Typical file systems are VFAT & NTFS for Windows, HFS and ext2 for Unix

Drive heads ride on .000001” cushion of air, and can crash!

Important data should always be backed up!

4-

Secondary Storage Hard Disks

Hard Disk Types:

External Hard Disks – a freestanding disk drive

Removable Hard Disk – inserted into a cartridge drive on the PC

Hard Disk Controllers

EIDE – Enhanced Integrated Drive Electronics

Supports up to 4 disks at 137 GB per disk

Marketed as SATA, Fast ATA, Ultra ATA, ATA-2, ATA/100

SCSI – Faster than EIDE controllers

Fibre Channel – used in large servers – faster and costlier than SCSI

4-

Secondary Storage Optical Disks

CDs and DVDs are Optical disks

Data is written and read using lasers, not a disk head

CD-ROM is Compact Disk Read-Only Memory

CD-R is used for recording only once

CD-RW is an erasable optical disk that can both record and erase data over and over again

DVD is a CD-style disk with extremely high capacity

Stores 4.7 or more GB

DVD-R is used for recording only once

DVD-RW, DVD-RAM, DVD+RW are reusable DVDs

4-

Secondary Storage Magnetic Tape

Thin plastic tape coated with a substance that can be magnetized

Store 200 GB and higher

Used in the form of tape cartridges

Still popular for large backups because of their large data capacity

But don’t get it near a magnet as that will erase it!

4-

Secondary Storage Smart Cards

Resembles a credit card, but contains a microprocessor and memory chips

Holds more information than standard magnetic-strip credit cards; 8 – 40 MB of data

UltraCard

Uses a magnetic shim that draws out of the card to be read, then retracts into the drive

Provides 2 GB of storage

Contact smart cards

Must be swiped through card readers

Can wear out from use

Contactless smart cards

Read when held in front of a low-powered laser

4-

Secondary Storage Flash Memory

Nonvolatile memory with no moving parts

But the electronics can wear out

Available as

Flash memory cards

Insert these into a flash port of a camera, handheld PC, smartphone

Flash memory sticks

A form of flash memory that plugs into a memory stick port

Flash memory drives

A finger-sized module of flash memory

Plugs into the USB port of most PCs and Macintoshes

4-

Secondary Storage Online Secondary Storage

Allows you to use the internet to back up your data

Sign up with a vendor and receive access to software that allows you to upload your data to that company’s server

Files should be encrypted to maintain security

Use only for vital files that require immediate availability

Use tape, removable hard disk cartridges, zip disks, optical storage or tape for normal backup

4-

Future Developments in Processing & Storage

Moore’s Law

Gordon Moore predicted the number of transistors on a silicon chip will double every 18 months

It has held up since the 1960s!

4-

New Technology

M-RAM

OUM

Nanotechnology

Optical Computing

DNA Computing

Quantum Computing

Description of Processing Technology

Magnetic RAM uses miniscule magnets rather than electrical charges

Ovonic Multiplied Memory stores bits by generating different levels of low and high resistance on a glossy material

Tiny machines work at a molecular level to make nanocircuits

Uses lasers and light, not electricity

Uses strands of synthetic DNA to store data

Based on quantum mechanics and stores information using particle states

4-

New Technology

Higher-density disks

Molecular electronics

Description of Storage Technology

Magnetic disk drives currently hold 100 GB of data

Blank CDs are replacing floppy disks since they hold 650MB and cost < $1 each

DVD disks hold up to 4.7 GB of data currently

Perpendicular recording technology allows 25% - 100% more data to be stored on the same disk

Polymer memory creates chips that store data on plastics

Nonvolatile memory

Data is stored based on polymer’s electrical resistance

4-

5-

Hardware: Input & Output 5.1 Input & Output 5.2 Input Hardware 5.3 Output Hardware 5.4 I/O Quality of Life: Health & Ergonomics 5.5 Future of Input & Output Chapter 5 McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

6-

Communications, Networks, & Safeguards 6.1 From the Analog to the Digital Age 6.2 Networks 6.3 Wired Communications Media 6.4 Wireless Communications Media 6.5 Cyberthreats, Hackers, & Safeguards 6.6 The Future of Communications Chapter 6 McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

From the Analog to the Digital Age

Analog signals use variation of a wave form to send information

The wave forms look like the sine wave shown at right

In FM signals the F requenc y is varied ( M odulated)

In AM signals the A mplitud e is varied ( M odulated)

Radios send signals this way

Light works this way

Hearing and phones work this way

Modems work this way

6- Frequency

Digital signals send data in terms of 1s and 0s

A digital signal may look like this one at right

Notice how the signal goes up and down abruptly because the only values that matter are 0 and 1 and the timing of when they occur

Computers use digital signals

Newspaper photographs are digital since they are made up of little dots

6-

Since computers use digital signals but phone lines use analog, modems must translate from digital to analog, send the signal along the phone line, then translate back from analog to digital at the other end

The process is called “modulation/demodulation”

Modulation means to translate from digital to analog

Demodulation means to translate from analog to digital

Modems have to do all this just to use standard analog voice phone lines

6-

Tape recorders, voices, and musical instruments are analog while CDs are digital

To burn a CD from a jam session, the digital recording equipment must convert from analog to digital

The analog-to-digital converter samples the sound and converts the height of the wave to a number

Samples of the sound wave are taken at regular intervals – about 44,100 times each second

Because the digital samples are played back faster than our ears can react, it sounds to us like a single continuous sound wave

6-

Digital sampling is similar to showing movies

Movies show still pictures (frames)

But they show them so fast that our eyes can’t react in time

So to us the series of still pictures look like continuous motion

Did you ever notice in movies when they show car tires in motion they sometimes seem to move backwards?

This is because the tires are moving at a rate that is incompatible with the frame rate of the movie, so our eyes think the tires are really moving backwards when the car is actually moving forward!

6-

Networks

A system of interconnected computers, telephones, or other communications devices that can communicate with one another and share applications and data

Before we had computer networks, people used “sneakernet” to share data between computers

Person 1 saved their document to a floppy disk

Then they walked over to person 2’s desk (wearing sneakers, of course) and handed over the disk to person 2

Person 2 loaded the disk into their computer to read and edit the document

6-

Networks

Since the days of “sneakernet”, networks have become standard. They enable us to:

Share peripheral devices such as laser printers

Share programs and data

Use e-mail and other communication programs

Backup critical information because it is stored centrally

Access shared databases

6-

Networks

WAN – Wide Area Network

MAN – Metropolitan Area Network

LAN – Local Area Network

HAN – Home Area Network

PAN – Personal Area Network

Covers a wide geographic area, such as a country or the world

Covers a city or a suburb

Connects computers and devices in a limited geographic area such as an office, building, or group of nearby buildings

Uses wired, cable, or wireless connections to link a household’s digital devices

Uses short-range wireless technology to connect an individual’s personal electronics like cellphone, PDA, MP3 player, notebook PC, and printer

6-

Networks

Client/Server

Consists of clients, which are computers that request data, and servers, which are computers that supply data

File servers act like a network-based shared disk drive

Database servers store data but don’t store programs

Print servers connect one or more printers and schedule and control print jobs

Mail servers manage email

Peer-to-Peer

All computers on the network communicate directly with each other without relying on a server

For fewer than 25 PCs

6-

Networks

Peer-to-Peer (continued)

Cheaper than client/server since servers are typically more expensive than PCs

There are often problems with knowing who has the current version of documents and files

Too slow for use in larger offices

Legal considerations

Downloading copyrighted material without paying violates U.S. copyright laws

Server-based online file sharing sites such as Napster have been shut down

Peer-to-Peer file-sharing sites such as Kazaa, Grokster, and Gnutella have been more difficult to control since there is no central server to shut down

So publishers are suing individual downloaders instead

6- Watch out! Don’t download illegally!

Networks Intranets, Extranets, VPNs

Intranets

An organization’s private network that uses the infrastructure and standards of the internet and the web

Extranets

Private internets that connect not only internal personnel but also selected suppliers and other strategic parties

Virtual Private Networks

Private networks that use a public network, usually the internet, to connect remote sites

6-

Network Components

Connections

Wired – twisted-pair, coaxial cable, or fiber-optic

Wireless – infrared, microwave (Bluetooth), broadcast (Wi-Fi) or satellite

Hosts & Nodes

Host: the central computer that controls the network

Node: a device that is attached to the network

Packets

The format for sending electronic messages

A fixed-length block of data for transmission

6-

Network Components

Protocols

The set of conventions governing the exchange of data between hardware and/or software components in a communications network

Built into the hardware or software you are using

Govern the packet design and transmission standards

Examples are:

TCP/IP for LANs and internet

AppleTalk for older Mac networks

SIP for Voice over IP (VoIP)

CDMA for cellphones

IPX for older Novell networks

6-

Network Packets

TCP/IP Packets carry four types of information

Sender’s address (source IP number)

Address of intended recipient (destination IP number)

Number of packets the original data was broken into

This happens because the amount of data the PC is sending can be much larger than the space in a single packet

So the data has to get broken up in one or more packets

Then the packets have to be assigned a number like 1 of 6, 2 of 6, 3 of 6, 4 of 6, 5 of 6, and 6 of 6

Packet number and sequence info for each packet

Packets may arrive out of order (1, 6 , 3 , 2 , 5 , 4 for example)

This information is used to resequence the packets and put them back in the correct order (1, 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 ) so they can be read

6-

Network Devices

Daisy

Chain

Hub

Switch

Bridge

Gateway

Router

Backbone

Used in peer-to-peer networks – direct connections from one PC to the next

Used in small LANs to connect PCs and LAN segments to each other. Forwards to all ports

Used in larger, busy LANs – faster than hubs because it forwards only to correct destination

Used to connect two networks of the same type

Connects two networks of different types

Connects multiple LANs together. Routers are the internet backbone

The main route that connects all the gateways, routers, and other computers in an organization

6-

Network Topologies

Bus – all nodes are connected to a single wire or cable

Ring – all nodes are connected in a continuous loop

Star – all nodes are connected through a central host

6-

Network Packet Collision Schemes

Collisions happen when two data packets are going opposite directions on shared media

Ethernet – deals with collisions

All devices send data at once

Collisions happen regularly

Data is simply resent until it arrives

Token ring – avoids collisions

Devices take turns sending data

Token is sent around the ring

Wait to get the token, then send data

6- $$$ Pricier than Ethernet

Wired Communications Media

Communications media carry signals over a communications path

Twisted-Pair Wire

2 strands of insulated copper wire twisted around each other

Twisting reduces interference (crosstalk) from electrical signals

Data rates are 1 – 128 Megabits per second

Coaxial Cable

Insulated copper wire wrapped in a metal shield and then in an external plastic cover

Used for cable TV and cable internet electric signals

Carries voice and data up to 200 megabits per second

6-

Wired Communications Media

Communications media continued

Fiber-optic cable

Dozens or hundreds of thin strands of glass or plastic that transmit beams of light, not electricity

Can transmit up to 2 gigabits per second

More expensive than twisted-pair or coax

Lighter and more durable than twisted-pair or coax

More difficult to tap into than twisted-pair or coax

6-

Wired Communications Media for the home

Ethernet

Pull Cat5 cables through the house (yourself or contractor)

Connect to PC’s Ethernet network interface card (nic)

For several PCs, get a hub or switch to connect them all

10 or 100 megabits per second

HomePNA

Uses existing telephone wiring and jacks

Requires HomePNA nic in your PC

Speeds of 10 – 240 megabits per second

Homeplug

Uses existing home electrical lines

Speeds of 14 megabits per second

6-

Wireless Communications Media

Electromagnetic spectrum of radiation is the basis of all telecommunications signals

Includes the longest radio waves (9 kHz) and audio waves (sound), up through gamma rays that come from nuclear decay (thousands of gigahertz)

Radio-frequency spectrum is the part of the electromagnetic spectrum that we use for radio communication

6-

Wireless Communications Media Bandwidth

Narrowband (or Voiceband)

Used for regular telephone communications

Transmission rate < 100 kilobits per second

Medium Band

Used for long-distance data transmission or to connect mainframe and midrange computers

Transmission rate 100 kb to 1 megabit per second

Broadband

For high-speed data and high-quality audio and video

Transmission rate 1 megabit per second to 100 megabits per second

US households get 4 – 5 MB while Japanese get 100 MB per second

6-

Infrared Transmission

Sends signals using infrared light

Frequencies are too low to see (1-4 Mbits per second)

Broadcast Radio

AM/FM, CB, ham, cellphones, police radio

Sends data over long distances using a transmitter and a receiver

Microwave Radio

Superhigh frequency radio waves (1 gigahertz)

Requires line-of-sight transmitters and receivers

Communications Satellites

6-

Communications Satellites

These are microwave relay stations in orbit around the earth - Uplinking: transmitting a signal from ground station to a satellite

Cover broad service area

Cost $300 million to $700 million each + launch costs

Can be placed at different heights: GEO, MEO, LEO

GEO – geostationary earth orbit

22,300 miles up above earth

Always above equator

MEO – medium-earth orbit

5,000 – 10,000 miles up

LEO – low-earth orbit

200 – 1,000 miles up

Has less signal delay than GEO, MEO satellites

6-

Wireless Communications Media GPS

Global Positioning System

24 earth-orbiting satellites continuously transmitting timed radio signals

Each satellite circles earth twice each day at 11,000 miles up

GPS receivers pick up transmissions from up to 4 satellites and pinpoint the receiver’s location

Accurate within 3 – 50 feet, with a norm of 10 feet accuracy

GPS receivers contain map files that are displayed based on the GPS position to guide users

Many GPS receivers have speech chips, too

6-

Wireless Communications Media One-way Pagers

One-way pagers are radio receivers that receive data sent from a special radio transmitter

Radio transmitter sends out signals over the special frequency

Pagers are tuned to that frequency

When a particular pager hears its own code, it receives and displays the message

6- Discussion Question: Why do airplane rules require you to turn off pagers and cellphones during flight? Answer: Pilots use radar and radio to determine their position and communicate with ground control. Pager and cellphone signals use radio, too, and competing signals can interfere with each other

Wireless Communications Media Long-Distance Wireless

Two-way pagers: Blackberry and Treo

1G: First Generation Cellular

Analog cellphones

Designed for voice communication using a system of hexagonal ground-area cells around transmitter-receiver cell towers

Good for voice – less effective for data due to handing off

2G: Second Generation Cellular

Use same network of cell towers to send voice and data in digital form over the airwaves

Required digital receivers on original analog celltowers

6-

Wireless Communications Media 2G Wireless

There are two competing, incompatible standards

CDMA – Code Division Multiple Access

Transmission rates 14.4 kilobits per second

Used by Verizon and Sprint

GSM – Global System for Mobile Communications

Transmission rates of 9.6 kilobits per second

Used by Cingular and T-Mobile, as well as Western Europe, Middle East and Asia

US GSM and European GSM use different frequencies

6-

Wireless Communications Media 2.5G Wireless

Data speeds of 300–100 kilobits per second

GPRS – General Packet Radio Service

An upgrade to 2.5G

Speeds of 30 – 50 kilobits per second

EDGE is Enhanced Data for Global Evolution

A different 2.5G upgrade

Speeds of up to 236 kilobits per second

6-

Wireless Communications Media 3G Wireless

Third generation wireless

High speed data: 144 kilobits per second up to 2 megabits per second

Accept e-mail with attachments

Display color video and still pictures

Play music

Two important upgrades:

EV-DO – Evolution Data Only

Average speeds of 400 – 700 kilobits per second, peaks of 2 megabits per second

UMTS – Universal Mobile Telecommunications System

Average speed of 220 – 320 kilobits per second

6- Discussion Question: If your cellphone can download and play music, do you still need an i-pod?

Wireless Communications Media Short-range Wireless

Local Area Networks

Range 50 – 150 feet

Include Wi-Fi (802.11) type networks

Personal Area Networks

Use Bluetooth, Ultra wideband, and wireless USB

Home Automation networks

Use Insteon, Zigbee, and Z-Wave standards

6-

Wi-Fi (802.11) networks

Wi-Fi b, a, and g correspond to 802.11b, 802.11a, and 802.11g

802.11 is an IEEE wireless technical specification

802.11b is older, transmits 11 megabits per second

802.11a is faster than b but with weaker security than g

802.11g is 54 megabits per second and transmits 50 ft

Wi-Fi n with MIMO extends range of Wi-Fi using multiple transmitting and receiving antennas – 200 megabits per second for up to 150 ft

Warning! Security is disabled by default on Wi-Fi

6-

Wi-Fi Security

Why is it disabled by default?

So non-technical users can get Wi-Fi working more easily

Why should this bother me?

A person with a $50 antenna can eavesdrop on everything your computer sends over wireless from a block or two away

This is called “wardriving”

To read more about this problem, follow these links

http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/W/wardriving.html

http://www.wardriving.com/

6-

Wireless Communications Media Personal Area Wireless

Bluetooth

Short-range wireless standard to link cellphones, PDAs, computers, and peripherals at distances up to 30 ft

Named after King Harald Bluetooth, the Viking who unified Denmark and Norway

Transmits 720 kilobits per second

When Bluetooth devices come into range of each other, they negotiate. If they have information to exchange, they form a temporary wireless network

Bluetooth can also be used to eavesdrop on networks

Turn it off on your cellphone unless you need it at that time

6-

Wireless Communications Media Personal Area Wireless

Ultra Wideband (UWB)

Developed for military radar systems

Operates in 480 megabit per second range up to 30 ft

Uses a low power source to send out millions of bursts of radio waves each second

100 times as fast as Bluetooth

Wireless USB

USB is the most used interface on PCs

The wireless version could be a hit

Range of 32 ft and maximum data rate of > 480 megabits per second

6-

Wireless Communications Media Short-Range Wireless for Home

Insteon

Combines electronic powerline and wireless technology

Can send data at 13.1 kilobits per second with 150 ft range

Replaces X10

ZigBee

Entirely wireless very power-efficient technology

Can send data at 128 kilobits per second with 250 ft range

Z-Wave

Entirely wireless power-efficient technology

Can send data at 127 kilobits per second to range of 100 ft

Allows you to remotely program your house!

6-

Cyberthreats, Hackers, & Safeguards

Problem: internet was begun to foster collaboration among universities and scientists. They trusted each other. No security was built into the internet.

Problem: the internet is open-access and is used by some people who are not trustworthy, who take advantage of the lack of built-in safeguards.

Problem: Most people connect to the internet and use their computers in LANs. All it takes is one computer on a LAN that has been compromised for all computers on it to be vulnerable.

6-

Denial of Service Attacks

Consist of making repeated requests of a computer or network device, thereby overloading it and causing legitimate requests to be ignored

Used to target particular companies or individuals

Worms

A program that copies itself repeatedly into a computer’s memory or disk drive

May copy itself so much it crashes the infected computer

Famous worms include: Code Red, SQL Slammer, Nimda, MyDoom, Sasser

Primarily target PCs running Microsoft Windows

6-

Viruses

A deviant program that hides on a floppy, hard drive, CD, or e-mail that causes unexpected side effects such as destroying or corrupting data

Viruses self-replicate and try to secretly distribute themselves to other systems

Famous viruses include the “I Love You” virus

Viruses are published at the rate of about one per day

To see what the latest ones are, go to

http://www.symantec.com/avcenter/vinfodb.html

6-

Trojan Horses

Programs that pretend to be a useful program such as a free game or screensaver.

Carry viruses or malicious instructions that damage your computer or install a backdoor or spyware

Backdoors and spyware allow others to access your computer without your knowledge

6-

How they spread

Via e-mail attachments

By infected floppies or CDs

By clicking on infiltrated websites

By downloading from infected files from websites

Through infiltrated Wi-Fi hotspots

From one infected PC on a LAN to another

What can you do about it?

Install anti-virus software and subscribe to the automatic anti-virus update service

6-

Hackers are either

Computer enthusiasts, people who enjoy learning about programming and computers (good)

People who gain unauthorized access to computers or networks, often for fun or to see if they can (not good)

Crackers

Malicious hackers who break into computers for malicious purposes

Script kiddies are technically unsophisticated teenagers who use downloadable software for perform break-ins

Hacktivists are hacker activists who break into systems for a political purpose

Black-hat hackers are those who break into computers to steal or destroy information or to use it for illegal profit

Cyberterrorists attack computer systems so as to bring physical or financial harm to groups, companies, or nations

6-

Safeguards

Use antivirus software, and keep it current

Install a firewall to monitor network traffic and filter out undesirable types of traffic and undesirable sites

Use robust passwords –

Minimum 8 characters with letters, numbers, characters

4cats is not a good password, but f0UrK@tTz is

Install antispyware software

Encrypt financial and personal records so only you can read them

Back up your data, so if your PC is attacked and must be reformatted, you can restore your data

Never download from a website you don’t trust

Consider Biometric authentication

6-

Encryption

The process of altering readable data into unreadable form to prevent unauthorized access

Uses powerful mathematical ciphers to create coded messages that are difficult to break

Two forms:

Private Key encryption means the same secret key is used by both the sender and receiver to encrypt and decrypt a message

Public Key encryption means that two keys are used

The public key of the recipient is published and is used by the sender to encrypt the message

The private key of the recipient is secret and is the only way to decrypt the message

6-

Future of Communications

This is a big area of development

There is a lot of money to be made from faster and more secure broadband communications

Areas of development include

Global high-speed low—orbital satellite networks for rural internet and voice connectivity

4G wireless technology

Photonics to speed up fiber-optic lines

Software-defined radio

Grid computing

6-

Input & Output

Input Hardware

Devices that translate data into a form the computer can process

Translates words, numbers, sounds, and pictures into binary

Output Hardware

Devices that translate information processed by the computer into a form humans can understand

Translates binary into words, numbers, sounds, and pictures

5-

Input Hardware

Keyboards: convert letters, numbers, and characters into electrical signals

English keyboards differ from foreign language keyboards

Follow this link to see what a Russian Cyrillic keyboard layout looks like

http://www.geocities.com/fontboard/cyrillic.html

Even languages that are close to ours like German have different keyboard layouts, such as can be seen on Microsoft’s web site

http://www.microsoft.com/globaldev/keyboards/kbdgr.htm

Even touch typists must watch their fingers when they travel to Internet Cafes in foreign countries!

5-

Input Hardware

How keyboards work:

You press a key

This interrupts the current flowing through the circuits

Processor determines where the break occurs

It compares the location of the break with the (x,y) character map for the language on the keyboard’s ROM chip

A character is stored in 16-byte keyboard memory buffer

Then sent to PC as a data stream via wire or wireless connection

OS interprets its own operating-system-specific commands and sends the others to the application for interpretation

5-

Input Hardware

Keyboard types

104 – 108 keys desktop standard

85 keys for laptops

Wired

Connect to CPU via a serial or USB port

Wireless use either

IR (infrared) technology

Radio Frequency (RF) technology

Require line of sight to connect

Virtual keyboard used with PDAs and smartphones

5-

Input Hardware Terminal Types

Dumb Terminals

a.k.a. Video Display Terminal (VDT)

Has display screen and keyboard

Can do input and output only – no data processing

Intelligent Terminals

Has screen, keyboard, and memory

Can perform some local functions

Internet Terminals

Powers directly up into a browser

Web terminal displays web pages on a TV set

Network computer is a stripped-down PC to connect people to networks

Online game player connects to internet for online gaming

PC/TV merges a full-blown PC with a TV

PDA is a handheld computer with a tiny keyboard

5-

Input Hardware

PDA Keyboards

Problem: Make them too small and they are unusable

Problem: Make them too big and the PDA is too big

Solutions:

Some PDAs use a stylus

Some PDAs use a foldable keyboard

Some PDAs use a 20-key mini-keyboard

5-

Input Hardware Pointing Devices

Control the position of the cursor or pointer in the screen and allow the user to select options displayed on the screen

Mouse is the principal pointing tool

Rolls around on a mouse pad or desktop and directs a pointer on the computer’s display screen

Ball inside the mouse touches the desktop and rolls around

Two internal rollers touch the ball

One roller picks up motion in x (up), the other in y (down)

The rollers turn a shaft that spins a disk that breaks an LED signal into light pulses that are seen by an infrared sensor

Processor chip in mouse reads the pulses and turns it into binary

5- Discussion Question: What is the difference between “cursor” and “curser”?

Trackball

A movable ball mounted on top of a stationary device

Good for locations where a mouse couldn’t move enough

Requires more frequent cleaning to remove finger oils

Touchpad

To use: slide your finger over this small flat surface

Click by tapping you finger on the surface

May require more practice to use than a mouse

Pointing Stick

Looks like a pencil eraser in the lower center of a laptop keyboard

5-

Touch Screens

A video display screen sensitized to receive input from a finger

Cruder than a mouse, because fingers are big

Problems: touch screens that show a display that is not precisely aligned with the input

Pen input

Use a pen-like stylus for input rather than typing on a keyboard

Use handwriting recognition to translate cursive writing into data

5-

Input Hardware

Light Pen

A light-sensitive pen-like device that uses a wired connection to a computer terminal

Bring the pen to the desired point on the display screen and press a button to identify the screen location

Used in situations that require gloves

Less crude than a touch screen

Digitizer

Uses an electronic pen or puck to convert drawings and photos to digital data

Digitizing tablets are used in architecture

5-

Input Hardware Scanning & Reading Devices

Source Data Entry devices create machine-readable data and feed it directly into the computer

Scanners

Use light-sensing equipment to translate images of text, drawings, and photos into digital form

Image scanners are used in electronic imaging

Resolution refers to the image sharpness, measured in dots per inch (dpi)

Flatbed scanners work like photocopiers – the image is placed on the glass surface, then scanned

Other types are sheet-fed, hand-held, drum, and pen scanners

5-

Input Hardware Bar-Code Readers

Photoelectric (optical) scanners that translate bar code symbols into digital code

The digital code is then sent to a computer

The computer looks up the item and displays its name and pricing info

Bar code types

1D holds up to 16 ASCII characters

2D can hold 1,000 to 2,000 ASCII characters

3D is “bumpy” code that differentiates by symbol height

Can be used on metal, hard rubber, other tough surfaces

5-

Input Hardware Mark Recognition Readers

Bar code readers

MICR – Magnetic-ink character recognition

Uses special magnetized inks

Must be read by a special scanner that reads this ink

OMR – Optical mark recognition

Uses a special scanner that reads bubble marks

Used in standardized tests like the ACT and SAT

OCR – Optical character recognition

Converts scanned text from images (pictures of the text) to an editable text format

You use this to read in non-computer documents where you don’t have the source files

5-

Input Hardware Fax Machines

Facsimile Transmission Machines – scan an image and send it as electronic signals over telephone lines to a receiving fax, which prints out the image on paper

Dedicated fax machine

Is a stand-alone unit that only sends and receives faxed documents

Fax modem

Is a circuit board installed in the PC

Is a modem that can send and receive faxes

Can send documents directly from your word processor to a fax machine

Saves you printing out the document, then faxing it

5-

Input Hardware Audio Input Devices

Records analog sound and translates it into digital files for storage and processing

Two ways to digitize audio

Sound Board

An add-on board in a PC that converts analog sound to digital sound, stores it, and plays it back to speakers or amp

MIDI Board

Stands for Musical Instrument Digital Exchange

Uses a standard for the interchange between musical instruments, synthesizers, and PCs

5-

Input Hardware Webcams and Video-input Cards

Webcams

Video cameras attached to a computer to record live moving images then post them to a website in real time

Require special software, usually included with the camera

Frame-grabber video card

Can capture and digitize 1 frame at a time

Full-motion video card

Can convert analog to digital signals at rates up to 30 frames per second

Looks like a motion picture

5- Discussion Question: Why might it be unwise to install a webcam on your PC?

Input Hardware Digital Cameras

Use a light-sensitive processor chip to capture photographic images in digital form and store them on a small diskette in the camera or on flash memory cards

Most can be connected to a PC by USB or FireWire

Can allow you to take more pictures and decide which ones to print and save

But pictures are subject to loss by diskette or flash memory failure or computer virus if you store them on the PC

5-

Input Hardware Camera Phones

Digital cameras are now on cellphones

Convenience of being able to take photos, then instantly email or message them to someone else

Can provide instant record of traffic accidents, etc

5- Discussion Question: Why do you suppose cellphones are now banned on secure U.S. military bases? Where else besides military bases might they pose a security problem?

Input Hardware Speech-Recognition Systems

Uses a microphone or telephone as an input device. Converts a person’s speech into digital signals by comparing against 200,000 or so stored patterns.

Used in places where people need their hands free – warehouses, car radios, stock exchange trades

Helpful for people with visual or physical disabilities that prevent them from using other input devices

Still not easy enough to use to substitute for the mouse/keyboard for fast document processing

ScanSoft’s Open Speech Dialog

Apple Speech Recognition

ScanSoft’s Navigon MobileNavigator 5

5-

Input Hardware RFID Tags

Radio-frequency ID tags are based on an identifying tag with a microchip containing specific code numbers

Scanners use radio waves to read them and match the codes to a database

Enables items to be tracked without physical contact

Drivers put RFID tags in cars to automatically pay tolls

FDA is tagging certain drugs with RFID to avoid counterfeits

Carmakers are using it for car electronic keyless entry

RFID tags are implanted under skin of pets to aid in recovery and identification when they get lost

5-

Input Hardware Biometrics

The science of measuring individual body characteristics, then using them to identify a person through a fingerprint, hand, eye, or facial characteristic

Becoming a big business as more companies become concerned about security

Makes identity theft much more difficult when records are identified by biometrics as well as passwords

For more information see

http://www.xtec.com/home.html

http://www.identix.com/

http://www.precisebiometrics.com/

5-

Output Hardware

Softcopy

Data that is shown on a display screen or is in audio or voice form; exists electronically

Output that is ephemeral in nature

Hardcopy

Printed and film output

Output that is more permanent in nature

5-

Output Hardware Display Screens

Making a good choice when choosing a display

Dot pitch (dp) is the amount of space between adjacent pixels (picture elements) on screen

The closer the pixels, the crisper the image

Get .25 dp or better

Resolution refers to the image sharpness

The more pixels the better the resolution

Expressed in dots per inch (dpi)

Color depth or bit depth is the number of bits stored in a dot

The higher the number the more true the colors

24-bit color depth is better than 8-bit color depth

Refresh rate is the number of times per second the pixels are recharged – a higher rate gives less flicker

5-

Output Hardware Monitors

Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) is a vacuum tube used in a computer or terminal display screen

Watch the PC ads to make sure your monitor is included

Flat panel displays are made of 2 plates of glass separated by a layer of liquid crystals that line up to transmit or block light

Preferable to CRTs because they take up less room on the desktop

Latency problems make them less desirable for online games players

5-

Output Hardware Monitors

Video Standard

SVGA

XGA

SXGA

UXGA

QXGA

Principal resolution (pixels)

800 x 600

1024 x 768

1280 x 1024

1600 x 1200

2048 x 1536

5-

Output Hardware Printers

Impact Printers

Laser Printers

Inkjet Printers

Thermal Printers

Form characters or images by striking a print hammer or wheel against an ink ribbon

Dot matrix printers

Use drums and toner like in photocopiers

Page Description Language (PDL)

PostScript and PCL are PDL types

Produce crisp, professional pages

Spray ink from 4 nozzles at high speed

Quiet, inexpensive color printers

Often less precise than laser printers

Low to medium resolution printers that use thermal paper that darkens in time

5-

Output Hardware Plotters

A specialized output device designed to produce large high-quality graphics in a variety of colors

The earliest output device that could produce graphics

Pen plotters use one or more colored pens

Electrostatic plotters lie partially flat on a table and use toner like photocopiers

Large-format plotters are large-scale inkjet printers used by graphic artists

5-

Output Hardware Mixed Output

Sound output

You need a sound card and sound software

Good equipment can produce very high-quality 3-D sound

Voice Output

TTS systems (text to speech) are becoming popular

Requires a sound card and speakers with TTS software

Video Output

Requires a powerful processor and a video card

Video files are large, so a lot of storage is needed too.

5-

I/O Quality of Life: Health & Ergonomics

PCs impact health

Overuse injuries and repetitive stress injuries

Result when muscle groups are forced through fast, repetitive motions

May effect data-entry operators who average 15,000 keystrokes an hour

May effect PC users whose monitor, keyboard, and workstation are not arranged for comfort

Carpal tunnel syndrome is caused by pressure on the median nerve in the wrist, caused by short repetitive movement

Computer vision syndrome is eyestrain, headaches, and double vision caused by improper use of computer display screens

5-

I/O Quality of Life: Health & Ergonomics

Ergonomics is the methodology of designing a workplace to make working conditions and equipment safer and more efficient

Keyboards must be placed at the correct height depending on each worker’s size

Monitor refresh rates must be fast enough to avoid eyestrain

Monitor heights must be correct for comfortable viewing

Sound-muffling should be used for loud printers to reduce workplace noise

Wrist rests may help avoid carpal tunnel syndrome

5-

Future of Input and Output

This is a fruitful area for research, including

Intelligent sensors

More data input from remote locations

More source data automation

Input help for the disabled

More sophisticated touch devices

Better speech recognition

Improved digital cameras

Gesture recognition

5-

Future of Input and Output

This is a fruitful area for research, including

Pattern-recognition and biometric devices

Brainwave devices

Better and cheaper display screens

Improved video on PCs

3-Dimensional output

Miniaturization for improved data transfer speeds to I/O devices

5-

7-

Personal Technology 7.1 Convergence, Portability, & Personalization 7.2 MP3 Players 7.3 High-Tech Radio 7.4 Digital Cameras: Changing Photography 7.5 Personal Digital Assistants & Tablet PCs 7.6 The New Television 7.7 Smartphones: More than Talk 7.8 Videogame Systems Chapter 7 McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Digital Convergence

Describes the combining of several industries – computers, communications, consumer electronics, entertainment, and mass media – through various devices that exchange data in digital form

Pros:

Multiple use machines such as Xbox that can play games, display DVD movies, and play music CDs

Cellphones with enhancing features such as address books and digital cameras that also shoot videos

Cons:

Multiple features that compromise the primary feature, such as an internet refrigerator

7-

Portability

Pros

Devices that enable phone and email access from anywhere, portable digital music, and convenient cheap digital photos allow people to remain connected even while on the move

Cons

Your boss may expect you to answer e-mail and voicemail evenings and weekends

People whom you never meet in person may misrepresent themselves, and/or misunderstand you, since they don’t see your body language

7- Discussion Question: Have you experienced any of these problems? How did you handle it?

Personalization

Tree-and-branch telecommunications model

A centralized information provider sends out messages through many channels to thousands of consumers

Used by AM/FM radio and by TV broadcasters

Hard to personalize

Switched-network communications model

A common carrier provides circuit switching that creates a temporary two-way connection between one public user and another

In a telephone network, the connection is made by dialing

Personalized by default

7-

Choice Overload

Described by Barry Schwartz, author of The Paradox of Choice: Why More is Less

People are unhappy when they have too many choices

Regret: People are more likely to regret their decisions

Inaction: People can’t decide now because they might later regret their decisions

Excessive Expectations: Reality has a hard time meeting the expectations when there are so many choices

Self-blame: People blame themselves for making the wrong decision

7- Discussion Question: How many of you have put off buying a computer or other item because the price might come down or a better one might come out?

Popular personal technologies

MP3 audio players

Satellite, high-definition, and internet radios

Digital cameras

Personal digital assistants and tablet PCs

Smartphones

High-definition TV

Videogame systems

7-

MP3 Players

MP3 is a format that allows audio files to be compressed so they are small enough to be sent over the internet or stored as digital files

MP3 players are portable devices that play MP3 files

Vendors include

Apple iPod (market leader)

Archos, Creative, Dell, iRiver, Panasonic, RCA, Samsung, Sandisk, Sony, Virgin Electronics

Storage methods

Hard drive storage (holds more, costs more)

Flash storage (holds less, costs less)

7-

MP3 Players

Technology Considerations

Storage capacity

Sampling rate

Transferring files

Battery life

Color screens and photo viewing

Other features such as

FM radio reception

Music recording using extra microphone

Car stereo adapter to connect player to your car’s speakers

7-

MP3 Players

Societal Effects

One in ten American adults owns an MP3 player

One in five American adults under 30 owns one

Offer convenience and portability to music listeners

Warning! Over 85 decibels can cause hearing loss!

85 decibels is as loud as a vacuum cleaner or a crowded restaurant – not that loud!

For more information, see http://www.lhh.org/noise/decibel.htm

lhh stands for the “League for the Hard of Hearing”

So turn them DOWN!

7-

High-Tech Radio

Satellite radio

Digital radio signals are sent from satellites in orbit around the earth to subscribers that have special radios

CD-quality sound is better than normal radio

More channels than regular radio

SDARS providers are

XM satellite radio

Sirius satellite radio

Commercial-free

7-

High-Tech Radio

High-Definition Radio

Provides CD-quality sound

Standard allows two digital and one analog station on the same radio frequency

Analog main channel plus two digital sidebands

Broadcasting’s answer to competition from satellite radio

Requires an HD-compatible radio

L.A. and Chicago now have 10 high-definition stations each

7-

High-Tech Radio

Internet Radio

Internet users can listen to radio from their PCs

There are some services such as Yahoo’s Musicmath that require users to subscribe

Other internet radio may be free, such as WMNR, a Fine Arts radio station that also broadcasts from Monroe CT at 88.1 FM www.wmnr.org

To see a list of free internet radio stations, visit www.live365.com

7-

High-Tech Radio

Podcasting

Involves the recording of internet radio or similar internet programs

Requires no studio or broadcast tower and is not regulated by the FCC (Federal Communications Commission)

Allows amateur deejays and hobbyists to create their own radio shows

7-

Digital Cameras

Cameras that take photographs but do not require film

Very competitive field with many new product releases

Types to consider

Point-and-shoot digital camera

Automatically adjusts settings such as exposure and focus

Easy to use, but manual controls can allow you to tweak the settings to get better photos ($197 - 600)

Single-lens reflex (SLR) digital camera

Uses a reflecting mirror to reflect the incoming light so the viewfinder shows what the lens is framing ($789 - $1,148)

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Digital Cameras

Resolution

Measured in megapixels, or millions of picture elements

Measure the maximum resolution of an image taken by the camera

Important if you plan to enlarge your photos – more is better

Lenses

Digital zoom

Means the image is cropped in the camera

Can produce a grainy photo

Optical zoom

Enlarges the subject without you needing to move closer

Lens extends to focus on distant objects

Storage

Uses flash memory cards

128 megabyte card holds 80 images from a 3 megapixel camera, while 1 gigabyte holds about 600 still images

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Digital Cameras

Selecting which photos to take and keep

Optical viewfinders let you see the image to be photographed before you snap the picture

LCD screens let you review the photos you take

Start-up time

Digital cameras require time to start up

Look for one that has a short start-up time

Also, the shutter can lag and delay the time between when you press the button and the shutter clicks

Look for a camera that allows “burst” or “continuous “ mode

7-

Digital Cameras

Battery life

The camera requires a battery to function

Some rechargeable batteries are available with many models

Some recharge in the camera, while others require a separate charging stand

Video clips

Most digital cameras can shoot movies, too

1-gigabyte memory cards can shoot as many as 44 minutes of video at 30 frames per second

7-

Digital Cameras

Principle methods for transferring images

Use a direct connection between your camera and your PC. Requires you to install software on the PC

Insert the memory card into your PC’s USB port

Put your camera into a cradle attached to the PC

Use a photo printer with a built-in card slot

Use a portable CD burner

Use an MP3 player

Use a photo-printing kiosk

Use a photo lab

Bring along your own card reader and use others’ computers

7-

PDAs and Tablet PCs

These are both small computers

PDAs

Have touch-sensitive screens so you can enter data with a stylus by tapping or writing on screen

Store data in RAM that stays on even when the unit is off by using the PDA’s battery

Can be augmented by flash memory

Commonly use lithium ion batteries

Transfer files to your PC in one of three ways

Pull out the PDAs flash card and insert it into the PC’s card reader using a USB port

Put your PDA into a special cradle plugged into a USB port

Transfer data wirelessly

7-

PDAs and Tablet PCs

Many cellphones are usurping features from PDAs

To compete, PDAs must develop new features

Examples of possible PDA evolution

Display television and photos

Handheld weather meters

GPS locators

7-

PDAs and Tablet PCs

Tablet PCs

A special notebook computer with a digitizer tablet and a stylus so the user can handwrite input from the screen

Recently only about 1% of laptops being sold

Used in niche markets such as schools

7-

The New Television

New uses for TV

Interactive TV

Personalized TV

Internet TV

Smart TV

Entertainment PCs

7-

The New Television

Three kinds of TV

Digital television

FCC has mandated that all TV stations be capable of digital broadcasting by 2006

Currently most digital systems convert analog broadcast signals into digital with some loss of detail

High-Definition television (HDTV)

Works with digital broadcasting signals

Has broader screen and 10 times the pixels as standard TV

Has 16 to 9 aspect ratio and 1,080 lines on a screen; crisper details than SDTV

Standard-Definition television (SDTV)

Has aspect ration of 4 to 3 and 480 vertical lines on a screen

Requires less bandwidth to transmit than HDTV

7-

The New Television

Societal Effects

Video on Demand

Technologies allow viewers to select videos or programs from a central server to watch when they wish

TiVo

PC-like system that allows users to record and play back TV programs later

Users can program recording based on TV program title or subject matter without knowing specific stations or times

TiVos are plugged in to phone lines when they are installed so they can automatically update their software

TiVos also gather information on subscribers’ viewing habits that are used to rate popularity of TV shows

7-

Smartphones

Cellular telephones with microprocessor, memory, display screen, and built-in modem

Offer the following features

Text messaging

Cameras

Music players

Videogames that can be downloaded and self-installed

E-mail access

Digital TV viewing

Search tools

GPS locators

7-

Smartphones

Basic elements of a mobile phone

Storage

Data is stored in ROM

Data does not disappear when phone is turned off

Input

Have a keypad for storing numbers

Microphone for picking up your voice

May have a touch-sensitive screen that uses a stylus

Output

Speaker to hear voice calls

Display ranging from LCD to full-color high-resolution plasma

May also use Wi-Fi or Bluetooth

7-

Smartphones

Services continued

Text messaging

Can send text to other phones and to email accounts

Creating messages is slower than traditional Morse Code used by Ham Radio operators as demonstrated on the Tonight Show with Jay Leno on May 13, 2005

http://www.arrl.org/news/stories/2005/05/16/3/

Downloaded ringtones

Ringtone: the audible sound a phone makes to announce an incoming call

May be free or cost $1.25 to $4.00 per tune

7-

Videogame Systems

These may be the “ultimate convergence machine”

People buy them to play games, but they do a lot more

Xbox 360

Sony PlayStation 3

Nintendo Revolution

7-

Videogame Systems

Different childhoods for generations in the US

G.I. Generation (World War II)

No computers, no TVs. Saw newsreels in the movies

Baby Boomers (post-World War II)

No computers, black and white TVs, TV news

Generation X (post-hippies, born post-1965)

Some computers, color TVs

Generation Y (born in late 1970s to 1990s)

Home computers, color TVs

Always On Generation

Computers everywhere, video games everywhere, always connected, internet news

7- Discussion Question: Which generation are you? What is gained/lost?

8-

Personal Technology 8.1 Managing Files: Basic Concepts 8.2 Database Management Systems 8.3 Database Models 8.4 Data Mining 8.5 Databases & The Digital Economy 8.6 Using Databases to Help Make Decisions 8.7 Artificial Intelligence 8.8 The Ethics of Using Databases Chapter 8 McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Managing Files: Basic Concepts

A database is a logically organized collection of related data designed and built for a specific purpose

Data is stored hierarchically for easier storage and retrieval

Files: collections of related records

Records: collections of related fields

Field: unit of data containing 1 or more

characters

Character: a letter number or special

character made of bits

Bit: a 0 or 1

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Key Field – the field that identifies a record

Often an identifying number, such as social security number

Primary keys must be unique

Keys are used to pick records out of a database

Unique keys make records stand out from each other

If two records had the same key, then you might not pick the correct one

Nonprimary keys are used to sort records in different ways

Foreign keys are fields that appear in two different tables and are used to relate one table to another

8-

This example shows a sample database in Microsoft Access. Products is a table. ProductID is the primary key of the Product table. ProductID is also a foreign key in the Orders table

8-

Program files are files containing software instructions

Source program files are written by the software developer in the programming language

Double-clicking on them won’t run them

They have file extensions like .cpp, .jav, .bas

Executable files are program files translated so they can be executed on the computer

Double-clicking on them will cause them to run

They have file extensions like .exe or .com

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Data files are files that contain data such as words, numbers, pictures, or sounds

These are the files that are used in databases

They have extensions such as .txt .mdb, and .xls

Graphics files have extensions like .tiff, .jpeg, and .png

Audio files have extensions such as .mp3, .wav, and .mid

Animation/video files have extensions such as .qt, .mpg, .avi, and .rm

Data files are often compressed to save space and transmit them faster

Compression removes repetitive elements from a file

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Database Management Systems

Software written specifically to control the structure of a database and access to the data

Reduced data redundancy

Redundant data is stored in multiple places, which causes problems keeping all the copies current

Improved data integrity

Means the data is accurate, consistent, and up to date

Increased security

Limits who can create, read, update, and delete the data

Ease of data maintenance

Offer validation checks, backup utilities, and procedures for data inserting, updating, and deletion

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Database Management Systems 3 Principal Components

Data Dictionary

A repository that stores the data definitions and descriptions of the structure of the data and the database

DBMS Utilities

Programs that allow you to maintain the database by creating, editing, deleting data, records, and files

Also include automated backup and recovery

Report Generator

Program for producing an on-screen or printed document form all or part of a database

8-

Database Management Systems Database Administrator

Database Administrator (DBA)

A high-paid, responsible position within an organization

Coordinates all related activities and needs for an organization’s database

Ensures the database’s

Recoverability

Integrity

Security

Availability

Reliability

Performance

8- Discussion Question: Did you know that 93% of companies that lost their data center for 10 days or more due to a disaster filed for bankruptcy within a year?

Database Models

Hierarchical database

Network database

Relational database

Object-oriented database

Multidimensional database

Fields or records are arranged in a family tree, with child records subordinate to parent or higher-level records

Like a hierarchical database, but each child record can have more than one parent record

Relates, or connects, data in different files through the use of a key, or common data element

Uses objects (software written in small, reusable chunks) as elements within database files

Models data as facts, dimensions, or numerical measures for use in the interactive analysis of large amounts of data

8-

Database Models

Hierarchical Databases

Fields or records are arranged in related groups resembling a family tree with child (low-level) records subordinate to parent (high-level) records

Root record is the parent record at the top of the database, and data is accessed through the hierarchy

Oldest and simplest; used in mainframes

8-

Database Models

Network Database

Similar to a hierarchical database, but each child record can have more than one parent record

Used principally with mainframe computers

Requires the database structure to be defined in advance

8-

Database Models

Relational Database

Relates or connects data in different files through the use of a key, or common data element

Examples are Oracle, Informix, Sybase

Data exists independently of how it is physically stored

Users don’t need to know data structure to use the database

Uses SQL (structured query language) to create, modify, maintain, and query the data

Query by Example uses sample records or forms to allow users to define the qualifications for choosing records

8-

Database Models

Object-oriented Databases

Use “objects”, software written in small, manageable chunks, as elements within data files

An object consists of

Data in any form, including audio, graphics, and video

Instructions on the action to be taken with the data

Examples include FastObjects, GemStone, Objectivity DB, Jasmine Object Database, and KE Express

Types include

Web database

Hypermedia database

8-

Database Models

Multidimensional Database

Models data as facts, dimensions, or numerical answers for use in the interactive analysis of large amounts of data for decision-making purposes

Allows users to ask questions in colloquial English

Use OLAP (Online Analytical Processing) software to provide answers to complex database queries

8-

Data Mining

Is the computer-assisted process of sifting through and analyzing vast amounts of data to extract hidden patterns and meaning and to discover new knowledge

Data is fed into a Data Warehouse through the following steps

Identify and connect to data sources

Perform data fusion and data cleansing

Obtain both data and meta-data (data about the data)

Transport data and meta-data to the Data Warehouse

Data Warehouse is a special database that shows detailed and summary data from multiple sources

8-

Data Mining

Methods for searching for patterns in the data and interpreting the results

Regression analysis

Develops a formula to fit patterns in the data that has been extracted

Formula is applied to other data sets to predict future trends

Classification analysis

A statistical pattern recognition process that is applied to data sets with more than just numerical data

8-

Data Mining

Applications include

A phone company identifying customers with large bills, who were really small businesses trying to pay the cheaper residential rate

A coach in the Gymnastics Federation used it to discover what long-term factors contributed to athletes’ performance

Retail stores use it to predict future purchase patterns to help them choose which products to stock for the future

8-

Databases & The Digital Economy

E-Commerce

The buying and selling of products and services through computer networks

Examples of some e-tailers (electronic retailers):

www.amazon.com sells books and music online

www.sees.com sells candy online

www.ebay.com connects buyers with sellers online using online auctions

8-

Innovative e-tailer technologies make online shopping easier

One-click option

Allows you to click on an item and immediately go to the check-out process

360-degree images

Allow you to see all sides of an item

Order tracking

Bar codes are assigned to items being shipped that allow customers to check shipping progress via the internet

Shop bots

Are programs that help users search for a particular product of service

8-

Types of E-Commerce

Business-to-business (B2B)

A business sells to other businesses using the internet or a private network to cut transaction costs and increase efficiencies

Business-to-consumer (B2C)

A business sells goods or services to consumers

Consumer-to-consumer (C2C)

Consumers sell goods or services directly to other consumers with the help of a third party, such as eBay.

8-

Using Databases to Help Make Decisions

What are the qualities of good information?

Correct and verifiable

Complete yet concise

Cost effective

Current

Accessible

8-

Most organizations have 6 departments to which information must flow

Research and development

Production (or operations)

Marketing and sales

Accounting and finance

Human resources (personnel)

Information systems (IS)

Information flows horizontally between departments

8-

Besides the 6 departments, many organizations also have 3 levels of management

Strategic-level management

Top managers concerned with strategic or long-term planning and decisions

Tactical-level management

Middle level managers who make decisions to implement the strategic goals set for the organization

Operational-level management

Low-level supervisors make daily operational decisions

Information flows vertically between management levels

8-

Decentralized Organizations – a new structure

Employees increasingly telecommute – some staff have no desk or office at work

Employees communicate with each other more via email than in person

Companies use Groupware CSCW (computer-supported cooperative work) systems to enable cooperative work by groups of people

The management structure is flattened as employees are given more authority to make day-to-day decisions

8-

6 computer-based information systems

Office information systems

Transaction processing systems

Management information systems

Decision support systems

Executive support systems

Expert systems

8-

Transaction Processing System (TPS)

Transactions are recorded events of routine business activities such as bills, orders, and inventory

TPS systems keep track of the transactions needed to conduct a business

TPS systems are used by operational managers to track business activities

Transactions database provides the basis for management information systems and decision support systems

8- Has anyone seen the movie “Office Space”? In that movie, the hero’s boss is nagging him about formatting the TPS report correctly. Now you know what TPS means!

Management Information Systems (MIS)

Computer-based information system that uses data recorded by a TPS as input to programs that produce routine reports as output

Features

Inputs are processed transaction data. Outputs are summarized structured reports

Designed for tactical managers

Draws from all departments

Produces several kinds or reports: summary, exception, periodic, and demand

8-

Decision Support Systems (DSS)

Computer information system that provides a flexible tool for analysis and helps management focus on the future

Features

Inputs are external data and internal data such as summarized reports and processed transaction data. Outputs are demand reports

Mainly for tactical managers

Produces analytic models

Developed to support the types of decisions faced by managers in specific industries

8-

Executive Support Systems

An easy-to-use DSS made especially for strategic managers to support strategic decision-making

Might allow executives to call up predefined reports

Includes capability to browse through summarized information on all aspects of the organization and drill down for detailed data

Allows executives to perform “what-if” scenarios

8-

Artificial Intelligence

Expert System

One of the most useful applications of Artificial Intelligence (AI)

AI is a group of related technologies used to develop software and machines that emulate human qualities such as learning, reasoning, communicating, seeing, and hearing

Areas include

Expert systems

Natural language processing

Intelligent agents

Virtual reality and simulation devices

Pattern recognition

Fuzzy logic

Robotics

8-

Three components of an expert system

Knowledge base

An expert system’s database of knowledge about a particular subject

Inference engine

The software that controls the search of the expert system’s knowledge base and produces conclusions

User interface

The display screen the user used to interact with the expert system

8-

Natural language processing

Allows users to interact with a system using normal English

The study of ways for computers to recognize and understand human language

Intelligent agents

A form of software with built-in intelligence that monitors work patterns, asks questions, and performs work tasks on your behalf

Pattern recognition

Involves a camera and software that identify recurring patterns in its vision and maps the pattern against patterns stored in a database

8-

Fuzzy logic

A method of dealing with imprecise data and uncertainty, with problems that have many answers rather than one

Has been applied in running elevators to determine optimum times for elevators to wait

Virtual reality

A computer-generated artificial reality that projects a person into a sensation of 3-D space

Often used with simulators to represent the behavior of physical or abstract systems

8-

Robotics

The development and study of machines that can perform work that is normally done by people

Commonly found in manufacturing plants and also in situations where people would be in danger

Nuclear plants

Assembly lines, especially paint lines

Checking for land mines

Fighting oil-well fires

8-

Weak vs. Strong A.I.

Weak A.I. claims computers can be programmed to simulate human cognition

Strong A.I. claims that computers can think on a level that is equal to or better than humans, and can also achieve consciousness

Cyc approach to strong A.I.

A database in Austin, TX that holds 1.4 million basic truths

Plan is that Cyc will automatically make human-like assumptions

Hope is that Cyc will learn on its own

Cog approach to strong A.I.

MIT project that is a humanoid robot

Tries to identify and search for patterns instead of following rules and facts

8-

Test for Human Intelligence

In 1950, Allen Turing predicted computers would be able to mimic human thinking

The Turing test determines whether the machine is human

Judge is in another location and doesn’t see the computer

If the computer can fool the judge, it is said to be intelligent

Ethics in A.I.

Prof. William Wallace from R.P.I. says that computer software is subtly shaped by the ethical judgments of its creators

For example, H.M.O. software used by health insurers steers doctors to cheaper procedures – but are they better?

8-

The Ethics of Using Databases

Identity Theft concerns

A crime in which thieves hijack your identity and use your good credit rating to get cash, take out loans, order credit cards, and buy things in your name

Privacy concerns

Name migration: getting endless junk mail and telemarketing calls

R é sum é rustling and online snooping

Government prying and spying

8- Discussion Question: Has any one had their identity stolen? How long did it take you to get it straightened out?

9-

Personal Technology 9.1 Truth Issues: Manipulating Digital Data 9.2 Security Issues: Threats 9.3 Security: Safeguarding Computers & Communications 9.4 Quality-of-Life Issues 9.5 Economic & Political Issues Chapter 9 McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Truth Issues: Manipulating Digital Data

Digital Images and Sounds can be manipulated

Pro: Creates new forms of art

Morphing software makes one image morph into another

http://www.cs.utah.edu/~dejohnso/morph.html

Movies such as “Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon” and “Harry Potter” contain many scenes that could never actually happen

Adobe Photoshop allows changes, enhancements to photos

Digital technology allows musicians to sing every track of a song and accompany themselves

Con: Has made photographs & recordings untrustworthy

Famous Yalta summit photo edited: Stallone added in!

9-

Photographs may not be authentic

Photographs may be deliberately misleading

1994 Time magazine photo of O.J. Simpson was digitally darkened to make him appear sinister

Could this have biased potential jury members?

Fashion model photos are routinely elongated to make models appear more slender

How many girls become anorexic to try to match those models’ impossible perfection?

http://www.etniesgirl.com/blog/2005/11/30/photoshop-101-even-models-have-flaws

http://www.tutorialized.com/tutorial/Basic-Model-Retouching/9547

http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/769290.stm

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Techniques to combat digital deception

Prof. William H. Mitchell of M.I.T. wrote the first systematic, critical analysis of the digital revolution

Corbis http://pro.corbis.com/ adds a digital watermark to its photos

Hany Farid of Dartmouth College devised algorithms to detect changes to uncompressed digital photos

Prof. Jessica Fridrich of S.U.N.Y. at Binghamton is researching digital cameras that hide a picture of the photographer’s iris inside each digital photo

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Limitations of Public databases

You can’t get the whole story

Start with a public database, THEN do more research

The data is not necessarily accurate

Cross-check against multiple sources

Each database service has boundaries

Know what those boundaries are

Different keywords bring different results

History is limited

These databases often begin with data from 1980 or later

9-

Security Issues: Threats

Errors and accidents

Natural hazards

Computer crime

Computer criminals

9- Is my computer safe? I’m concerned about it. What do I need to do to use it safely for work, home, and school?

Security Issues: Threats Errors & Accidents

Human errors

People choose the wrong computer

Too simple or too complex

Human emotions affect performance

People get frustrated

Human perceptions are slower than the equipment

Watch out when you click the OK button! You may have just deleted something important!

9-

Procedural errors

When people fail to follow safe procedures, errors can occur

Software errors

Programmers make coding errors

Famous example: Utility billing software:

Customer pays early – software credits account

Customer pays late – software credits account, adds late fee in for next bill

Programmer forgot to consider customers who pay exactly on time – their payments were never credited at all!

9-

Electromechanical problems

Mechanical systems wear out

Power failures shut down computers unless you have battery backup

Using cellphones and Blackberries while driving can cause people to crash

Dirty data problems

Incomplete, updated, or inaccurate data

Check your records – medical, school, and credit to make sure they are accurate

Natural hazards can lead to disasters

9-

Security Issues: Threats Computer Crimes

Two types of computer crime

It can be an illegal act perpetrated against computers or telecommunications

It can be the use of computers or telecommunications to accomplish an illegal act

9-

Theft of hardware

Theft of software

Theft of online music and videos

Theft of time and services

Theft of information

Internet-related fraud

Taking over your PC

Crimes of malice

Computer criminals

9-

Theft of hardware can range from

Shoplifting an item from a computer store

Stealing an entire PC or laptop

Theft of software

Pirated software is software obtained illegally

This includes “softlifting” - buying one copy of the software and using it on multiple computers

Software makers have prosecuted both companies and individuals including students for software piracy

9-

Theft of online music and movies

Entertainment industry takes this seriously and prosecutes offenders

Stealing music

Illegal file swapping services

Damages can be up to $150,000 per song

Stealing movies

The film industry has taken aggressive aim at pirated movies

11-nation crackdown announced in 2005

9-

Theft of time and services

Theft of computer time at work

Surfing or playing games when you should be working

Some employees violate policy by conducting personal business online such as online auctions from work

Most employers have policies against viewing X-rated web sites at work

Theft of phone services

Phone phreaks use company phone systems to make “free” unauthorized long distance calls

Why break the law, when you can get free long distance over the internet using skype www.skype.com

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Theft of Information

A common crime today

Can include theft of personal information, medical information, or credit card and financial information

Legislation to make it a crime to steal someone’s identity was the 1998 Identity Theft and Assumption Deterrence Act

The U.S. Department of Justice discusses their approach to this crime at http://www.usdoj.gov/criminal/fraud/idtheft.html

If you are a victim of identity theft, you may file a report online at the Federal Trade Commission’s website at https://rn.ftc.gov/pls/dod/widtpubl$.startup?Z_ORG_CODE=PU03

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Internet-related Fraud

Because it lends itself to anonymity, internet-related fraud is becoming more common

Well-known examples include:

Nigerian letter scam

Letter says you can get a lot of money out of Nigeria if you pay a “money transfer fee” first

Evil twin attacks

A cracker sets up an attack computer as a duplicate public access point in a public location

Phishing

Sending emails that appear to come from a trusted source that links you to a website where you type in personal information that is intercepted by the phisher

9-

Internet-related Fraud (continued)

Pharming

Malicious software is implanted in your computer that directs you to an imposter web page

Trojan horses

A program such as a “free” online game or screensaver that loads hidden programs that take over your computer or cause mischief without your knowledge

For example, Windows users who install the phony MSN Messenger Version 8 "beta" are actually installing an IM worm that spreads to their IM contacts, and connects their computer to a remote control "bot" network run by malicious hackers

9-

Crimes of Malice: Crashing entire computer systems

Sometimes criminals are more interested in vandalizing systems than they are in gaining control of them

In 2003, an entrepreneur with a grudge because he lost a sale retaliated by shutting down the WeaKnees website

Crackers regularly attempt to crash Microsoft’s website

Security specialists monitor for possible cyber-attacks on electrical and nuclear power plants, dams, and air traffic control systems

Crackers have attacked the internet too and brought down large sections of it

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Computer criminals may include

Individuals or small groups who

Use fraudulent email and websites

Steal peoples’ identities for monetary gains

Show off their power for bragging rights

Employees who

Have a grudge against their current or former employers

Have a grudge against another employee

Sell their company’s secrets for personal profit

Outside partners and company suppliers

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Computer criminals may also include

Corporate spies

Enemy foreign intelligence services

Organized crime

Terrorists

Computer criminals do not include your employer, who is legally allowed to monitor the computers at work

Check your company’s computer usage policy

Make sure you follow the rules

Know that any data you store in the computer at work – including emails – is company property

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Security: Safeguarding Computers & Communications

Security is

A system of safeguards for protecting information technology against disasters, system failures, and unauthorized access that can result in damage or loss

Computer Security’s Five Components

Deterrence of computer crime

Identification and access

Encryption

Protection of software and data

Disaster recovery plans

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Deterrents to computer crime

Enforcing laws

CERT: The Computer Emergency Response Team

Provides round-the-clock information on international computer security threats

The CERT website is www.cert.org

For example, on December 15, 2005 announced a partnership between the US and ictQatar, the Qatar Supreme Council for Information and Communications Technology, to conduct and coordinate cybersecurity activities

On December 13, 2005 CERT issued alert SA05-347A documenting Windows Explorer vulnerabilities

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More deterrents to computer crimes

Tools to fight fraudulent and unauthorized online uses

Rule-based detection software

Predictive-statistical-model software

Employee internet management software

Internet filtering software

Electronic surveillance

Verify legitimate right of access

Use cards, keys, signatures, and badges

Use PINs and passwords

Use physical traits and personal identification

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Encryption

The process of altering readable data into unreadable form to prevent unauthorized access

Advantage: encrypting data that is available over the internet keeps thieves and crackers from reading it

On Dec. 7, 2005, Guidance Software, a maker of Computer Forensics software, informed their customers that criminals had stolen their credit cards because Guidance had FAILED to encrypt a database that was accessible over the internet

Disadvantage: encrypting data may prevent law-enforcement officials from reading the data criminals are sending to each other

9- Discussion Question: Does information privacy outweigh law enforcement’s needs to track down and prosecute criminals? Should we all encrypt our information to prevent crackers and criminals from stealing it?

4 ways to protect software & data

Educate employees in backing up data, virus protection, and not sharing passwords

Control of access to restrict usage

Audit controls to document who used what programs and computers and when

People controls include screening applicants, background checks, monitoring internet, email, and computer usage

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Disaster-recovery plans

A method of restoring information-processing operations that have been halted by destruction or accident

Reinforced by 2001 World Trade Center attack

Reinforced by company data losses incurred during 2005 Hurricane Katrina

Plans range in price and complexity from

Backing up data from disk to tape, CD, or zip disk, with a UPS

Automatically storing data redundantly in two places, with a generator

Having an off-site computerized data storage center with independent power supply

Having a complete “hot” redundant data center that can instantly be used if there is a disaster

9- More $$$

Quality-of-Life Issues

Information Technology misuse can result in

Environmental problems

Manufacturing computers and circuits can cause pollution

Computer component manufacturing employees may be exposed to toxic substances

Used computers/monitors contain chromium, cadmium, lead, mercury, PVC, and brominated flame retardants – all toxic substances that must be disposed of properly

Exacerbation of Mental-health problems

Proliferation of pornography

Workplace problems

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Exacerbation of mental-health problems

Isolation; computer gamers may substitute online games for interpersonal interaction

Online gambling can be addictive

Many users find PCs stressful

Internet usage by children can expose them to online predators

Workplace problems

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Exacerbation of Mental-health problems

Online pornographers use pop-up ads and internet search engines to troll for new customers

This means that children may be exposed to porn when involved in innocent online searches

Parents may use online blocking software like Cybersitter, Cyber Patrol, or Net Nanny to prevent this

Workplace problems

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Parental Responses to protecting children from online porn

Online blocking software

DVD filters

Videogame rating systems

The V-chip

Support legislation to require pornographers to use certain web addresses, such as .xxx domain

Monitor internet use

Be candid to your children about the threats

Save evidence and block messages to prevent cyberbullying

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Information technology misuse can result in

Exacerbation of mental-health problems

Workplace problems

Misuse of technology

Fussing with computers can waste time

Information overload

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Economic & Political Issues

Technology may affect the gap between the rich and the poor

Most jobs require employees who are tech-savvy

People who are not tech-savvy won’t qualify for those jobs

Technology is being used to replace employees in traditional jobs, traditionally filled by untrained workers

Internet is not controlled

This means that information moves freely on the internet

Nondemocratic governments can’t control internet political activism

Internet is only loosely policed, so criminals take advantage

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Systems Analysis & Programming 10.1 Systems Development 10.2 Programming: A Five-Step Procedure 10.3 5 Generations of Programming Languages 10.4 Programming Languages Used Today 10.5 Object-Oriented & Visual Programming 10.6 Markup & Scripting Languages Chapter 10 McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Systems Development

Organizations can make mistakes, and big organizations can make really big mistakes

Murphy’s Law: Whatever can go wrong, will go wrong,

and at the worst possible time

A system

A collection of related components that interact to perform a task in order to accomplish a goal

Systems Development

6-phase process of gathering information about system requirements and using that to develop a new system that improves productivity

10- Warning! Road Out!

Systems Development

The three kinds of users of a project are:

Users

The new system must ALWAYS be developed in consultation with the people who will be using the completed system

Management

Managers within an organization should be consulted about the system, as they control the budget and resources

Technical staff

The Information Systems or IT staff must be involved so they can make sure the technology is there

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Systems Development

Systems Analyst

An information specialist who performs systems analysis, design, and implementation

His or her job is to study the information and communications needs of an organization and determine what changes are needed to deliver better information to the people who need it

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Systems Development

The 6 phases of systems analysis & design are:

Preliminary investigation

Systems analysis

Systems design

Systems development

Systems implementation

Systems maintenance

Information systems are frequently revised and upgraded

Steps in the cycle often overlap

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Systems Development

Phase 1: Conduct a preliminary investigation

Conduct a preliminary analysis

Propose alternative solutions

Interview people within the organization

Study what competitors are doing

Decide to leave the system as is, improve it, or develop a new system

Describe costs and benefits

Submit a preliminary plan with recommendations

This should be a written report

Get management approvals for next phase

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Systems Development

Phase 2: Analyze the system

Gather data

Interview employees and managers

Develop, distribute, analyze questionnaires

Review current written documents

Observe people and processes at work

Analyze the data

Use system modeling tools, such as CASE tools

Create a data flow diagram to show how data flows through the system

Write a report and get approvals for next phase

Document how the current system works

Document problems with the current system

Describe the requirements for the new system

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Systems Development

Phase 3: Design the system

Notice that you don’t design the new system until you have done phase 2 since that establishes the requirements it must meet!

Do a preliminary design

Often involves prototyping

Do a detail design, showing:

Input requirements

Output requirements

Storage requirements

Processing requirements

System controls

Backup

Write a report and get approvals for next phase

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Systems Development

Phase 4: Develop the system

Develop or acquire the software

Acquire and integrate the hardware

Test the system

Unit testing

Systems testing with both analysts and end-users

End-user testing is critical, as they don’t know the software and will show the developers where they forgot something

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Systems Development

Phase 5: Implement the system

Choose a strategy to convert to the new system

Direct implementation

Parallel implementation

Phased implementation

Pilot implementation

Train the users

Document the system

Give classes or train the trainers

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Systems Development

Phase 6: Maintain the system

Perform periodic evaluations

Make changes to the system based on new conditions

Document those changes

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Programming: A Five-Step Procedure

A program is a list of instructions that the computer must follow to process data into information

The five steps are

Clarify/define the problem

Clarify the program objectives & users

Clarify outputs

Clarify inputs

Clarify processing tasks

Study the feasibility of the program

Document the analysis

Design the program

Code the program

Test the program

Document and maintain the program

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Step 2: Design the program

Create an algorithm or set of steps to solve the problem

Traditional structured programming approach

Determine program logic using top-down approach & modules

Design details using pseudocode or flow charts

Alternative object-oriented approach

Use “Use Case” approach to determine program objects, object inheritance, and actions or functions each object can perform

Identify major program components and organize related functions and associated data into object classes

This is the approach used by object-oriented languages such as Java, C#, Lisp, Visual Basic, and C++

For more information on object-oriented programming, visit http://oopweb.com/ or http://java.sun.com/docs/books/tutorial/java/concepts/

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A hierarchy chart

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Panel 10.13

Pseudocode

10- START DO WHILE (SO LONG AS) THERE ARE RECORDS Read a customer billing account record IF today’s date is greater than 30 days from date of last customer payment Calculate total amount due Calculate 5% interest on amount due Add interest to total amount due to calculate Grand total Print on invoice overdue amount ELSE Calculate total amount due ENDIF Print out invoice END DO END

Programming: A Five-Step Procedure 10- ● PANEL 10.14 Example of a program flowchart and explanation of flowchart symbols This example represents a flowchart for a payroll program.

Iteration and sequence

control structures

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Step 3: Code the program

Translate the logic requirements into a programming language

Programming language is a set of rules that tells the computer what operations to do

Each programming language has a syntax , or set of grammatical rules to follow to write valid expressions

Syntax rules must be followed or there will be syntax errors

Computers don’t understand what you want , only what you type in

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Step 4: Test the program

Desk checking is done by the programmer who checks for syntax errors and logic errors

Debugging is the process of detecting, locating, and removing all errors in a computer program

Beta testing is the process of testing the program using real data

One phase of testing uses correct data

Once the program works, the next phase of testing uses invalid data and untrained users to root out hidden errors

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Step 5: Document & Maintain the program

Documentation is written descriptions of what a program is and how to fix it

There are several types of documentation that should be written

User documentation – for the people who will use your program

Operator documentation – for the people who run the large computers the program runs on – so they know what to do if the program or computer malfunctions

Programmer documentation – for the next programmer who must modify and maintain what you have written

Maintain the program

Fix any errors that are noticed once the program is in production

Update the program to reflect new requirements

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5 Generations of Programming Languages

1945 – 1 st Generation – Machine Language

The basic language of the computer – all zeros and ones

Each CPU architecture had a different machine language

Mid-1950s – 2 nd Generation – Assembly Language

Mid-1950s to 60s – 3 rd Generation – High-level Languages (procedural languages) such as FORTRAN, COBOL, BASIC, C

Early 1970s – 4 th Generation – Problem-oriented Languages such as Intellect, NOMAD, FOCUS

Early 1980s – 5 th Generation – Natural Languages

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Mnemonic version of machine language

Faster to program in than machine language

Each CPU architecture had a different assembler

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These languages are portable (the same across all CPUs)

The programmer writes, then interprets or compiles the programs

The compiler or interpreter translates the code into the CPU-specific assembler

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Easier to program in than 3 rd generation languages

Three types are:

Report generators

Query languages

Application generators

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Programming languages that use human language to give people a more natural connection with computers

Part of the field of artificial intelligence

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Programming Languages Used Today

FORTAN

The language of mathematics

The first high-level language written

A machine-independent procedural language

COBOL

The most-frequently used language for business legacy applications on mainframe computers

Writing COBOL is like writing an outline

Has 4 divisions: Identification, Environment, Data, and Procedure

A machine-independent procedural language

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BASIC

Designed to be an easy language to use

Usually run from an interpreter, but can be compiled

Procedural language

Supplanted by Microsoft’s Visual Basic for commercial/business use

Pascal

Designed to be a language to teach programming

Structured, compiled language

Not used in business or commercial companies

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C

General-purpose machine-independent compiled language

The language used to write the Unix operating system

The precursor to C++ and C#

Permits very efficient coding and low memory utilization through direct allocation and manipulation of computer memory

C++

Object-oriented language that was developed after C

Permits encapsulation, object inheritance, and object reuse

Often used to write computer games and CPU- and graphics-intensive applications

Tougher to program in than Visual Basic, Java, or C#

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Java

Object-oriented programming language developed at Sun Microsystems by James Gosling and colleagues in the early 1990s

Derivative of C++ with simpler memory management and syntax

Is platform-independent, but is licensed by Sun Microsystems, which owns development rights to Java

Used in many US businesses

C#

Microsoft’s answer to losing the Java licensing agreement infringement lawsuit to Sun

Contains a similar syntax to Java, but with additional C++ and Visual Basic-like features

Used in many U.S. businesses – one of the hottest languages for “Help Wanted” ads in www.monster.com

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LISP

Stands for LISt Processor

Developed by Prof. John McCarthy of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology

To develop an algebraic list processing language for Artificial Intelligence work

Macsyma is a renowned LISP application

Macsyma allows users to type in an algebraic equation such as (a x a x a) x b / (a x a) + 3 = c

Macsyma then manipulates the equation and simplifies it while keeping it in its algebraic form to derive the solution, which would be c = a x b + 3

This is very different from most programs that allow you to enter numbers and produce numeric solutions but can’t show you what the simplified algebraic equation looks like

http://www.scientek.com/macsyma/main.htm

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Object-Oriented & Visual Programming

In Object oriented Programming (OOP) data and processing instructions are combined into an object that can be reused

Object

Self-contained module consisting of reusable code

Message

The instruction received by the object indicating it is time to perform an action

Method

The processing instructions within the object to perform the specified action

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Black Box

Objects are like a black box in that the

actions and the objects are specified, but

the methods used are internal to the object

This means the programmer that uses an object does not need to know how the program inside the object does what it does

For example, Microsoft Excel is like an object

Most of us use Excel without understanding what the programmers at Microsoft did to make Excel work

If we had to know that, it would take a lot longer to learn how to use Excel!

Programmers who use objects can write programs a lot faster, because objects save so much work

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3 basic concepts of OOP

Encapsulation

One object contains (encapsulates) both

Data

Relevant processing instructions

Inheritance

One object can be used as the foundation for other objects

Objects can be arranged in hierarchies – classes and subclasses

Objects can inherit actions and attributes from each other

Polymorphism

Allows a single definition to be used with different data types and different functions

Means a message produces different results depending on the object it is sent to

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Object-Oriented & Visual Programming 10- The “Door” class Actions performed by a door Subclasses of doors inherit from the door class, but also have their own unique actions and attributes Notice we only list the actions & attributes when they differ from those of class Example of Inheritance Hierarchy with Specialization Doors Have a Handle open close Patio doors Have a slider slide open slide closed Front doors Have locks Car doors Have locks Have windows

Visual Basic is an example of visual programming

Using a mouse, the programmer drags and drops objects on screen

The objects are arranged to make up the graphical user interface for the program being written

By double-clicking on those objects, the programmer can get into a coding window and write the programs to control the actions and behaviors of those objects

This makes it fast and easy to build prototype user interfaces and get end-user approval before doing a lot of programming

10- If you have Visual Basic installed on your school’s computers, this would be a great time to try it out.

Markup & Scripting Languages

A markup language is a kind of coding or “tags” inserted into text that embeds details about the structure and appearance of the text.

Open up a text editor such as Notepad or Wordpad, and enter the following text:

Then save the file on your desktop. Name it sample.htm

Now open your internet browser and view it by clicking “file open” and navigating to your desktop

10- <body bgcolor = "yellow"> <h2> <p>My name is </h2> <b><i><font color=“red”>your name</font></i></b></p> And I <b><h1>love</h1></b> this class!!! </body>

So how did this

Turn into this?

By HTML

tags

10- <body bgcolor = "yellow"> <h2> <p>My name is </h2> <b><i><font color=“red”>your name</font></i></b></p> And I <b><h1>love</h1></b> this class!!! </body> My name is your name And I love this class!!! The <body bgcolor = “”> tag defines the page color The <h2> tag means a heading of size 2 The <h1> tag means a heading of size 1 The <i> tag means to italicize the text The <b> tag means to bold the text The <p> tag means to start a new paragraph And the / inside a tag means to end that format There are a LOT of other HTML tags