Aje ds volume 8 no. 1 september 2011

i
AFRICAN JOURNAL OF EDUCATION
AND DEVELOPMENTAL STUDIES
(AJEDS)
(Domiciled in the Faculty of Education University of Port Harcourt)
AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL FOR
MULTI-DISCIPLINARY STUDIES
September, 2011
EDITOR-IN-CHIEF
PROF. B.S. OKEKE
FACULTY OF EDUCATION,
UNIVERSITY OF PORT HARCOURT, NIGERIA

ii
AFRICAN JOURNAL OF EDUCATION
AND
DEVELOPMENTAL STUDIES (AJEDS)
VOL. 8, NO.1 September, 2011
ISSN: 07945-760

iii
AFRICAN JOURNAL OF EDUCATION AND
DEVELOPMENTAL STUDIES (AJEDS)
EDITORIAL BOARD
• Professor B.S. Okeke - Editor-in-Chief
University of Port Harcourt
• Dr. Nath. M. Abraham - Editor
University of Port Harcourt
• Professor (Mrs.) Maureen N. Koko - Associate Editor
Rivers State University of Science
and Technology, Nkpolu, Port Harcourt
• Professor Musa O. Anavberokhai
Ambrose Alli University, Ekpoma - Associate Editor
• Dr. David Aboho
Benue State University, Makurdi - Associate Editor
• Dr. (Mrs.) Grace K. Etuk
University of Uyo - Associate Editor
• Dr. (Mrs.) Jessica Ezekiel-Hart
Rivers State College of Education,
Port Harcourt. - Associate Editor

iv
CONSULTING EDITORS
Professor S.P.T. Gbamanja - University of Sierra Leone,
Freetown, Sierra Leone.
Professor (Mrs.) C.C. Nwagwu - Institute of Education, University
of Benin, Benin City, Nigeria.
Professor Kayode Ajayi - Olabisi Onabanjo University,
Ago-Iwoye, Ogun State, Nigeria.
Professor. Martin Fabunmi - Department of Educational
Management, Faculty of Education,
University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria.
Professor Wey Amaewhule - Rivers State University of Science
And Technology, Nkpolu,
Port Harcourt, Nigeria.
William Mhuri Masocha - Applied Scholastic, Zimbabwe.
Professor Abimbola Olakanmi - University of Ilorin, Ilorin,
Nigeria.
Dr.(Mrs.) Patricia B. - English Section, Department of
Mireku-Gyimah Mining Engineering
University of Mines and
Technology (UMAT), Tarkwa,
Ghana.
Dr. Bernard Moswela - Faculty of Education, University
of Botswana.
African Journal of Education and Developmental Studies . Vol 8., No 1, September, 2011

v
EDITORIAL/NOTES FOR CONTRIBUTORS
African Journal of Education and Developmental Studies (AJEDS) is
making steady progress in its avowed responsibility of publishing and
disseminating scholarly research reports. This is Volume 8, Number 1 of
the journal, and it contains 8 articles.
Being a multi-disciplinary outlet, the journal invites scholarly articles on
current issues of educational concern and those from other disciplines.
• The article should not be more than 15 A-4 pages, references and
appendices inclusive.
• Each article must be typed with double line spacing on one side of
paper only, using font 14.
• Article must have an abstract of not more than 200 words.
• Three (3) copies of article should be submitted for peer review with
non-refundable assessment fee as shall be decided by the Board.
• Citations and references must conform to current American
Psychological Association (APA) style.
• Each submission should be accompanied with one (1) self addressed
and stamped large (bag) envelope as well as an official self
addressed/stamped envelope for return of assessed paper(s), and
acceptance letter respectively.
• Cover page of each article should have name(s) of author(s), title of
article, institutional affiliation, e-mail address as well as telephone
numbers of contributors.
All correspondence should be directed to:
Dr. Nath. M. Abraham – Editor
African Journal of Education and Developmental Studies (AJEDS),
Faculty of Education,
University of Port Harcourt,
Port Harcourt, Nigeria

vi
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS
Onwuchekwa, Grace Department of Educational Management, University of
Ezeh, Stella Department of Educational Foundation, School of
Education, Federal College of Education Umunze
Anambra State, Nigeria.
Nweke, Jude-Thaddeus. Department of Educational Foundation, School of
Education, Federal College of Education, Umunze
Anambra State Nigeria.
Jacob Ogedi. Department of Political Science & Public
Administration, University o Uyo, Nigeria.
Odu, Oji K. Department of Technical & Business Education Delta
State University, Abraka, Nigeria.
Dienye, V.U. Department of Educational Foundations , Faculty of
Education University of Port Harcourt, Nigeria.
Njoku, Onwyegbule. Department of Educational Foundation, University of
Adekola, G Department of Adult & Non-Formal Education, Faculty
of Education, University of Port Harcourt, Nigeria.
Ememe, Ogbonna Department of Educational Management,Faculty of
Education, University of Port Harcourt, Nigeria.
Chigbundu, Ogechi Faculty of Education, Imo State University, Nigeria.
Onwugbufor, Bethram. Department of Measurement & Evaluation, Imo State
University, Owerri, Nigeria.
Odu Oji. Department of Technical & Business Education, Delta
State University Abraka, Nigeria.
African Journal of Education and Developmental Studies . Vol.8., No 1, September, 2011

vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Editorial Board iii
Consulting Editors iv
Editorial/Notes for Contributors v
List of Contributors vi
Table of Contents vii
Quality Assurance & Accountability: Implications For Secondary School
Teachers in Abia State.
Onwuchekwa, Grace Ph.D.,Ezeh, Stella Ph.D. & Nweke, Jude-Thaddeus M.A. 1
Political Economy of Electoral Malpractices in Nigeria.
Jacob, Ogedi 8
A Comparative Analysis of Student’s Performance in West African
Examination Council & National Examination Council in Technical Drawing.
Odu Oji Kennedy Ph.D. 13
Eradication of Child Labour: A Panacea for Effective Human Development,
Leadership & Good Governance in Nigeria.
Dienye, V.U. Ph.D. 19
Combating Poverty Among Dwellers of Nigerian Rural Communities
Through Basic & Functional Literacy.
Adekola, G. Ph.D. 35
Teacher attrition & Academic Achievement of Secondary School students in
Aba South Council Area.
Ememe, Ogbonna. Ph.D., Chigbundu, Patience & Onwugbu Bethram 41
Strategies for the Funding of Technical Education Programmes
Odu Oji Ph.D. 49
A New Teacher Education Paradigm in A Globalised World
Dienye V.U. Ph.D. . 58
African Journal of Education and Developmental Studies . Vol.8., No 1, September, 2011

www.ajeds.com
QUALITY ASSURANCE AND ACCOUNTABILITY:
IMPLICATIONS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOL TEACHERS IN
ABIA STATE
ONWUCHEKWA, GRACE U. Ph.D.
DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL MANAGEMENT,UNIVERSITY OF PORT HARCOURT,PORT
HARCOURT, NIGERIA.
Tel: 07066821114 Email: chukwuonwuchekwa@yahoo.com
EZEH, STELLA C. Ph.D.
DEPARTMENT EDUCATIONAL FOUNDATIONSSCHOOL OF EDUCATION, FEDERAL COLLEGE OF
EDUCATION (T), UMUNZE, ANAMBRA STATE, NIGERIA.
Tel: 08033382215 Email:stellacezeh@yahoo.com
NWEKE, JUDE-THADDEUS U. M.A.
DEPARTMENT EDUCATIONAL FOUNDATIONSSCHOOL OF EDUCATION, FEDERAL COLLEGE OF
EDUCATION (T), UMUNZE, ANAMBRA STATE, NIGERIA.
Tel: 07031641453 Email: Nwekejude80@yahoo.com
Abstract
Quality assurance and accountability in education are two concepts that are very crucial in nation building. There
were agitations and suggestions by the stakeholders on how to make secondary education system more effective
considering the mass failure of students in public examinations. There have also been a lot of criticisms on the
newspapers, radio, and television, including parents, policymakers, religious bodies and nongovernmental
organizations on the perceived fallen standard of education in Nigeria. This paper therefore, discussed quality
assurance and accountability in public senior secondary schools in Abia State. The paper looked at the concepts of
quality assurance and accountability in education. It also examined the roles of teachers in ensuring quality in
secondary schools and the impediments to their roles. Finally, some recommendations were made for enhancing
quality assurance and teacher accountability in the secondary educational system.
Keywords: Quality Assurance; Accountability; Secondary school teachers; Abia State.
Introduction
Quality education is very crucial to the development of any nation, economically, politically, socially and otherwise.
The Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004) in National Policy on Education defined secondary education as the
education children receive after primary education and before the tertiary stage. It prepares students for useful living
within the society and for higher education. These broad goals of secondary education cannot be achieved without
the teachers. Teachers are the bedrock of our educational system. They are the key to improving the quality of
education. Therefore the quality of teachers and education being provided for our children to a large extent
determines teachers’ commitment and effectiveness. But for a long time, the mass failure of students in
examinations has become a source of concern to the public. For instance, there has been high rate of school
dropouts, failure rates, cultism, increased examination malpractices, poor reading and writing skills among students
at the secondary school level. Many students repeat West African Senior School Certificate Examinations
(WASSE),General Certificate in Education (GCE), National Examinations Council (NECO), National Business and
Technical Education (NABTEB) and Joint Admission and Matriculations Board (JAMB) every year. The result is
African Journal of Education and Developmental Studies. Vol. 8., No. 1, September, 2011

2
www.ajeds.com
that many affluent parents send their children to private schools within or outside Nigeria for secondary education.
Ghana is now their first port of call. This calls for quality assurance and accountability to make the secondary
education level achievement oriented.
The public have become alarmed that schools are not preparing students for the next millennium (NCEE, 1983);
therefore the development of quality assurance and accountability is a way of improving public education and
allaying the fears that schools are failing our students. It is true that the problem of secondary education cannot be
solved by the teachers alone but by all stakeholders - Government, policymakers, Ministry of Education, parents,
Schools’ Boards, principals, teachers ,students and others; yet there is no doubt that man’s contemporary existence
is dominated by teaching . This era of globalization where school effectiveness and quality improvement is the order
of the day requires professionally qualified teachers in the instructional process. This is why this paper focused on
quality assurance and teacher accountability in Abia State secondary schools. It examined the concept of quality
assurance and teacher accountability. It also highlighted the role of teachers and the impediments to teacher
accountability for result-orientedness in Abia State secondary schools. To achieve quality education and
accountability, schools must focus on input (teachers, students, funding, curriculum and facilities) and output
(students learning and achievements), process-based on complying with regulations and funding allocations. This
will enable the government to provide incentives and offer technical assistance to help build school capacity.
The Concept of Quality Assurance
Quality assurance is a holistic term directed towards education as an entity. It entails the supplier and consumer and
the various activities put in place to produce quality products and services (Mkpandiok, 2007). Onocha (2002) stated
that quality assurance is the management of goods, services and activities from the input stage, through processes to
the output stage of production. This is applicable to the production function of the secondary schools. Babalola
(2004) opined that quality assurance in education deals with proactive means of ensuring quality inputs, teaching-
learning process, academic achievement of pupils and school environment before things get out of hands. Therefore,
for an educational system to be of high quality, it should have high quality teachers, students, facilities, school
curriculum and government policies as an input. The processing of the inputs (students) from the beginning to the
final year and the quality of assessment of students forms a very crucial aspect of quality assurance.
The aim of quality assurance is to prevent quality problems and to ensure that only conforming products reach the
customers. Quality assurance process recognizes the need for secondary schools to accept responsibility for their
own activities. This is because quality assurance is a total, holistic processes concerned with ensuring the integrity of
outcomes .Therefore, secondary schools have the responsibility of assuring quality of their products and this is why
my concern is on quality assurance and accountability as implications for secondary school teachers in Abia State.
Teachers as Input into Secondary Education System
Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004) recognizes that no educational system may rise above the quality of its teachers.
The quality of teachers at the secondary schools determines to a large extent, the quality of their products. Teachers
are the key to improving the quality of education. Incidentally, many teachers are lacking in good quality which
would enhance meaningful learning. Low quality teachers will give low quality teaching; high quality teachers will
impart the right skills, knowledge and attitude. Therefore, teachers as inputs, form an important factor of quality
assurance. There is the need to use professionally qualified teachers in instructional processes as we enter the era of
globalization where school effectiveness and quality improvement are the order of the day.
Quality Assurance & Accountability: Implications for Secondary School Teachers in Abia State: Onwuchekwa, U.,
Ezeh,S. & Nweke,J

3
www.ajeds.com
The Concept of Accountability
Accountability as a concept is not new in education. Kirst (1998) traced the use of the concept in education to the
‘payment by results’ system found in 19th
century England. In this system, schools were paid according to the
performance of their students on standardized examinations. Teachers who taught wrong subject matter were not
paid and therefore had to leave. The implication is that any teacher who fails to satisfy his students (because he/she
is not a good teacher) had to leave the system. Only those teachers who satisfied their students remained and the
quality of the system improved. But this is not so in Nigeria. Accountability is an obligation to answer for how one’s
assigned responsibilities have been carried out. Igwe (2003) stated that the concept of accountability introduces the
idea of checks and balances in an organization as well as among individuals or groups. For instance, the idea that
teachers should be held accountable for students’ results. Anderson (1976) as cited in Barikor (2005) observed that
by implication, accountability is a fundamental principle in the democratization of education, as it guarantees
equality of educational opportunity in the instrumentalities (input) and the achievement (output) of quality education
for all, regardless of students’ background, origin or handicaps.
On the other hand, educational accountability according to Akinyemi (1983) is the expectation of the public from
the teachers to show benefits derivable from huge government expenditure on education. It is the holding of
educational systems responsible for the quality of their products –students’ knowledge, skills, behavior and attitudes.
It is result- oriented. That is why Barikor (2005) stated that in recent times; accountability implies input-output
analysis. He further explains that this formular which predicates the analysis of the relationship between resource
allocation (input) and the students’ performance (output) is probably the basic concept of educational accountability.
Teacher Accountability
Teacher accountability is the idea of holding teachers responsible for students’ performance. Teachers teach the
students, assess the students through examinations and assign marks for works completed. This helps parents and
other stakeholders to know how well students are learning. Okeke (2004) stated that teachers are crucial inputs of
educational system. No school can be stronger than the quality of the teachers .He further states that if we believe in
the capacity of educational system to promote rapid and directed social and economic change, we should be
concerned with who teaches in the Nigerian schools. Since no education system can rise above the quality of its
teachers, teachers as directors of learning must first be educated and properly trained and retrained. Therefore only
the best quality products (teachers) should be allowed to teach in the schools. Okeke further states that the tasks,
responsibilities, and social functions assigned to the teaching profession in the twentieth century and beyond cannot
be effectively discharged by people of low social status. What are the roles that teachers should be accountable for?
Igwe (2003) opined that a teacher should take instructions from his principals, write lesson notes, attend meetings
and make contributions willingly, be member of committees, be punctual to school and regular at lessons, among
others. He must submit his notes and other materials to the supervisors of schools boards and inspectors wherever
they are required and carry out other responsibilities the principal may assign to him/her. The teacher should also
maintain discipline in the school. Okeke (2004) further outlined the roles of teachers to include:
1. Ensuring adherence to the culture and ethics of the profession and belong to a teachers’ organization (e.g.
Nigeria Union of Teachers, N.U.T).
2. Availing themselves of the opportunities for professional growth through (a) in-service training (b)
application of newly acquired professional knowledge to day to day teaching. (c) membership of subject
associations (d) educational travels.
3. Showing good example by discharging citizenship responsibilities.
According to Darling-Hammond and Asher (1991), teachers would be accountable for identifying and meeting the
needs of individual students based on professional knowledge and standards of practice, for continually evaluating

4
www.ajeds.com
their own and their colleagues’ practices, for seeking new knowledge and continually revising their strategies to
better meet the needs of students.
BCT Teachers Federation (2006) stated that teachers are responsible and accountable for teaching the curriculum,
planning and delivering instruction, choosing learning resources from those available in the school and district, and
assessing and reporting students’ progress. It further stated that teachers cannot be held accountable for the
diversities of students who walk through the doors of their classrooms, large class sizes, cuts to programs, the lack
of textbooks, or the long waiting list for diagnostic testing to identify students with special needs.
Darling-Hammond et al as cited in QECD (1989) identified four quite distinct characteristics of what is expected of
teachers:
1. Teaching as labour: The activities of teachers should be rationally planned and pragmatically organized by
administrators, with the teachers merely responsible for carrying out the instructional program;
2. Teaching as craft: Teaching is seen in this conception as requiring a repertoire of specialized techniques and as
well as mastering the techniques, the teacher must acquire general rules for their application;
3. Teaching as an art: Based not only on professional knowledge and skills, but on a set of personal resources
uniquely defined techniques and their application may be novel, inconventional, and unpredictable;
4. Teaching as profession: The teacher needs not only a repertoire of specialized technique, but also the ability to
exercise judgment about when these techniques should be applied and have a body of theoretical knowledge.
According to Perry (1994), the necessary conditions for quality teaching include the performance of the teacher
which requires professional expertise which is constantly changing because of rapid changes in the environment
caused by new technical, social claims, the continuance of individual personal development and the demands of new
jobs. Reiger and Stang (2000) argued that teachers need to be curious, imaginative and empathetic, interesting,
friendly and hardworking in order to be effective in the classroom, thereby creating a learning environment that
enhances and strengthens the learning disposition of the students.
The code of conduct for teachers as cited in Okeke (2004) stated that teachers shall keep up to date all relevant
school records for which they are responsible and they shall be available in the school always. These include
attendance register, scheme of work, diaries, lesson notes and marked books.
The Problems of Teacher Accountability
Teacher accountability is plagued with a lot of problems. Accountability includes the obligation to improve
professionally. But many teachers do not retrain due to inadequate resources, especially teachers in the rural schools.
They use obsolete methods to teach the students. They have no idea of current methods of teaching. Many do not
attend seminars, workshops and conferences. One teacher interviewed said that principals do not allow them to
attend conferences. Even when the education board tried to organize seminars, many teachers were not informed due
to inadequate publicity. Teachers became aware when the seminar money is deducted from their salaries without
them attending the seminars in Abia State. Inspectors who visited one of the schools in Aba Zone discovered a
teacher who was using a lesson note written in 1993 to teach the students. His salary was stopped for three months
.After some days he resigned because he has another better paid job.
There is shortage of teachers. The state government placed embargo on teacher recruitment. The result is that
principals now use Youth Corpers who do not have teaching experience as teachers. Many of the employed teachers
do not have teaching experience especially the so called “P.T.A. teachers” .The private schools are the worst in
terms of qualifications. Many of the teachers present certificates that are not theirs.
Ezeh,S. & Nweke,J

5
www.ajeds.com
Lack of understanding of the curriculum content by some teachers lead to wrong implementation of the curriculum.
The teachers were not involved when the curriculum was decided. Many teachers do not know how to interpret the
curriculum content. This affects teaching and learning resulting to poor performance of students in examinations.
Teachers complain of chronic inadequacy of basic facilities and resources to support teaching and learning
especially schools in the rural areas. Due to scarcity of resources, teachers cannot produce teaching aids that would
enhance students learning. Many schools do not have building structures, laboratories, good working environment,
recreational facilities and libraries among others. Those schools that have libraries do not have enough books to go
round the students. Many of the available books are obsolete and therefore not useful to the students. Some
principals lock up the books in their offices due to lack of an experienced librarian and security.
Students constitute a vital input into the secondary education system.The quality of students admitted into the
secondary schools determines the quality of their output. Without them, all other inputs cannot achieve educational
objectives. Defective students will yield defective results. Teachers complain of low quality of students admitted
into the secondary schools. In this period of free education, students of poor ability have been admitted or promoted
to higher classes in our educational system. Ezezobor (1983) wondered if poor quality students are going to be
enrolled for General Certificate of Education. He also concludes that they are not seriously groomed for that type of
examination. But quality assurance demands that students should be of required standard before they are admitted
into schools. It also demands that they should not be promoted if they are of low standard. Therefore, admission of
children with poor academic standard according to Ebenebe (1998) is a way of laying the foundation for indiscipline
and cheating in examinations.
Lack of proper planning of government’s policies (programmes and guidelines) as an input before implementation
has resulted in having poor quality, insufficient teachers and other resources. This was because according to Fasasi
(2006) the pogrammes had started before proper planning. For instance, the Universal Basic Education was launched
in 2000 while an act, backing it was signed in 2004.But its implementation had already started in 1999.
Recommendations
The government should enact a policy that would lead to the introduction of study leave with pay with a bond to
serve the ministry of education for some years before leaving for other professions. The implication is that teachers
would be available all year round .As some teachers are leaving, others are graduating into the system thereby
increasing the quality and number of teachers at the secondary school level. Seminars, workshops and conferences
should be organized in different areas of specialization and should be made compulsory for teachers concerned.
Youth Corps members who want to teach should be given teaching orientation for some weeks before posting them
to schools. Many of the youth corpers did not read education and therefore lack teaching methodologies. The
orientation would help to acclimate them with new teaching methodologies and techniques. Application of their
experiences would help to produce better output. Similarly, a policy to retain retired but not tired teachers on
contract would help to solve the problem of teacher shortage.
More so, pupils of high quality should be admitted into the secondary schools. The policy of promoting everybody
at the end of the session should be stopped. The government should rehabilitate staff rooms to be comparable to the
offices of non-teaching professions as well as rehabilitate classrooms and provide adequate facilities to facilitate
teaching and learning for a better output.
Furthermore, adequate fund should be released to education and salaries of teachers paid as at when due. Teachers’
salary structure should be uniform in Nigeria. A situation where some teachers in some states earn more than the

6
www.ajeds.com
others demoralizes other teachers .This affects their commitment and productivity among others. Teachers should
be involved in the planning of the curriculum. Their experiences as classroom teachers would be useful in
formulating an achievable curriculum for the secondary schools. There should be long–term planning of
programmes before implementation.
Conclusion
Quality assurance and accountability are ways of maintaining standard and improving the quality of secondary
education level. High quality inputs (teachers, students, curriculum, facilities, policies etc.), will result to high
quality outputs. On the other hand, low quality inputs would have negative influence on the outputs. Teachers are
the key to quality attainment and maintenance. The quality of teachers and their commitment will determine the
achievement of educational goals. They cannot perform effectively when all their working tools are not provided.
Therefore, quality assurance and accountability should not be limited to teachers alone but should be a shared
responsibility among the stakeholders (teachers, parents, principals, policy makers, ministry of education, school
boards, among others).
References
Babalola, J. B. (2004). Quality Assurance and Child Friendly Strategies for Improving Public School Effectiveness
and Teacher Performance in a Democratic Nigeria. In Fagbamuye, E. O.; Babalola, J. B. & Ayeni, A. O.
(eds.), Management of Primary and Secondary Schools in Nigeria. Ibadan: NAEP.
Barikor, C. N. (2005). Management with Emphasis on Adult Education. Owerri, Springfield Publishers Ltd.
B.C Teachers’ Federation (2006). Accountability in Public Education,
http://bctf.calissuesInEducation.aspx?id=5724
Darling-Hammond, L. & Asher, C. (1991).Creating Accountability in Big City Schools. New York: National Center
for Restructuring Education, Schools and Teaching.
Ebenebe, R. C. (1998). Discipline and Education: The Nigerian Secondary School Case. In Achunine, R. N. &
Irondi, E. O. (eds.), Management of Secondary Education: Issues, policies, realities and challenges.
Ezezobor, S. (1983). Test, Evaluation and Performance in Nigeria. In Adesina, S.; Akinyemi, K. & Ajayi, K. (eds.),
Nigerian Education: Trends and Issues. Ife: University of Ife Press.
Fasasi,Y. A. (2006). Quality Assurance: A Practical Solution to Examination Malpractices in Nigerian Secondary
Schools in International Journal of African& African American Studies Vol.V, No.2.
Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004). National Policy on Education. 4TH
Igwe, L. E. B. (2003). Elements Of Education Law. Port Harcourt: Pam Unique Publishers.
Edition. Lagos: NERDC Press.
Kirst, M. W. (1990). Accountability: Implications for State and Local Policy Makers. Washington: Office of
Educational Research and Improvement.
Mkpandiok, A. (2007). Quality Assurance in Secondary Schools in Akwa Ibom State. Uyo: University of Uyo.
Ezeh,S. & Nweke,J

7
www.ajeds.com
NCCE (1983). Minimum Standards for Nigeria Certificate in Education for Colleges of Education, Abuja, Nigeria.
OECD (1989). Schools and Quality: An International Report. Paris: OECD.
Okeke, B. S. (2004).Teaching in Nigeria: The Bureaucracy and Professionalism. Enugu: Mercury Int’l Publishing.
Onocha, C. O. (2002). Quality Assurance in Teacher Education. A Discussion Paper at the NTI’S 25TH
Perry, P. (1994).Defining and measuring the Quality of Teaching. In Green, D. (ed.), What is Quality in Higher
Education? Bristol: SRHE & Open University Press.
Anniversary
Celebration Kaduna.
Reiger, R. C. & Stang, J. (2000). Education Productivity; Labour Productivity; Motivation (psychology),
Employees,--Training of Education, Vol.121 Issue 1, p.62-64.

8
POLITICAL ECONOMY OF ELECTORAL MALPRACTICES IN
NIGERIA
JACOB, OGEDI
UNIVERSITY OF UYO, DEPARTMENT OF POLITICAL SCIENCE AND PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
Abstract
This study attempts to look at the political economy of electoral malpractices in Nigeria. In so doing, we situate
electoral malpractices in Nigeria within the context of Nigerian political economy and therefore establish a
relationship between electoral malpractices in Nigeria and the irreconcilable contradictions and decay of the Nigerian
society. In carrying out this study we adopted extensive use of library research through the use of secondary sources
of data. Our literature therefore covers good number of publications related to the subject matter. We have however,
been guided by our theoretical framework and methodology to arrive at the conclusion that the economic decadence in
Nigerian society has create impetus for electoral malpractices which engenders irresponsible leadership. We have
therefore recommended some changes which shall be effected in Nigerian society for electoral malpractices to be
nipped in the bud so as to create enabling environment for the emergence of responsible leadership.
Keywords: Political economy; Electoral malpractices; Nigeria.
Introduction
The importance of election as an instrument for regime change has been acknowledged long in history of man. Being
at the heart of the structure and functioning of modern democratic state, elections are expected to be free and fair. But
in Nigeria, elections are usually fraught with irregularities and discrepancies otherwise known as malpractices.
Electoral malpractices therefore has kept democratic tenets in Nigeria such as the rule of law, equity, majority rule and
political consultation on the cascade of irretrievable neglect thereby creating impetus for chicanery, violence,
thuggery, militancy, cultism and embezzlement of public fund. This ugly scenario has serious implication on
democracy and good governance. However, successive government in Nigeria has adopted some strategies aimed at
containing the malady. Such strategies include the use of international and domestic observers to monitor the conduct
of elections in Nigeria; the making of the National Electoral Commission Independent in terms of direction and control
as well as autonomy in budgetary condition; zoning of political offices among the six geo-political zones in the
country; massive voter education etc. But rather than ameliorating the situation, it continues to be worse.
We therefore feel that the failure to score a breakthrough is traceable to inability to identify what the fundamental
problems of the Nigerian polity are i.e. the economic-political relations and the contradiction arising from this
relationship. Thus, we seek to critically look at the nature of Nigerian political economy so as to decipher how
contradictions within the economic relations manifest at the political to influence political behaviour/process
particularly election.
This study is divided into five sections. Section one is the introduction which has just been done. Section two deals
with conceptualization of the key terms–election and electoral malpractice. Section three focuses on theoretical
perspective. Section four dissects political economy and electoral malpractices in Nigeria. The section five features
our conclusion and recommendations.
Conceptual Clarification
It is very appropriate in an academic work of this nature to situate key concepts in their correct and critical perspective
within the context of our epistemological foci. This will put in clear perspective our argument. Consequently, we
shall conceptualize election and electoral malpractices.

9
Election
The discourse and theories on democracy, especially in its libertarian form, place election as a core event towards
good governance. Conceptually, election symbolizes popular sovereignty and the expression of the “social pact”
between the state and the people, which defines the basis of political authority, legitimacy and citizens obligations. It
is the kernel of political accountability and a means of ensuring reciprocity and exchange between the governors and
the governed (Adejumobi 2000:243). In a more revised form liberal democracy is conceived as a “political system
characterized by regular and free elections in which politicians organized into parties compete to form the government,
by right of virtually all adult citizens to vote and by guarantee of a range of familiar political and civil rights
(Sandbrook, 1988:32).
Electoral Malpractice
In association with elections are electoral malpractices (illegal manipulation of the election process). Electoral
malpractice is defined as any type of improper practice whether by government officials responsible for the conduct of
elections, political parties, groups, classes or individuals that have the effect of distorting or inflicting damage to the
outcome of election. It is also defined as illegal manipulation of voters ballots and the counting process for the
purpose of winning more votes than could otherwise be gained (Olisa, 1983).
Author Nwankwo in his own opinion described electoral malpractices as all those unconstitutional acts and practices
in which contending coalition of interest, within and outside the armed forces resort to in order to defeat their
opponents in the struggle for political power (Nwankwo 1978:102). He went further to state that electoral
malpractices range from the falsification of voters register, multiple voting, the pre-stuffing of ballot boxes, the
involvement of presiding officers in partisan politics, the bribing of electoral officers and the accredited agents of law
and order (Ibid). These definitions constitute our meaning of electoral malpractices.
Theoretical Framework
We shall adopt the political economy approach in this study. Political economy uses the dialectic principle in its study
of social phenomena. The principle is the science of the general laws of motion and development of nature, human
society and thought (Engels 1987:302). It is this constant motion of events, changing flux that result to optimal
perfection and development in society.
Dialectical materialism as a method of investigation is principally associated with Karl Marx. Scholars who adopt it
pay attention to the role of conflict and contradiction in the process of the phenomena under investigation. It places
emphasis on material conditions particularly economic factors in the explanation of social life (Ake 1981:1).
According to Ake, anyone wishing to study society must pay particular attention to the economic structure of society
and indeed use it as a point of departure for studying other aspects of society. This is because the economic condition
determines man’s consciousness and position in society as well as social and political relations and ultimately the
character and nature of politics in any society. Economic need is man’s crucial need. Without meeting these needs,
life would not be possible.
This approach shall therefore enable us to understand the changing mode of production and how the productive forces
are reflected in electioneering process in Nigeria. To this extent, we shall analyze how election malpractices in
Nigeria did not just emerge as a result of the activities of certain extra-mundane forces but as a result of the
irreconcilable contradictions and decay of the Nigerian society rooted in its crude, directionless and collapsed
economy. It is imperative to note that the Nigerian economy has for years been exposed to serious weakness in
addressing the problems of the populace. This is acutely compounded by the primitivity and naivety of the ruling class
in their relationship to accumulation, production, governance, moral scruple and ethical standard. This has left the
Political Economy of Electoral Malpractices in Nigeria: Jacob,Ogedi

10
society open to external and internal pressures as people struggle in whatever manner to survive and reproduce
themselves.
Political economy and electoral malpractice in Nigeria.
Electoral malpractice in Nigeria as already stated in this paper is a product of irreconcilable contradictions and decay
of the Nigerian society occasioned by some historical antecedents. As a colonial creation, the power of the post-
colonial Nigerian state has remained absolute, arbitrary, great, often violent and always threatening. In line with this
assertion Ake stated thus:
Although political independence brought some changes to the composition of
the state managers, the character of the state remained much as it was in the
colonial era. It continued to be totalistic in scope, constituting a statist economy.
It presented itself as an apparatus of violence, had a narrow social base and
relied for compliance on coercion rather than authority (Ake 2001:3).
The control of political power is therefore the control of everything. This is because political power does not only
provide unlimited access to power but also the means to security and the only guarantee for general well-being (Ake,
2001:7). Consequently, the struggle for political power in Nigeria has become so absorbing and all important that
every other thing is marginalized. The Nigerian economy has therefore for years been exposed to obvious weakness in
addressing the problems of the citizenry. This is acutely compounded by the primitive orientation and naivety of the
ruling class in their relationship to accumulation and service delivery. This has left the society open to external and
internal pressures as people struggle in whatever manner to survive and reproduce themselves. The race for survival is
no longer regulated by societal norms and respect for law and human life as the ultimate is the never-ending
acquisition of wealth which on the long run signify ‘arrival’ status symbol and power of domination. Society is turned
into a jungle where the will and caprices of the stronger determine events. Weak ones prostrate, kowtow before the
all-powerful and their agents for protection and corporeal needs.
The prevailing circumstance which is more or less a poultry-device system which converts the average Nigerians into
chickens that lay eggs for consumption by the ruling class has serious implication on elections and electoral process.
The desire to hang on to power has made the political leaders and their agents to develop a lethargy and disdain for
free and fair election because free and fair election is capable of threatening the basis of their power and authority.
The dominant practice is that most rulers organize electoral ‘coup d’etat’ which ensures their ‘selection’ in the name of
popular electoral process. The strategies include stifling the opposition parties and reducing them to docility through
deleterious manipulations of all phases of the transition process from the appointment of members of the electoral
body through the subversion of electoral rules and regulations to the abuse of the electioneering process, manipulation
of voters registration, intimidation of political opponents and manipulation of election results. This explains why
Obasanjo when he was the civilian president of Nigeria declared with impunity that the 2007 general election will be a
do or die affair. Also General Ibrahim Babangida commented during his regime’s tortuous transition to civil rule
programme thus “while we do not know those who will succeed us, we definitely know those who will not”
(Adejumobi, 1995:30). The implication is that those who do not even have the constitutional power to stay longer in
power use the state apparatus to remove from electoral contest those they dislike.
It is pertinent to note that since most Nigerians are poor because from the onset the political class do not pay attention
to the development of the people, they are only incorporated into the political arena during election. Either as
electorates or electoral officers, they merely respond to the socio-economic condition of their existence by accepting
monetary inducement for the purpose of swaying their political action. Ake offers an explanation to this by stating as
follows:
Poverty disempowers and subverts democracy…in accepting bribes, voters
collude in commoditizing their democratic rights and reinforcing their low self-
esteem. Thus turning election into bondage (Ake, 1996:10-11).

11
For most Nigerians, elections have become an allegory for their powerlessness and exploitation. With a large army of
lumpen-proletariat which includes unemployed youths, motor park thugs roaming the streets, the politicians have no
difficulty in recruiting thugs and body guards who are ready to carryout their instructions aimed at electoral
malpractice.
Some politicians who are not in power use ethnicity as a weapon in politicizing their intra and inter-class struggle to
have the control of state power. The important thing to note here is that, the ethnicization of politics in Nigeria carried
with it centrifugal and separatist forces that greatly undermines the corporate existence of the Nigerian state. This is
because ethnicity in this context transforms elections into inter-ethnic wars in which victory means a wide range of
benefits to the tribes whose candidate(s) capture control of the political machine. In line with this, political parties of
the First Republic in Nigeria were cleverly woven to represent various ethnic groups thus, the Northern Peoples
Congress (NPC) was for the North, the National Convention of Nigerian Citizens (NCNC) for the East while the
Action Group (AG) was for the West. In the 2nd
Republic, parties were also formed along ethnic cleavages. The
National Party of Nigeria (NPN), Nigeria Peoples Party (NPP) and Unity Party of Nigeria (UPN) were regarded as the
Hausa, Ibo and Yoruba parties respectively. Even in the present dispensation, Action Congress of Nigeria, (ACN),All
Progressive Grand Alliance (APGA) and Congress for Progressive Change (CPC) are being cleverly manipulated by
desperate politicians to serve as ethnic based political parties for the Yorubas, Ibos and the Hausa/Fulani respectively.
This accounts for the violence that greeted the announcement of the presidential election result of the April 2011
general election in the North by the CPC as the result did not favour its candidate Gen. Mohammadu Buhari. Ethnic
sentiment creates room for various forms of electoral malpractices as the politicians exploit it to outsmart their
opponents in their self acclaimed electoral base.
The wholesale rigging of election by politicians has disastrous effects on democracy. Rigging deprives election of its
essence, purpose as a popular basis of government. In the first place, a government which, by electoral malpractice,
assumes or keeps itself in power or office against the vote of the majority of the electorate lacks legitimacy or the
moral authority that popular mandate bestows.
Secondly, electoral malpractice defeats ab initio the axiom that the welfare of the people is the object of government.
Without the mandate of the people, the government cannot promote the welfare or well being of the people. Its
legitimacy and moral authority is thus tainted and greatly weakened.
Thirdly, from the standpoint of political parties and their candidates, electoral rigging deprives election of its character
as a competition in which all contestants are supposed to present themselves as responsible, and reputable individuals
with a purpose to serve their community with their sparkling qualities. However, an election contest in which the
result is not determined by the votes lawfully cast for the contestants but by fraudulent manipulation is a mockery of
the very idea of a democratic competition. This unfortunately is the prevailing condition of our electoral process.
Conclusion
This study concludes that electoral malpractices in Nigeria have an organic dialectical relationship with the nature of
Nigerian society. It specifically arose as a precipitate of the general disorder and malaise in the society and the
hazardous struggle for power and wealth. The state promotes politics which satisfies the yearning of the ruling class
and a clear agenda by the controllers of state power to regard modern state craft as “goldmine” for primitive
accumulation of wealth. The state coercive instruments are therefore used to perpetuate the ruling class grip on the
state as competition for state power becomes intense, hostile and violent. This has engendered both inter and intra-
class struggle which culminates in the emergence of mediocres and substandard people in the seat of power having
hijacked the electoral process.
Recommendations:
The effect of electoral malpractices on a polity is painful and disturbing. We therefore make the following
recommendations that would place Nigeria on the path of free and fair election. They are:
Political Economy of Electoral Malpractices in Nigeria: Jacob,Ogedi

12
 There should be a total over haul and restructuring of the Nigerian society in such a way that over dependence
on state patronage is reduced. An enabling environment for economic independence should be created
particularly through the development of entrepreneurial skills in the people. This would reduce idleness as
well as over reliance on state patronage for survival.
 The attractive nature of the Nigerian state because of its character and over bearing influence on everything
within the state should be checkmated. The state institutions should be down-sized. This would reduce the
involvement of the state in all activities affecting the people thereby decreasing its powers and influence on
the people.
 The electoral commission should be made a permanent institution constituted with sincere men and women
with track record of impeccable performance, ability and transparent honesty in the civil and public service.
 The removal of the members of the electoral commission should be rigorous and rigid requiring legislative
approval based on 2/3 majority. Such removal should only be based on the grounds of incompetence and
abuse of office.
 Interference of the state in conduct of election should be made illegal and punishable by law.
 The tenure of office of elected political office holders should be limited to one term of five years.
 There should be a constitutional provision to probe the stewardship of the out-going political office holders
by an in-coming government within one year of the new administration and those found to have abused their
responsibilities punished according to the law. This would go a long way in reducing the yearning to be in
power for the mere purpose of accumulating wealth through diversionary tendencies.
 The civil society organization should form a consortium especially for electoral management and should be a
working partner to the electoral commission, national orientation agency and other electoral related bodies.
References
Adejumobi, S. (1995). The Adjustment Reforms and its Impact on the Economy and Society. In A. Said & M.
Abubakar (eds.) The Political Economy of Nigeria Under Military Rule (1984-93), Harare: SAPES.
Ake, C. (1996). Is Africa Democratizing? CASS Monograph, No.5.
Ake, C. (2001). Democracy and Development. Brookings Institutions: Washington DC.
Aki, C. (1981). A Political Economy of Africa. New York: Longman.
Engels, F. (1987). A Biography, Moscow Progress Publishers.
Nwankwo, A. (1987). Military option to democracy. Enugu: Fourth Dimension Publication.
Olisa, M.S.O. (1983). Electoral Malpractices in Nigeria, Explanation and the Wayout. Paper presented At the National
Conference on the Conduct of Election in Nigeria Held At University of Nigeria Nsukka 1st
-4th
February.
Said, A. (2000). Elections in Africa: A Fading Shadow of Democracy in Government and Politics in African (ed) by
Okwudiba Nnoli AAPs Books.
Sandbrook, R. (1988). Liberal Democracy in Africa “A Socialist Revisionist Perspective” Canadian Journal of African
Studies.
Todaro, M. P. and Smith, S. C. (2004). Economic Development, New York: Pearson Education.

13
A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF STUDENTS’
PERFORMANCE IN WEST AFRICAN EXAMINATION
COUNCIL AND NATIONAL EXAMINATION COUNCIL IN
TECHNICAL DRAWING
ODU OJI KENNEDY (Ph.D)
DEPARTMENT OF TECHNICAL AND BUSINESS EDUCATION,
DELTA STATE UNIVERSITY,
ABRAKA – NIGERIA
Tel: +2348030716886 Email: drodu2008@yahoo.com
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to compare the Senior School Certificate Examination (SSCE) results in technical
drawing set by the West African Examination Council (WAEC) and the National Examinations Council
(NECO) in terms of students’ performance. To this effect, the results from WAEC and NECO in technical
drawing in 2008, 2009 and 2010 were obtained. The study utilized evaluative research. The population was
made up of WAEC and NECO results of 2008 to 2010 (both May/June and Nov/Dec.) while the sample was
WAEC and NECO May/June in technical drawing. The instrument for data collection was May/June WAEC
and NECO results in technical drawing from 2008 to 2010. The instrument was termed valid and reliable since it
has been administered by WAEC and NECO. Mean statistic was used to analyzed the research questions while
One-Way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was used to test the hypothesis. The findings revealed that (1)
WAEC performed better than NECO in technical drawing in the year 2008 and 2010 while NECO performed
better than WAEC in 2009 (2) There was significant difference between the performance of students in WAEC
and NECO and (3) There was a high correlation between the two examining bodies in terms of students
performance. It was, therefore, concluded that WAEC could be used in examining students in Technical
drawing and vice versa.
Keywords: Students’performance; West African Examinations Council; National Examinations Council,
Technical Drawing.
Introduction
With Nigeria’s recent emphasis on technical education, the 6-3-3-4 and the 9-3-4 system of education came into
lime light. As technical drawing is one of the core areas of this new educational system, it becomes imperative
that its teaching and learning needs an appraisal in order to identify areas of adjustment and improvement due to
the position of the subject in technical education.
Technical drawing is important in technical manpower development. This is because any object to be
manufactured has first of all, be drawn on paper. Because of its importance technical drawing or engineering
drawing has traditionally formed part of the training programme for engineers and technicians all over the
world. Technical drawing has been defined by Gerald (1970) as a graphic representation of a real thing, an idea
or a proposed design for later manufacture or construction.
Nigeria is a developing country and has a long way to go to catch up with the more industrially advanced
countries Technical drawing is a key that can open the door to industrial development. Right now, technical
drawing including mechanical and building drawing is the most popular technical subject in Nigerian schools.
Two major examination bodies conduct tests in technical drawing in senior secondary schools in Nigeria. These
are: West African Examination Council (WAEC) and National Examination Council (NECO). The West
African Examination Council was founded in 1952 and was charged with the responsibility of conducting
school examination in former British West African countries such as Nigeria, Ghana, Gambia and Sierra Leone.
Prior to its establishment, most post-primary institutions in these countries were examined and certified by

14
external British accrediting bodies. Prominent among them were university of London, the University of
Cambridge Local Examination syndicates, the London Chamber of Commerce, the Royal Society of Arts and
City and Guides of London Institute (Nulana, 2000).
The functions of the West African Examinations Council (WAEC), as laid down at its establishment include the
following
(a) To review and consider annually the examinations to be held in West Africa for the purpose of furthering
the public interest West Africa.
(b) To conduct some examinations as the council may think appropriate and to award certificates and diplomas
on the results of the examinations conducted.
Since the establishment of WAEC, it has come to assume a leading role in determining the educational pattern
and progress in Anglophone West Africa. It certificates command respect, not only in West Africa but also
within the academic world as a whole. The West African School Certificate (WASC) is equated with the London
General Certificate of Education (G.C.E).
The National Examination Council (NECO) on the other hand was established by General Abdulsalam Abubakar
with a promulgation of a degree in April, 1999. While some Nigerians saw its arrival as opportunity for choice of
examination body for candidates to patronize, others doubted its capability to conduct reliable examinations that
could command widespread national and international respect and acceptability, some others welcome it as a
Federal Government parastatal, to offer subsidized registration to candidates, yet other queried even its legal
status.
By its mandate, NECO was to take over the responsibilities of the National Board for Education Measurement
(NBEM) which was created in 1992, by the Ibrahim Babangida administration, although its enabling decree was
promulgated in 1993. It is pertinent to note that before the establishment of NECO, the conduct of the Senior
School Certificate examination (SSCE) was an exclusive preserve of West African Examination Council
(WAEC). NECO conducted its maiden Senior School Certification Examination in June, 2000 and since then it
has been conducting the examination till date.
In one of the studies aimed at assessing NECO, Ariyibi (n.d.) sought the views of teachers regarding some
qualities such as legibility of question papers, clarity of test items, appropriateness of test items, adequacy of
question papers and other materials, promptness in providing the question papers, adequacy of manpower to
supervise the examinations and care taken in the process of collating and packaging of the answer scripts. Ariyibi
gave a pass mark to NECO. In their studies, Ogunjemilua (2001) and Dibu-Ojerinde and Falaye (2005) did not
see any difference between NECO and WAEC, when they were compared. In the study by Dibu-Ojerinde and
Faleye, they compared the performances of students’ who entered with NECO Senior School Certificate SSC,
using their first and second semester GPAs for the first year while the above studies had findings favourable to
NECO, some others had portrayed NECO as being inferior to WAEC.
Parents and government are in total agreement that their huge investment on education is not yielding the desired
dividend Teachers also complain of students’ low performance at both internal and external examination. The
annual releases of Senior Secondary Certificate Examination (SSCE) results by National Examination Council
(NECO). West African Examination Council (WAEC) justified students’ poor performance in different
secondary school subjects. All over the country (Adebule, 2004) there is consensus of opinion about the fallen
standard of education, especially in technical education subjects of which technical drawing is an integral part.
The problem of poor academic performance is so great that it has become so difficult to pass the number of
required subjects for admission into tertiary institutions at once (Ajayi, 1999). This study is therefore designed to
find if these is any significant difference between students’ performance in WAEC and NECO and sought
answers to the following research question and tested one hypothesis.
1. To what extent is students’ performance in WAEC different from their performance in NECO technical
drawing from 2008 to 2010?
A Comparative Analysis of Students Performance in West Africa Examination Council & National Examination Council in
Technical Drawing: Odu Oji

15
Hypotheses
Ho1: There is no significant difference between the performance of students in WAEC and NECO in technical
drawing examination from 2008 to 2010 (P<0.05).
In the case of significant difference between WAEC and NECO, the Statistics Package for Social Sciences
(SPSS) was applied to determine the measure of association between the two examining bodies.
Methodology
The study was an evaluative research because it was aimed at ascertaining if there is any significant difference
between students’ performance in WAEC and NECO in technical drawing. It belongs to the comparative
content analysis method, which, according to Mertler and Charles (2008) is a type of evaluation research and
which, among others involves the comparative analysis of students’ performance in WAEC and NECO technical
drawing. The population of the study was made up of WAEC and NECO results of 2008, 2009 and 2010 in
Technical Drawing.
WAEC and NECO conduct O’level examinations twice a year-May/June (for school based candidates) and
November/ December (for private candidates). The sample for the study was obtained by using the May/June
WAEC and NECO results in technical drawing for 2008, 2009 and 2010..
The instruments that were used to collect data for the study were the May/June WAEC and NECO results in
technical drawing from 2008 to 2010. Since the instruments used were the ones conducted by WAEC and
NECO, their validity and reliability would have been ensured within the syllabus recommended. The validity
and reliability of the instruments are not in doubt since the documents (results) are from WAEC and NECO
examination bodies worldwide. Therefore they are adjudged to be valid and reliable.
The mean statistic was used to analyse the research question while ANOVA was utilized in testing the
hypothesis using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS).
Results
Table 1: Descriptive Group Statistics of Comparison between WAEC and NECO Technical Drawing in
Relation to Students’ Performance
Variables N Mean Standard
Deviation
Standard
Errors
WAEC Performance 2008 30 7.500 0.68229 0.427
NECO Performance 2008 38 2.7368 0.44626 0.383
Source: SPSS Computer printout 2011
Table 1 shows the descriptive group statistics of comparison, between WAEC and NECO technical drawing in
relation to students’ performance. In 2008, the mean and standard deviation of students’ performance in WAEC
is 7.500 and 0.68229 respectively and the standard error is 0.427. In the same year NECO had a mean and
standard deviation of 2.7368 and 0.44626 respectively with a standard error of 0.383.
In 2009 result, WAEC had a mean and standard deviation of 6.0741 and 1.68537 respectively with a standard
error of 0.448. In the same year, NECO had a mean and standard deviation of 6.33333 and 1.20894 with
standard error of 0.448.
In 2010 results, the mean of WAEC was 7.2667 and its standard deviation was 0.80904 with a standard error of
0.354 while the mean and standard deviation of NECO in the same year was 5.8667 and 1.4018 respectively
with a standard error of 0.354.

16
With the descriptive statistics of comparison between WAEC and NECO results in 2008, it could be deduced
that WAEC performed better than NECO since its mean of 7.500 is higher than that of NECO with a mean of
2.7368.
In 2009, NECO performed better than WAEC since its mean of 6.3333 was higher than that of WAEC with a
mean of 6.0741.
The descriptive statistics of comparison between WAEC and NECO results in 2010 shows that WAEC
performed better than NECO in the sense that WAEC had a greater mean of 7.2667 compared to the mean of
NECO of 5.8667.
Table 2: One-Way ANOVA Table Comparing the Mean Scores of Students Performance between
WAEC and NECO.
Variables Sum of
Squares
Df Mean
square
F Sig.
WAEC Performance
2008, NECO
Performance
2008
Between Groups
(Combined)
9.143 3 3.048 18.186 .000
Total 13.500 29
WAEC Performance
2009, NECO
Performance
2009
Between Groups
(Combined)
32.215 2 16.108 9.285 .001
Total 73.851 26
WAEC Performance
2010, NECO
Performance
2010
Between Groups
(Combined)
22.830 4 5.708 32.244 .000
Total 28.800 44
Source: SPSS Computer Printout 2011
Table 2, shows the One-Way ANOVA comparing the mean scores of students’ performance between WAEC
and NECO from 2008 to 2010. The result indicates that the f-values of students performance in 2008, 2009 and
2010 were greater than the P value of 0.000, 0.001 and 0.000 respectively since the P Values were less than 0.05
(<0.05) level of significance, then these results indicated that there was significant difference in the results of
WAEC and NECO in 2008, 2009 and 2010. Therefore, the null hypothesis of no significant difference was
rejected.

17
Table 3:Measures of Association between Students’ Performance in Technical Drawing between WAEC and
NECO
Variables Eta Eta Squared
WAEC Performance 2008
0.823 0.667NECO Performance 2008
Source: SPSS Computer Printout 2011
Analysis in Table 3 reveals that in the comparison of WAEC and NECO, the measures of association or
correlation between the two examining bodies in 2008 was 0.823 and the Eta Squared was 0.667.
In 2009, the measure of association between WAEC and NECO was 0.660 and the Eta Squared was 0.436 while
in 2010, the measure of association between the two examining bodies was 0.890 and the Eta Squared was
0.792.
The analysis in Table 3 denotes that the performance of students in technical drawing in WAEC and NECO had
a high relationship or correlation between the two examining bodies and WAEC can be used to predict NECO in
students’ performance in technical drawing.
Summary of Findings
This study has revealed the following findings:
1. WAEC performed better than NECO in 2008 and 2010 in terms of students’ performance in technical
drawing while NECO performed better than WAEC in 2009.
2. There was significant difference between WAEC and NECO in terms of students’ performance in
technical drawing.
3. WAEC and NECO had a high correlation in terms of students performance in technical drawing in
2008 – 2010
Discussion
The findings of this study revealed that WAEC performed better than NECO in 2008 and 2010 while NECO
performed better than WAEC in 2009; the study also showed that there was significant difference between
WAEC and NECO in terms of students’ performance and also the two examining bodies had a high correlation
between them.
The findings that WAEC performed better than NECO supports the argument of Daniel (2005) who states that
NECO was inferior to WAEC in terms of quality of question papers set and credibility of grades awarded to
candidates, among others. In another study by Famakinwa (n.d.), the GPAs of students who were admitted with
WAEC and NECO Senior School Certificate (SSC) were computed for years I to III, semester by semester. The
results showed that in each semester of each year, the students with WAEC, SSC had higher GPA than those
with NECO. Still on superiority of WAEC over NECO, Obioma and Salau (2007), who used WAEC, NECO
and University Matriculation Examinations results to predict Year 1 and Final CGPAs found that WAEC results
had greater predictive power than the NECO results. In a part of the finding of this study NECO performed
better than WAEC in 2009 set. This result is in consonance with the studies of Ogunjemilua (2001) and Dibu –
Ojerinde and Faleye (2005) who opined that they did not see any difference between NECO and WAEC when
they were compared.
In the only hypothesis, for this study, there was significant difference between WAEC and NECO. One could
infer that the level of students performance between the examining bodies vary but slightly as table 3 shows that

18
the comparison of the two examining bodies had a high level of correlation and so one could be used to predict
another in terms of students’ performance in technical drawing.
Summary and Conclusion
The urge to carry out this study was propelled by the fears of some individuals regarding the comparability of
WAEC and NECO in their examining functions. This, therefore, called for a need to compare these bodies in
terms of various aspects. This study took up the aspect of comparing the two bodies in terms of students’
performance in 2008-2010 in WAEC and NECO results. Findings show that WAEC performed better than
NECO in the years studies. Also, there was significant difference in students’ performance between the two
examining bodies. In conclusion therefore, one, would say that there is a high correlation between the two
examining bodies and one would be used for another in assessing students of technical drawing.
REFERENCES
Adebule, S.O. (2004). Gender Differences on a Locally Standardized Anxiety Rating Scale in Mathematics for
Nigerian Secondary Schools in Nigeria. Journal of Counselling and Applied Psychology Vol. 1, 22-29.
Ajayi, I.A. (1999). Unit Cost of Secondary Education and Students’ Academic Achievement in Ondo State,
Nigeria (1991-1995), Unpublished Ph.D Dissertation, University of Ibadan, Ibadan.
Ariyibi, O.A. (n.d). Secondary School Teachers’ Perception of the administration of NECO SSCE. Retrieved
from http://www. naere.org/journal/SECONDARY-SCHOOL-TEACHERS-PERCEPTION-
ADMINISTRATION-NECO-SSCE.pdf.
Daniel, F. (2005). A Survey of the Teachers’ and Students’ Opinion on WAEC and NECO SSCE Examinations
in Mathematics. Abuja Journal of Education, 6(1), 32-39.
Dibu-Ojerinde, O.O. & Faleye, B.A. (2005). Do they end at the same point? Journal of Social Science, (3), 239-
241. Retrieved from http://www.krepublishers.com/02-Journals/JSS/JSS-11-0.000-000-2005wEB/jss-11-
3-173-258-2005-Abst-PDF/JSS-11-3-239-241-205-278-Dibu-Ojerinde-0-0/JSS-11-3-239-241-2005-278-
Dibu-Ojerinde-0.0-full-Text.pdf.
Famakinwa, S.A. (n.d.) A Comparative Analysis of Candidates’ Performance in SSCE Conducted by WAEC
and NECO as a Measure of Mathematical Understanding of Prospective Undergraduate Teachers.
Retrieved from htt://www.solahu ddeenfamakinwa.com/2.doc
Gerald, W. (1970). Technical Drawing and Design. Hulton Education Publications Ltd. 55/59 Saffron Hill.
London E.C.I.
Mertler, C.A. & Charles, C.M. (2008). Introduction to Educational Research (6th
Ed.) Boston: Pearson Educ.
Inc.
Nulana, O.C. (2000). Educational Measurement for Teachers. Lagos: Thomas-Nelson.
Obioma, G. & Salau, M. (2007). The Predictive Validity of Public Examinations: A Case Study of Nigeria. A
Paper Presented at the 33rd
Annual Conference of International Association for Educational Assessment
(IAEA) held in Baku, Azerbaijan, 16-21 September.
Ogunjemilua, M.F. (2001). Comparative Analysis of Psychometric Properties of Maths Multiple-Choice Items
of West African Examinations Council and National Examinations Council Senior Secondary School
Certificate Examinations in Ekiti State. Unpublished Masters Thesis, University of Ado0Ekiti, Nigeria.

19
ERADICATION OF CHILD LABOUR: A PANACEA FOR
EFFECTIVE HUMAN DEVELOPMENT, LEADERSHIP AND
GOOD GOVERNANCE IN NIGERIA
DR. (MRS.) V.U. DIENYE
&
NJOKU, MATHEW ONWYEGBULE
Department of Educational Foundations, Faculty of Education, University of Port Harcourt, Nigeria.
Abstract
Child labour has been cited as one of the major impediments for effective human development, leadership and good
governance in Nigeria. The menace has been described as unprecedented in recent times in the socioeconomic and
academic development of the Nigerian child and this work is x-rayed to find a lasting solution to it. The paper
therefore examines the relationship between the child and child labour in the society and how it has endangered the
child in recent times. It also examined how child labour has affected the child education in the society as well as
different legislations enacted to check child labour. The paper looked at the roles of parents, multinationals and other
forces promoting child labour, and on the other hand articulated ways child labour can be eradicated or reduced in
Nigeria. This directs our thought on what can be done by the Enforcement Agencies, Schools and Churches, NOA,
NGOs, Government, Individuals and International Donor Agencies e.g. UNICEF and World Bank in reducing child
labour. The relationship between child labour and its effect on good governance was also analyzed and conclusively
suggestions and recommendations were proffered at the end of this paper.
Keywords: Child labour; Human development; Leadership; Good governance; Nigeria.
Introduction
The print and electronic media is replete with the news on the engagement of children in labour or work. These
media posit that the world population especially in the developing countries of Asia and Africa where hunger and
poverty is rife is made up of children (between 5-15 years) and about 80% of these children are engaged in one form
of labour or the other. In Nigeria the story is not different as this has generated great concern over children
involvement in this scourge of labour. International Labour Organization (ILO) has estimated the number of
children within the ages of 5-14 years working, to be about 250 million. Out of which, about 32% is located in
Africa and the remaining 68% is distributed relatively to other countries of Asia 61%, and Latin America 7%. The
statistics shows that the developed countries have a minute number of children working, (ILO 1995). In Nigeria
child labour did not manifest so high in the 60s but had its root in the 80s during the 2nd republic [after the Nigerian
Civil War].
Experiences of child labour in the 60s reveals that parents give out their daughters to close relations only for the
purpose of caring for the siblings or for farm work. Similarly the Muslim children were nomads on their parents
herds; in order to keep the flocks. Today, things have fallen apart; every child is interested in any kind of thing that
can fix him in the economy. International Organizations like ILO, UNESCO, UNICEF, WHO, see child labour as a
serious global issue.

20
It is the contention of these organizations that the engagement of children in labour is harmful in several ways. It
affects the family image and robs the society of her future leaders and labour force. The concept of catch them
young cannot be compromised to labour rather labour impairs the physical and mental development of the children.
It is this concept that the act of child labour is viewed as a deviation of the social order even when it has assumed an
alarming dimension in Nigeria.
In the same vein many local organizations, governments and individuals have joined efforts in condemning and
fighting the scourge of child labour in Nigeria. The fight does not require individuals or institutions acting alone a
collective effort is required considering the nature and dimension the act is taking as well as the resources that are
required for the crusade. Nations and governments as well as individuals working together in an effort at eliminating
child labour will add more value and major contribution to the nations and world development (IBRD 1998).
Conceptual Framework and Theoretical Foundation
The child is the focus of the society. He represents the image of the parents even when death strikes. The importance
of the child cannot be overemphasized hence every parent endeavours to have a successor in life for the continuity
of the lineage. This consideration informs the quest by parents to apply excessive input in the training and growth of
the child. Child labour as a concept does not align an easy definition. This is because the person considered to be a
child in one concept may not be a child in another. Similarly what one terms as labour in one society may not be
labour in another.
The definitional problem revolves around this two:
(a) Non-educational leisure time activities, and
(b) Full-time employment in economic activities.
A. Non-educational leisure time activities
This involves use of children of certain age in labour at the expense of their leisure times after school.
B. Full-time employment in economic activity
These groups of children are engaged in full-time labour activities for economic purposes such as hawking,
prostitution, pornography, etc. for the purpose of enriching the economy.
The first includes light work after school or during holidays which helps in skill acquisition while the letter involves
engagement of children in full-time economic activities. In the rural areas people do not view child labour as bad but
as part of socialization process which gradually introduces the child to work activities and survival skills, a situation
that is experienced in Nigeria. The concept of labour applied to a wide range of activities includes domestic job,
house help, hawking, industrial labour etc (UNICEF 1986). The evolution of a child to adulthood progresses through
socially and biologically defined process over a period of time in which the degree of dependence and need for
protection declines. Morile in Ugal-David . et al. (2000) observed that, whether a job is light or heavy duty, any job
done by a child is detrimental to his physical and mental development. The child passes through immeasurable
trauma which is quite painful and pathetic.
Child labour can be defined as any form of work that a child below 15 years engages himself in either full time or
part time which lasts for too many hours, (ILO (1992). A UNICEF bulletin has revealed that a staggering 15 million
children under the ages of 14 years work across Nigeria and are exposed to long hours of work in dangerous and
unhealthy environments. Such children are subjected to too many responsibilities beyond their age. (UNICEF
(2006:1). A child is considered or classified as being in labour if he is economically active, gainfully employed or
does work on regular basis for which he is employed resulting to output destined for the market, (Ashagrie in Ugal,
Eradication of Child Labour: A Panacea for Effective Human development,Leadership & Good Governance in Nigeria: Dienye &
Njoku

21
et al. (2000). In an international symposium on youths, street culture and urban violence, ILO identifies two
categories of street youths violence based on economic activities i.e.
i. Legitimate or formal sector group and
ii. Illegitimate or punishable offence group (ILO (1977:25).
In the report, the legitimate group includes the youths whose activities are legal and formalized and the illegitimate
group includes the youths whose activities are illegal and constitute punishable offences under the law. Examples of
the legitimate group of street youths include those engaged in street trading, hawking, bus conductors, car washing,
vendors, beggars, house helps etc. while the illegitimate group involve youths on drug peddling, pickpockets,
burglars, rapists, robbery, child soldiers etc. This latter group graduate from pre-delinquent state to the state of
criminality and is very adverse on the child and the society. It is realized that majority of children within 15 years of
age are the most affected in labour. From all indications child labour is dangerous, painful, pathetic and counter
productive. The involvement of the child in it is injurious and exploitative and it affects the physical, social,
cognitive, psychological and moral development of the child. It exposes the child to long term unhealthy living
which is at the expense of his development.
Children known as part of the reproductive process for family inheritance are today treated and regarded as
economic goods. In some homes, their future are no longer considered. The child’s focus is directed to those things
that can deprive him of education in the name of generating income for the family upkeep. In this case the child is
no longer interested in schooling rather focuses on daily labour in the streets, homes and industries, (Chira in Awake
(1999)). Children need to be cared for educationally, morally, physically and socially. Fadeiyi (1977) pointed out
that if these aspects of training are neglected, it will contribute to most social evils the child shall suffer or pass to
the next generation. Child labour contributes to the growth of indiscipline and lawlessness witnessed in the society
and our institutions of learning. The pain the child passes through in labour encourages him to shun respect, to
others in society and transfers such experiences into the social life as he is exposed to it. if the child is deeply
involved in hawking of goods he values nothing good in schooling. This negative feeling about education inspires
him to continue with the endless stressful trading. Even when the child finds himself in school, he has little or no
time to revisit his studies at home. At times, he has his assignments unsolved for the next school day.
The females who are involved in hawking are so energetic that they fight at will when provoked. The attitude they
exhibit is nothing to write home about. They insult and abuse the elderly at will and are at times subjected to sexual
harassment. Child labour remains the most formidable obstacle to education of children in low income countries and
it is one of the predicaments to governance in recent times. If a child is deeply involved in labour force, the spirit of
going to school is betrayed. The early withdrawal from school can be traced to premature work and early pregnancy
which in turn traps these children in the vicious circle of poverty, leading to violence, youth restiveness and
kidnapping as experienced in recent times in Nigeria.United Nations Charter on Human Rights (Article 1, 1948)
gave a standard for the existence of man, thus “All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights”.
These rights and freedom articulated in the Charter includes the right to education. Article 3 of the same code also
stipulates that “Every one has the right to life, liberty and security”. This code forms the basis for man’s civil and
political rights. Article 22 in the same declaration entitles everyone to the realization of these rights irrespective of
his personality. The evils of child labour involve all forms of inhuman treatment on the child as this negates the
rights due to the child at his age.
Forms of child labour
The child’s engagement to some informal activities in the home can be beneficial to the holistic development of the
child in terms of socialization as well as his informal education. By so doing, some skills and aspects of culture that
can help him function effectively in society are passed on. The form of labour where the child is involved in
domestic assistance to parents as well in farm skills is beneficial to the child. Therefore labour is not totally rated as

22
being bad. On the other hand, there are these long time labour which can be detrimental to the child and this forms
the theme of this work. They include:
1. Child slavery:
In this category of labour, the child is given out or hired out to a master. The child is under the control of another
person different from the parents. He passes through rigorous stress, in jobs such as child care, full time hawking or
other domestic work at the expense of his education. The child is not allowed to exercise his rights and at times
starved for little mistakes. In bonded labour the child is forced to serve in another family to offset the debt incurred
by parents. Human rights Watch in (2003) reported that millions of children work as bonded labourers in countries
around the world.
2. Child Drug Trafficking:
Under duress, the child in the control of the master is engaged in pushing drugs in and outside a state. In this
condition the child may swallow hard drugs to pass the borders of nations. It is injurious to the existence of the child
as well as endangering his life.
3. Street Trading/Begging:
It is very pathetic to witness some under-aged children engaged in street/highway trading as well as engaging in
begging activities along major roads and in motor parks in the cities. These form of labour are getting uncontrolled
among the children, though the Islamic religion permits begging it is at the same time dangerous by disrupting the
child’s educational development.
4. Child Prostitution/Pornography:
In this form of labour, the under-aged girl is engaged in sex activities as well as pornography to the detriment of her
age and education. If she is in the control of a superior lady she suffers deprivation and her rights restricted.
5. Child Army:
In many warring societies in Africa, under-aged children are forced to join the militia men. In this case children who
are of school age are pulled out of the classroom to join armed conflicts. The children are put to the test of weapons
and do not see conventional methods as a way of resolving issues. At the long run the spirit of schooling is
compromised to violent attitude. According to Adaobi (2006) on the menace of child soldiers she emphasized that
children are increasingly being used to fight wars at great cost to themselves and the society.
6. Industrial Works:
In the industrialized cities where many companies spring up, the under aged are engaged in casual employment of
labour. In Brass Local Government Area of Bayelsa State, Warn in Delta State, Port Harcourt in Rivers State and
some other cities in the Niger Delta Basin areas of Nigeria where companies are springing up, daily children of
school age compromise education to working in the existing companies. At the end of the day wage paid is poor and
they pass through rigorous stress of job which is not good to health.
Njoku

23
7. Child Trafficking:
It is unfortunate to note that many under-aged girls are transported across the borders of Nigeria to engage in sex
activities. The girls are hired by the superior ladies in the spirit of giving them job. On the contrary the girls are
pushed into the sex trade abroad while the superior lady controls the resources there in. These kinds of girls do not
have any hope of getting educated and are not allowed to do so. This is harmful to their existence. These antisocial
activities affect the development of the child in the society and as such reduce the interest of the child towards
education.
Causes of Child Labour
There are several factors considered to aggravate child labour in Nigerian society. Some of the factors include:
1. Population explosion:
Bass (2004) and Calua (2001 :6) have pointed out that the rapid population growth in many less developed countries
has contributed to to child labour. This is anchored on the tradition of the people where men are allowed to engage
in marrying many wives to increase the household that can assist in agricultural development and on the long run
testing the affluence of the man and the strength of his household. Contrary to this, if the man is unable to cater for
the needs of the children in the home, the option of child labour is inevitable.
2. High rate of unemployment.
In 2005 population count of Rivers State (census) is 6,689,087. The source is as tabulated below:
Table 1,population of Rivers State in census in 2005
Local Government Name Area (sq.km) Census 2006 Population
Port Harcourt 109 541,115
Obio/Akpor 260 464,789
Okrika 222 222,026
Ogu/Bolo 89 74,683
Eleme 138 190,884
Tai 159 117,797
Gokana 126 228,828
Khana 560 294,217
Oyigbo 248 122,687
Opobo/Nkoro 130 151,511
Andoni 233 211,009
Bonny 642 215,358
Degema 1,011 249,771
Asari-Toru 113 220,100
Akuku-Toru 1,443 156,006
Abua/Odual 704 249,425
Ahoada Wast 403 249,425
Ahoada East 341 166,747
Ogba/Egbema/Ndoni 969 284,010
Emogua 831 201,901
Ikwerre 655 189,726
Etche 805 189,726
Omuma 170 100,366
Source: National Population Commission, Port Harcourt.

24
The unemployment rate among graduates in Rivers State is estimated to be 1.02 million in 2008 and the number has
increased in recent times among school dropouts. Source: (Ministry of Economic Empowerment and Employment
Generation (MEEG)), Rivers State. In a situation where the government is unable to control the high rate of
unemployment in the system, there is the belief that child labour can exist or be encouraged in all forms. The under-
aged whose parents cannot care for their educational and other needs get involved in labour to provide their needs.
3. Inflation in the economy:
The high cost of things as well as low wage income contributes to the occurrence of child labour. In this case parents
can encourage child labour.
4. Socio-economic status (poverty):
A factor which is also considered to promote child labour is poverty. The socio-economic status of some families is
so low and not enough to care for the household. The children who come from such homes are affected in terms of
economic and social needs. Parents cannot afford up to 3 meals a day and the children are impoverished. The
economic growth of these homes is retarded and this affects the child. The next option for such home is to send the
under-aged to street hawking, begging or any form of labour to sustain the home.
5. Inadequate training:
Many children suffer in labour because of limited education. In this case some children stop schooling due to one
reason or the other. Some who are in occupational trade (skill) cannot show mastery of the trade to become
technicians. The girl child on her part cannot aquire any skill to sustain a living. At the end where there is no job, the
option of becoming house helps or other forms of labour becomes inevitable.
6. Parental belief:
In Nigeria, the girl child is often believed to be manager of the home. The girl child has been perceived in this
manner until recently. The belief that the girl child may eventually get married to another home has denied them
training from the parents, (Nana (2000).
7. Polygamy:
Many homes in Nigeria have high number of children that they can care for. The polygamous nature of the African
(Nigerian) society gives rise to this. Most children born in polygamous homes seek for alternative means to survive
rather than depending on the parents. This tendency leads the children to opt for any form of labour despite the
consequences.
8. Peer relationship:
Peer relationship is another factor that can promote child labour. A child gets weary and restless if he realizes that
his mate is gone away from the home for something else. The relationship between them cuts off and this affects the
one at home, he may at the end decide an option of looking for a way out to the town. This option may lead him to
the thought of labour.
9. Desire for riches:
A factor that can also encourage the child into labour is desire for wealth. Get rich quick syndrome which has turned
the vision of Nigerians has informed this concept. The Nigerian child today is desirous of affluence. They think and
discuss in manners towards wealth. They are ready to forfeit education in search of wealth. This leads them to the
evil thoughts for labour to get elevated in society.
Njoku

25
10. Aggression of parents:
Anger of parents sometimes is considered a factor provoking child labour. Out of provocation parents at times send
the children packing from home on minor excuses. A child in such condition has no shepherd and as such does not
fully receive parental warmth and education. The child found in this condition probably engages in any form of
labour to sustain his/her life.
11. Civil unrest
The eruption of civil unrest in some nations particularly in Africa has led to the recruitment of children into armed
conflict. These children enroll or are forced to enroll into the militia group to fight wars. The case of the Liberian
Civil War in 1990s is an issue where under-aged children of both sexes were forced to enroll into rebel army. In this
situation the need for schooling is lost. Education as a tool to improve the society is necessary to every person and
should be pursued with vigor in order to check child labour.
Steps taken to eradicate child labour nationally and internationally
The United Nations through its agencies like International Labour Organization (TLO), United Nations Children’s
Fund (UNICEF) have expressed concern on the state of the child in the world. In 1919, the ILO convention No. 5
prohibited the work of persons below age 14 in industrial establishments. In 1924, a proposal on Human Right
Declarations was sent to the United Nations General Assembly in Geneva, formerly, League of Nations. The
declaration projects the rights and protection of people all over the world. It took longer time for the organization to
adopt a pragmatic human rights declaration. In 1948 the U.N. adopted a Declaration on Human Rights and what
constitute a right. In 1954 new proposals and amendments were made including the rights of the child and what
constitutes a child. The United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) which was created in 1946 by the U.N. to meet
the emergency needs of children in post war Europe and China on foods, drugs and clothing was extended to cover
children of developing countries. The agency was created to enable children worldwide be protected and have
assistance that benefits their full potentials. Emphasis thereof was to give every child the basic rights and privileges
as enshrined in the Human Rights Declaration of 1948. In 1959 the proposals were adopted by the General
Assembly. In 1973 the ILO also passed a minimum age of 18 years working limit for children. In its convention
contained in article 138, the act was enforced in 1976 along with other recommendations. Today, over 250 countries
who are signatories to the convention are enforcing the act. Since Nigeria is a signatory and also a member of the
organization, any action contrary to this convention is viewed as a deviation and a break from an international law.
This prompted the efforts of the wife of the former Vice President of Nigeria Titilayo Abubakar fronting
“WOTCLEF” as well as subsequent governments in Nigeria launching the campaign against women trafficking and
other issues relating to child labour in 2002.
In 1989, U.N. General Assembly convention on the rights of the child in a 54 page article, detailed the rights of any
person below 18 years to developing his potentials free from hunger, want, neglect, exploitation and other abuses. In
the words of former U.N.
Scribe Perez-DE-CUELLAR JAVIER (1989):
“The ways a society treats its children, reflects not only the qualities of comparison and protective
caring, but also its sense of justice... its commitment to the future, and its urge to enhance the
human conditions for coming generations”.
The declaration on the rights of the child in 1924 and 1959 respectively are precursors to the landmark convention
on the rights of the child in 1989. The convention which was held on 20th November, 1989 at the United Nations

26
General Assembly, Geneva adopted the convention on the rights of the child (CRC). The convention outlines the
human rights to be respected and protected for every child under age of 18 years and requires that all rights stated be
implemented. Highlights of the convention states that:
(a) Every child has the inherent right to life and states shall ensure to the maximum child survival and development -
Article 6 of CRC.
(b) Children shall not be separated from their parents, except by competent authorities for their well being - Article 9
of CRC.
(c) In the event of such separation the best interest of the child shall be the primary consideration - Article 3 of CRC.
(d) Parents shall have the primary responsibility for a child’s upbringing, but states shall provide them with
appropriate assistance and develop child care institutions - Article 18 (sub-section 2 and 3) of CRC.
(e) States shall protect children from physical or mental harm and neglect, including sexual abuse or exploitation –
Article 19 and 34 of CRC.
(f) States shall provide parentless children with suitable alternative care. The adoption process shall be carefully
regulated and international agreements should be sought to provide, safeguards and assure legal validity if and
when adoptive parents intend to move a child from his or her country of birth - Article 21 of CRC.
(g) Disabled children shall have the right of special treatment, education and care - Article 23 of CRC.
(h) Children are entitled to the highest attainable standard of health. States shall ensure that health care is provided
to all children, placing emphasis on preventive measures, health education and reduction of infant mortality -
Article 24 of CRC.
(i) Primary education shall be free and compulsory. Discipline in schools shall respect the child’s dignity. Education
should prepare the child for life in a spirit of understanding, peace and tolerance - Article 29 of CRC.
(I) Children shall have time to rest, play and equal opportunities for cultural and artistic activities - Article 31,
(subsection 2) of CRC.
(k) States shall protect children from economic exploitation and from any work that may interfere with their
education or be harmful to their health and well being - Article 32(1) of CRC.
(1) States shall protect children from the illegal use of drugs and involvement in drug production or trafficking -
Article 33 of CRC.
(m) All efforts shall be made to eliminate the abduction and
trafficking of children - Article 35 of CRC.
(n) Capital punishment or life imprisonment shall not be imposed for crimes committed before the age 18 — Article
37 of CRC.
(o) Children in detention shall be separated from adults, they must not be tortured, suffer cruel or degrading
treatment - Article 37(c) of CRC.
(p) No child under 15 shall take any part in hostilities; children
Njoku

Aje ds volume 8 no. 1 september 2011

Aje ds volume 8 no. 1 september 2011

Recommended

Recommended

More Related Content

What's hot

What's hot (19)

Similar to Aje ds volume 8 no. 1 september 2011

Similar to Aje ds volume 8 no. 1 september 2011 (20)

Recently uploaded

Recently uploaded (20)

Aje ds volume 8 no. 1 september 2011