English word stress

ENGLISH WORD STRESSENGLISH WORD STRESS
Course Designer &Tutor:
Prof. Diana Martínez Salatín

WHAT IS STRESSSTRESS?
 Stressed syllables are most often defined as those syllables within an utterance
that are l o n g e r, LOUDER, and hiGHer in pitch.
 Looking at this phenomenon from the speaker’s point of view, stress involves a
greater outlay of energy as the speaker expels air from the lung and articulates
syllables.
 From the listener's point of view, the most salient features of stress are
probably longer vowel duration in the stressed syllable and higher pitch.

The difference between stressed and unstressed syllables is greater in
English than in most other languages - with the possible exception
of German. Compare the relatively unstressed pattern of French
words with the more differentiated stress pattern of their English
cognates:

To indicate strongly stressed syllables in phonetic
transcription we have chosen the convention of a
superscript accent mark (') placed before the syllable; to
indicate lightly stressed syllables we use a subscript
accent (,); unstressed syllables are not specially
marked.
Compare:
GenAm
 Another feature of word stress in English is that it can occur on virtually any syllable depending in
part on the origin of the word. This apparent lack of predictability as to where the stress falls is
confusing to learners from language groups in which stress placement is more transparent.

Far from being random, stress placement in English words derives
from the rather colourful history of the language.Today, roughly 30%
of the vocabulary of English stems from its Old English origins and
retains the native Germanic stress patterns. Many of the remaining
words have been acquired through historical events, such as the
Norman Conquest, which brought much French vocabulary into
English, or through the influences of Christian religion and academia,
which have done much to secure the position of words of Greek and
Latin origin in the English language.
Example:
We can see this in borrowings such as GRAMmar (from French gramMAIRE) and
CHOColate (from Spanish chocoLAte). In fact, the longer a borrowed word has been in
the English language, the more likely it is that this type of stress shift will occur.

WHERETHE STESS FALLS IN AWORDWHERETHE STESS FALLS IN AWORD
Factors that influence stress placement include:
 the historical originhistorical origin of a word,
 affixationaffixation,
 the word's grammatical functiongrammatical function in an utterance.

For words of Germanic origin, the first syllable of the base form of a word is
typically stressed:
Today, even many two-syllable words that have entered English
through French and other languages have been assimilated
phonologically and follow the Germanic word stress pattern:

Words that have not been assimilated to the Germanic pattern have less
predictable word stress in their base forms, but stress is often predictable if
certain affixes or spellings are involved.
PREFIXESPREFIXES
As a general rule, words containing prefixes tend to be strongly
stressed on the first syllable of the base or root element, with the prefix
either unstressed or lightly stressed:
In English, prefixes tend to fall into one of two categories:
prefixes of GermanicGermanic origin and prefixes of LatinateLatinate origin.

The GermanicGermanic prefixes include: a-,be-,for-,fore-,mis-,out-,over-,un-,under-,up-,and
with- (as in awake,belief,forgive,forewarn,mistake,outrun,overdo,untie,understand,
uphold,and withdrawn.) Some of these prefixes (a-,be-,for-,and with-) are always
unstressed in the words in which they occur. Others usually receive light stress, as in the
following highly productive prefix + verb combinations:
An exception to this general pattern (light or no stress on the prefix and strong stress on
the base) occurs when a word with a prefix (such as fore-, out-, over-, under-, or up-)
functions as a noun and has the same pattern as a noun compound (see the following
list). In this case, the prefix or its first syllable tends to be strongly stressed, with the noun
receiving only light stress:

Notice the difference in word stress in the following examples, where the prefix is
attached in one case to a noun and in the other case to a verb.
In these examples, the difference in the stress patterns helps to reinforce the differences
between parts of speech.

The second category is prefixes of LatinateLatinate origin.These include: a(d)-, com-, de-, dis-,
a-, en-, in-, ob-, per-, pre-, pro-, re-, sub-, and sur- (as in the verbs complain, discharge,
inhale, persuade, subside, etc.).As with prefixes of Germanic origin, it is usually the base
(not the prefix) that receives strong stress. However, unlike Germanic prefixes - many of
which receive light stress when added to verbs - the majority of Latinate prefixes are
unstressed when part of a verb.Among the most frequent of these Latinate prefixes,
which account for hundreds of verbs in English, are the following:
In all these cases, the unstressed nature of the prefix extends to its variant
forms.Thus com- would also include its allomorphic variants, co-, col-, con-,
and cor-, just as in- also includes im-, il-, and ir-.

We see similar differences in word stress with the Latinate prefixes. In other words, when
these prefixes are part of a word that functions as a noun, the prefix often receives strong
stress. Compare the following sentences:
However, there are also examples of Latinate prefixes that receive light stress
because they are still being used to form new words: e.g., re- in
REDO, REHEAT, REBUILD.

SUFFIXESSUFFIXES
Suffixes affect word stress in one of three ways:
1.They may have no effectno effect on the stress pattern of the root word.
2.They may receive strong stress themselvesstrong stress themselves.
3.They may cause the stress pattern in the stem to shiftshift from one syllable to another.
For the most part, the neutral suffixes, which do not affect the stress pattern of the root
word, are Germanic in origin.These suffixes include, for example, -hood (childhood), less
(groundless), -ship (friendship), and -ful (cheerful). In fact, if we compare examples of
English words that employ such neutral suffixes with their modem-day German
equivalents, we can easily see the historical relationship:

Words with Germanic or neutral suffixes (whether the stem is of Germanic origin or not)
still tend to maintain the stress pattern of the base form:
Unlike the Germanic suffixes, suffixes that have come into the English language via
French often cause the final syllable of a word to receive strong stress, with other
syllables receiving light or no stress. In most cases, the following categories represent
borrowings from modem-day French:

Suffixes can also cause a shift of stress in the root word - that is, as certain suffixes are
added to a word, they can cause the stress to shift to the syllable immediately preceding
the suffix. Note the stress shift caused by the addition of the following suffixes to the root
word:
In these, as in many other words in English, a change of suffix not only brings about a shift in stress
but also a change in the accompanying vowel reduction or neutralization in the unstressed syllables.
Because of the nature of tense and lax vowels, there is sometimes an accompanying change
in syllable structure or syllabification.

In certain cases, suffixation may cause a complete change in vowel quality
from tense to lax rather than a shift in stress, as in the words page // vs.
paginate //, and mime // vs. mimic //.
Finally, it is important to note that in cases where the base and the suffix have
Different historical origins, it is the suffix that determines the English stress
pattern.
For example, Germanic suffixes such as -ly and -ness, which can be added to
words of Romance origin, cause no shift in stress: PASsive, PASsively,
PASsiveness.
Compare this with the shift from PASsive to pasSIVity that occurs with the
addition of the Latinate suffix -ity.This stress shift would extend even to a base
word of Germanic origin if it were to take a Latinate suffix (e.g., FOLDable vs.
foldaBILity).

NUMBERSNUMBERS
Cardinal and ordinal numbers that represent multiples of ten (20, 30, 40, 50, etc.) have predictable stress on the first
syllable.
Two different stress patterns are possible with the -teen numbers and their ordinal counterparts:
Native speakers tend to use the first of these patterns before a noun in attributive position (e.g., theTHIRteenth man)
and when counting. Overall, the second pattern is more common in phrase-final or utterance-final position, or when
speakers are trying to make deliberate distinction between the ten and teen digits.
When pairs of words such as thirteen and thirty might be confused, native speakers may prefer the second pattern (i.e.
strong stress on the second syllable) to differentiate clearly:

The -teen numbers are compounds - that is,combinations of two or more base elements.The same
is true of all hyphenated numbers: for example,thirty-seven,eighty-four. Like the -teen numbers,
hyphenated numbers have two possible stress patterns depending on the context:
If a number is used without another number as a contrast, the first pattern is used – unless the number
is utterance final, in which case the second pattern is preferred:
Pattern 1: I haveTWENty-THREE dollars.
Pattern 2: John is only TWENty-THREE.
The first pattern is also preferred if the multiple of ten is in contrast or is given special emphasis:
Pattern 1: I saidTWENty-THREE, notTHIRty-THREE
If however, it is the second number in the compound that is contrasted, the second pattern is used:
Pattern 2: I said TWENty-THREE, not TWENty-TWO.

COMPOUND NOUNSCOMPOUND NOUNS
A compound noun is a fixed expression which is made up of more
than one word and which has the function of a noun. Some are
written as two words, some with a hyphen, and some as one word:
'crash ,barrier ,double-'glazing 'baby,sitter
Notice that some compound nouns have main stress on the first
part and others have main stress on the second part.

The following types of compound nouncompound noun usually have main stress on the first part:
•• noun + nounnoun + noun
' arms race ' fire ex,tinguisher ' night-time ' pillar-box
' lipstick ' news, paper ' airport ' poverty ,trap
Exceptions:infor,mation tech'nology ,town ' hall ,family ' doctor
Notice, however, that if the first part gives the material that the second part is made out of, main stress usually goes on
the second part. Compare:
, cotton ' wool but a ' cotton , plant
Exceptions are most compounds ending with -cake,-bread and -juice:
' cheesecake,' gingerbread,' orange ,juice
•• noun + -ing formnoun + -ing form
' bird-, watching ' house-,hunting ' fly-,fishing
Exceptions:pe,destrian ' crossi ng ,ball ' bearing ,thanks ' giving
•• -ing form + noun-ing form + noun
' dressing ,gown ' sitting ,room ' freezing ,point
Exceptions:,managing di'rector de,fining ' moment ,casting ' vote
•• verb + nounverb + noun
' search ,party con'trol ,tower ' think ,tank

Most adjective + noun compound nounsadjective + noun compound nouns have main stress on the second part and
secondary stress on the first part:
,social se'curity ,hot po'tato ,absolute ' zero
Exceptions:' blind spot ' dental ,floss ‘ easy ,chair ' broadband ' greenhouse
Note that this includes:
•• adjective + -ing formadjective + -ing form
,central ' heating ,global 'warming , passive ' smoking
•• past participle + nounpast participle + noun
,split in'finitive inverted 'commas ,lost 'property

COMPOUND ADJECTIVESCOMPOUND ADJECTIVES
A compound adjectivecompound adjective is a fixed expression which is
made up of more than one word and which has the
function of an adjective.
Most compound adjectives are written with a hyphen,
but a few are written as one word:
skin-deep long-term threadbare

The following types of compound adjectivecompound adjective usually have main stress on the firstfirst part:
•• compound adjectives usually written as one wordcompound adjectives usually written as one word
'airtight 'carefree 'praise,worthy
Exceptions:,nation'wide ,hand'made
•• noun + -ing formnoun + -ing form
'hair-,raising ‘free-,paying 'time-con,suming
•• noun + past participlenoun + past participle
' poverty-,stricken 'pear-shaped 'health-re,lated
Exceptions:,eagle-'eyed ,home-'grown

The following types of compound adjectivecompound adjective usually have main stress on the secondsecond part:
• noun + adjectivenoun + adjective
,fat-'free ,sky-'high ,snow-'white (and other colour compounds)
Exception:' camera-shy
•• adjective + nounadjective + noun
,long-'term ,full-'length ,high-'profile
•• adverb or adjective + past participleadverb or adjective + past participle
,fully-'grown ,long-'sighted ,well-'dressed
•• adverb or adjective + -ing formadverb or adjective + -ing form
, easy-'going ,hard-'working ,well-'meaning
Exceptions:' backward -,look ing 'forward-,looking
•• self- as the first partself- as the first part
,self-'confident ,self-in'flicted ,self-'governing
Most compound adjectives with main stress on the second part can have stress shiftstress shift. Compare:
The tiger was fully-GROWN. But It was a FULly-grownTIger.
The prices were sky-HIGH. But They were SKY-high PRIces.

Stress will vary between such "true" noun compounds and words that look like noun compounds
but are actually functioning as adjective + noun sequences. Compare:
In the first of these sentences, White House is functioning as a noun compound - hence the
strong stress is placed on the first element of the compound.
In the second sentence, white is lightly stressed and functions simply as an adjective modifying
the noun house;thus the strong stress falls on the second (or major) element.
Examples of other word sequences that can function as either noun compounds or adjective +
noun phrases depending on stress and context are greenhouse,blackbird,cold cream,yellow
jacket,blackboard,and hot plate.
When such word sequences are used as noun compounds, they are often spelled as one word.
The same patterns can occur in more complex contrasts, such as the following:

Two-, three- and four-letter abbreviationsabbreviations said as individual letters
often have main stress on the last letter and secondary stress on
the first:
the ,E'U the ,U'K the ,BB'C ,DN'A the ,YMC'A
Abbreviations like this usually have stress shift. Compare:
He works for the BBC. But He works for BBC Radio
She’s from the UK. But She’s a UK CITizen.

REFLEXIVESREFLEXIVES
One grammatical category that exhibits complete predictability of
stress is reflexive pronouns, in which self/selves receives strong
stress in virtually any environment:

PHRASALVERBSPHRASALVERBS
Phrasal verbs consist of two or three words and are composed of verbs followed by
adverbial particles and/or prepositions.They are informal colloquial verbs of Germanic
origin that can often be paraphrased with a more formal single verb of Latinate origin:
The prepositions that are the second element of some two-word phrasal verbs or the
third element of three-word phrasal verbs are: about,at,for,from,of,to,and with.The
most common adverbial particles in two-word verbs are: across,ahead,along,away,
back,behind,down,in(to),off,onp over,under,and up.

We can distinguish syntactically between the prepositions and the
adverbial particles used to form phrasal verbs. In formal registers,
prepositions can be fronted with their objects in wh-questions and
relative clauses:
Formal About whom are you talking?
Formal I know the woman about whom they were talking.
Particles, however, never permit such fronting in any register:
Incorrect Up what word did you look?
Incorrect The word up which we looked has four meanings.

We can classify phrasal verbs into three main patterns. In all three
patterns, the verb head has at least one stressed syllable and the following
elements are either unstressed (if functioning as prepositions) or stressed
(if functioning as adverbial particles):

These stress patterns appear when phrasal verbs are spoken in isolationin isolation or when the phrasal verb
represents the last piece of new information in the predicatelast piece of new information in the predicate:
Pattern 1 She's LOOKing at it.
Pattern 2 They were STANDing aROUND.
Pattern 3 He RAN aWAY with it.
However, for phrasal verbs in patterns 2 or 3, if some other content (i.e., stressable) word comes after
the verb head and carries important new information, then that word is strongly stressed and the verb
and particle are only lightly stressed:
HeTRIED ON a COAT.
We PUT the DOG OUT.
He RANaWAYwith the MONey.
We PUT UP with the NEW diRECtor.
For phrasal verbs in the first pattern, only the verb head receives light stress if it is followed by some
other content word that carries the new information and receives strong stress:
LOOK at the BAby!
TheyTALKED about the MERger.

Adapted & summarised from:
 Celce-Murcia, M.; Brinton, D. & Goodwin, J. 2007. Teaching Pronunciation – A
reference forTeachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages. USA: Cambridge University
Press.
 Hancock, M. 2006. English Pronunciation in Use – Intermediate. Dubai: Cambridge.

English word stress

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