Energy auditor training level 1 (2001)

Energy Auditor Training
Level 1 (EA1)
Manual

ENERGY MANAGEMENT TRAINING SERIES

Energy Auditor Training
Level 1 (EA1) Manual

© Precicon Automation (S) Pte Ltd
63 Hillview Avenue • #10-21
Lam Soon Industrial Building • Singapore 669569
Phone 760 0006 • Fax 765 4385
http://www.precicon.com.sg

Disclaimer
Whilst all reasonable care has been taken to ensure that the description, opinions, listings and diagrams are accurate and
workable, Precicon Automation (S) Pte Ltd does not accept any legal responsibility or liability to any person,
organization or other entity for any direct loss, consequential loss or damage, however caused, that may be suffered as a
result of the use of this publication.

All rights to this publication are reserved. No part of this publication may be copied, reproduced, transmitted or stored
in any form or by any means (including electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise) without prior
written permission from Precicon Automation (S) Pte. Ltd.
First Published in Singapore in 2001 (Version 1.10)

Preface
Thank you for participating in the Energy Auditor Training Level 1 ! We believe you will
learn much on energy auditing from our lecture as well as hands-on session.
It is estimated that the electricity consumption will increase by 4.5% annually in nonJapan Asia, which is the fastest growth in the world. The very fact that you attend this
course, it shows that you are well aware of the emerging importance of Energy, one of
the most important commodity today. We want to welcome you to this exciting area of
Energy Management, which has sparked such high level of attention as a result of the
tremendous Asia industrial growth.

Why Energy management ?
A decade ago, energy is consider a commodity alongside with water, which we buy from
the utility companies and pay the monthly bills without asking much about how the
money is spent. With the transformation of the industry in term of management &
operation, energy has now become one of the aspect that need much effort to consume
it more efficiently. From the experience that we have learnt from our customers and
partners in the energy business, we believe Energy will continue to be one of the most
focused and high growth area in the next ten years. The following are the reasons :
Deregulation

This is the buzzword which alone has brought the word “Energy Management” into the
agenda of the top management of many huge corporations. The energy market of many
Asian countries has been deregulated in the past few years, which allows selected
consumers to purchase energy freely from a list of energy suppliers which they deem to
provide the best package. In this process, potentially large energy cost saving can be
achieved by selecting the most optimum supplier.
Different energy suppliers offer different energy package based on the energy
consumption pattern of their customers. In order to decide on the best party to buy
energy from, the consumer itself needs a clear understanding of their own energy
consumption pattern which in the past only the total kWh is sufficient. Comprehensive
energy monitoring has now becomes the integral part of this effort to save cost through
Deregulation.
Cost Management

Company management is now aware of the huge energy bill that they are paying every
month, and the various energy saving programs have been design to reduce this cost.
The various operations will be studied to determine if the operation is energy efficient or
any unnecessary energy wastage. Activity Based Costing (ABC) is also a trend which has
been increasingly adopted by many companies to determine the production & operation
cost. It has been well proven that these activities if carried out well are able to cut down
energy cost substantially, and this is the reason for the increasing number of companies
looking into implementing these programs.
Green Business Trend

Being environmental friendly in the business operation is now a global business trend for
large Multinational Companies (MNCs). Environmental standard such as ISO14000
have been widely adopted by most MNCs which want to ensure their operation does not
adversely affect the well being of the environment. Energy consumption is one of the
most indirect environment pollutant. Amount of CO2 gas emitted correlate directly to

the amount of energy produced to meet the requirement of the consumers. CO2 being a
green house gas brings harmful effect to the environment which includes depleting the
ozone layer and increase the earth temperature. This is why energy conservation and
management has been one of the important agenda in ISO14000 apart from other
aspects such as waste management and emission control.
Total Productive Maintenance (TPM)

TPM is a philosophy which builds a close relationship between Maintenance &
Productivity. Production personnel will be instilled a sense of “ownership” of their
machines together with the maintenance personnel to continuously improve on the
production.
As the machine operators are given the task of continuous improvement on their
machine together with the maintenance engineer, machine energy management is one of
the important activity that can be carried out. Through a simple energy audit on the
machine, many potential improvements can be uncovered. The TPM team can now
implement steps to improve the productivity and the maintainability of the machine.
Some of the example may be: Reduce energy consumption by shutting down the
machine during idle time, or early detection of machine abnormalities (Predictive
Maintenance).

Our Energy Management Methodology
We design our training based on the widely used Six Sigma (6σ) Concept and
Methodology. Six Sigma is the proven structured approach which has helped companies
like Motorola and General Electric to achieve breakthrough performance. This
methodology is able to provide a frame work to assist a proper implementation of
energy management program, and a precise way to quantify the results in term of the
“sigma” achieved.
Whether or not you are currently using Six Sigma methodology, we believe this training
concept will certainly help you to implement a more effective energy management
program after you have completed the course.

What will you get at the end of the training ?
The Energy Auditor Training Level 1 (EA1) is designed to provide the trainee a
fundamental understanding and approach to conduct a simple yet informative energy
audit. The trainees will be able to carry out the role as an internal energy auditor to the
company and most importantly spearheading energy conservation program.
All participants will be awarded a Certification of Attendance upon submitting a self
proposed energy audit report on their respective facilities.
Thank you once again, and we wish you a pleasant training experience with us !
Yours Sincerely,

Colin Koh
General Manager
Precicon Automation (S) Pte Ltd

T
able of Contents
4.2.2
CHAPTER

1

Measurements

1.1

What is Energy Management?

1

1.2

What is Energy Audit?

2

1.3

Energy Management vs. Energy

4.3

Presentation of Energy Audit
Results

21
Brief Reporting

22

2

4.3.2

General Reporting

22

The Purpose of Energy Auditing 3

4.3.3

Comprehensive
Reporting

CHAPTER
2.1

19

4.3.1

Audit
1.4

Environmental

2

4.4

What is Six Sigma?

4

2.2

Why Six Sigma?
Sigma Improvement

Monitoring of Energy Audit

5

2.3

22

CHAPTER

Methodology
2.4

Results

5

5.1

Implementing Six Sigma in
6

3.1

3

The Core Element of Energy

5.1.3

26

Other Tools

26

5.2

Fundamental Audit

9

5.3

Recommended Analysis and

The Properties of Basic Energy

Methodology

Levels or Types of Energy
Audits

Practices
11

3.3.1

Fundamental Audit
Intermediate Audit

12

3.3.3

Advanced Audit

12

5.3.1

11

3.3.2

3.4

Environmental

8

Audit Models
3.3

25

Instruments

Audit
3.2

25

Measuring Electrical
System Performance

5.1.2
CHAPTER

5

Audit Instrumentation
5.1.1

Energy Audit

24

30

Calculating Appliance
Use

5.3.2
5.4

Which Type of Survey or Energy
Audits Should I Use?

26

30

Examples of Analysis

31

Recommended Corrective
Measure by Energy Market

13

Authority, Singapore

33

5.4.1
CHAPTER
4.1

The Audit Procedure

4.2

Instrumentation
4.2.1

18

Air-Compressor

35

Boiler

36

18

5.5

An Example of Energy Audit

37

5.6

Measuring Electrical
System Performance

34

5.4.4

Recommended Survey or Audit

Air-Conditioner

5.4.3

15

33

5.4.2

4

Lighting

Conclusion

38

References & Bibliography

39

Index

40

Energy Glossary

41

Conversion Formulae

45

Flow Equivalents

48

Electrical Calculation [10]

50

NOTES

53

ENERGY AUDIT CHECK LIST

56

INFORMATION OF LIGHTING

57

INFORMATION OF ROOM TEMPERATURE
& RELATIVE HUMIDITY

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INFORMATION OF GENERAL ELECTRICAL
APPLIANCES

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INFORMATION OF ROOM AIRCONDITIONER
ENERGY AUDIT WORKSHOP

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Definitions on Energy
Auditing
‘Energy audit’ is only a general term, like ‘a vehicle’.

I

n principle, the term ‘energy audit’ is well known and widely used. However,
there is one problem which can easily lead to misunderstandings of the term.
The fact is that the term ‘energy audit’ is only a general term like ‘a vehicle’.
What actually meant by the term in an individual conversations can, in
practical term, include an extremely wide range of different applications.
The term ‘energy audit’ is a good general definition but should also be used only as
such[1]. The variety within the family of energy audits should be understood. The
importance of defining the content and the scope of the audit in more detail should
be emphasized in an individual applications. Majority of the different kinds of
energy audits have been developed on national level and for a specific purpose –
like the different types of vehicle: vans, station wagons, sports cars, motorbike etc..
Therefore, although the terminology seems to be similar, it is very likely that the
actual subject of the discussion is more or less different from individual
applications.

1.1 What is Energy Management?
In the total quality system, the Energy Management is a vital element of any
organization. Energy Management in practical terms means placing a focus on
energy as a cost factor in a company. It also implies influencing the consumer’s
behavior in terms of energy, the promotion of an economical energy operation and
disclosing possibilities for energy saving. Furthermore, it is also important in
ensuring a company’s energy supply, in the form of correct amount, quality and
price.
The aim of the energy management is to achieve organizational objectives at
minimum energy consumption and cost [3]. This might sound obvious, but there
can be the danger that focusing on energy efficiency in isolation can lead to other
vital elements or core business needs being overlooked. The key message is simple
– energy is there to serve both human and organizations. Human are not here to

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serve energy, but to achieve organizational aims at minimum energy consumption
and cost.
The establishment of routines ensuring a continuous improvement with regard to
the optimization of energy costs is the main task in connection with energy
management. This takes place through the use of a management system involving
designated individuals in the organization. These are made responsible for carrying
out different tasks within the registration and data processing, the development of
key figures, information, etc.. The latter is implemented through a plan based on
the energy policy and the objectives established for the operation [3].

1.2 What is Energy Audit?
en er gy au dit en-er-je od-et noun : The identification of economically-justified
operating cost reduction opportunities associated with manufacturing and
processing plant building, utility, and processing systems – most typically those
opportunities resulting in significantly lowered electrical, natural gas, steam, water
and sewer costs [2].
An energy audit, also called a feasibility study or technical assistance report, is
typically needed to identify technically viable and cost effective energy projects that
will reduce energy use and operating costs in the facility[1].
The term energy audit is commonly used to describe a broad spectrum of energy
studies ranging from a quick walk-through of a facility to identify major problem
areas to a comprehensive analysis of the implications of alternative energy
efficiency measures sufficient to satisfy the financial criteria of sophisticated
investors.
In recap, an Energy Audit is defined as a systematic procedure that [1]
•

Obtains an adequate knowledge of the existing energy consumption profile
of the site

•

Identifies the factors that have an effect on the energy consumption

•

Identifies and scales the cost-effective energy savings opportunities.

The term Energy Audit as such specifies only in general the content of working
method but does not define the goal & objective, actual scope, the details of the
survey or the duration & cost of the survey.

1.3 Energy Management vs. Energy Audit
Energy management is, like other management systems, system oriented – or, it
represents a procedure or routine that will create results, where the results are

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measurable. Unlike energy management, energy audit is a series of studies on the
properties of energy in a particular site. Therefore, energy audit is the subset of
energy management, which can be seen clearly in the main components of energy
management.
The main components of energy management are as follows [3]:
Energy Policy
Energy Analysis
Energy Objectives
Energy Program
Training
Energy Administration
Energy Audit

Annual Report

1.4 The Purpose of Energy Auditing
There are various reason and purpose of conducting energy auditing in the site or
building. The primary purpose is to gain benefit from the audit one way or
another. Those benefits can be can be group into the following categories [1]:Financial benefits; which reduce the operating cost.
Organizational benefits; which improve the market image of private
business, assists the administration of a building or industrial site to
improve human comfort and productivity as well as process and product
quality, enhance the quality of the energy profile based on the ISO 9000
series and enhance the structure of the energy or facility managements
programs.
An environmental benefit; which is the external value, i.e. by reducing the
emissions of air pollutants, achieves national or regional energy and
environmental policies and also the ISO 14000 series.

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Chapter

2
The Six Sigma Way
The answer to the question ‘Why Six Sigma?’ was simple:
Survival.

S

ix Sigma at many organizations simply means a measure of quality that
strives for near perfection. Six Sigma is a disciplined, data-driven approach
and technique for eliminating defects in any process – from manufacturing
to transactional and from product to service. The fundamental objective of
the Six Sigma approach is the implementation of a measurement-based strategy
that focuses on process improvement and variation reduction through the
application of Six Sigma improvement projects. In this chapter, the integration and
conceptualized of the Energy Audit Model. Using the concept or the way of Six
Sigma approach will be described and explained.

2.1 What is Six Sigma?
Six Sigma is a business initiative, not a quality initiative. Six Sigma is an umbrella
term for a philosophy and way of running a business that improves quality and
productivity and increases profits. The term Six Sigma is a term coined at
Motorola, Inc. in the 1980’s. this came after years of continuously improving
product and process quality. Motorola used this term as a banner and target to
achieve breakthrough results.
Six Sigma is also a rigorous, focused and highly effective implementation of proven
quality principles and techniques. Incorporating elements from the work of many
quality pioneers, Six Sigma aims for virtually error free business performance.
Sigma, σ, is a letter in the Greek alphabet used by statisticians to measure the
variability in any process. A company's performance is measured by the sigma level
of their business processes.
The ‘Six Sigma’ term also refers to a philosophy, goal and/or methodology utilized
to drive out waste and improve the quality, cost and time performance of any
business.

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2.2 Why Six Sigma?
For Motorola, the originator of Six Sigma, the answer to the question "Why Six
Sigma?" was simple: survival. Motorola came to Six Sigma because it was being
consistently beaten in the competitive marketplace by foreign firms that were able
to produce higher quality products at a lower cost.
Today, Motorola is known worldwide as a quality leader and a profit leader. After
Motorola won the Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award in 1988 the secret of
their success became public knowledge and the Six Sigma revolution was on. [11]
Today it's hotter than ever.
It would be a mistake to think that Six Sigma is about quality in the traditional
sense. Quality, defined traditionally as conformance to internal requirements, has
little to do with Six Sigma. Six Sigma is about helping the organization make more
money. To link this objective of Six Sigma with quality requires a new definition of
quality. For Six Sigma purposes, quality is defined as the value added by a
productive endeavor. Quality comes in two flavors: potential quality and actual quality.
[11] Potential quality is the known maximum possible value added per unit of
input. Actual quality is the current value added per unit of input. The difference
between potential and actual quality is waste. Six Sigma focuses on improving
quality (i.e., reduce waste) by helping organizations produce products and services
better, faster and cheaper. In more traditional terms, Six Sigma focuses on defect
prevention, cycle time reduction, and cost savings. Unlike mindless cost-cutting
programs which reduce value and quality, Six Sigma identifies and eliminates costs
which provide no value to customers, waste costs.

2.3 Sigma Improvement Methodology
In this Energy Audit perspective, only two method will be implemented, i.e. the
DMAIC and DMADV. This section will describe the original characteristic of the
Sigma Methodology.
DMAIC is the acronyms for Define, Measure, Analyze, Improve and Control.
Whereas DMADV is the acronyms for Define, Measure, Analyze, Design and
Verify. The similarity of DMAIC and DMADV are both [12]:
Six Sigma methodologies used to drive defects to less than 3.4 per million
opportunities.
Data intensive solution approaches. Intuition has no place in Six Sigma -only cold, hard facts.
Implemented by Green Belts, Black Belts and Master Black Belts.
Ways to help meet the business/financial bottom-line numbers.
Implemented with the support of a champion and process owner.
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The DMAIC can be described as follows:
Define

Define the project goals and customer (internal and external)
deliverables

Measure

Measure the process to determine current performance

Analyze

Analyze and determine the root cause(s) of the defects

Improve

Improve the process by eliminating defects

Control

Control future process performance

The DMAIC methodology should be used when a product or process is in
existence at the company but is not meeting customer specification or is not
performing adequately.
The DMADV can be described as follows:
Define

Define the project goals and customer (internal and external)
deliverables

Measure

Measure and determine customer needs and specifications

Analyze

Analyze the process options to meet the customer needs

Design

Design (detailed) the process to meet the customer needs

Verify

Verify the design performance and ability to meet customer needs

The DMADV methodology should be used when:
A product or process is not in existence at your company and one needs to
be developed.
The existing product or process exists and has been optimized (using either
DMAIC or not) and still doesn’t meet the level of customer specification
or six sigma level.

2.4 Implementing Six Sigma in Energy Audit
As discussed in Chapter One on the purposes of energy auditing, it can be clearly
seen that the ultimate purposes of Energy Audit and Six Sigma is quite similar, i.e.

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to improve current performance and to reduce operating cost and increase savings.
Since Six Sigma is proven to be an effective tools to achieve those purposes, hence
the concept of Six Sigma DMAIC and DMADV seems to be the best adoption for
and implemented into Energy Audit Model. The Six Sigma DMAIC process is an
improvement system for existing processes falling below specification. Whereas,
the Six Sigma DMADV process is an improvement system used to develop new
processes or products at Six Sigma quality levels.
In the Energy Audit Model, DMAIC would be best used in the Fundamental and
Intermediate level of auditing because it is the most economical process and also it
involve the low level of implementation which the main objective is to improve
current performance without involving major investment or changes in the
operation. However, after the implementation of DMAIC has been done and still
does not produce any further improvement, then the DMADV methodology
should be applied. The DMADV methodology would then be involved in major
changes and investment in the energy audit model, with the hope that it would help
the organization to achieve the ultimate purpose and objective of energy policy in
the organization itself. Hence, this DMADV methodology is more suitable for
Intermediate and Advanced level of auditing. The details of the proposed
methodology will be discussed thoroughly in the respective section. The following
diagram display the flow of DMAIC and DMADV in general form.

FIGURE 2.1 : The DMAIC and DMADV of Energy Audit.

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Chapter

3
Basic Energy Audit
Models
If any of these elements is missing, the activity is not an
Energy Audit but some other kind of survey or consultant
work.

E

nergy audits can take many forms, from superficial inspections to
comprehensive engineering studies. This chapter focuses on the basic
energy audit models and various type of audit that is available in the
current practices. The importance of understanding the various types of
energy audit will enhance the selection of the proper auditing method for individual
premises.

3.1 The Core Element of Energy Audit
To be able to make some restrictions to what approaches can be called energy
audits, there are some requirements that must be fulfilled. The basic requirement
for a working method of an Energy Audit is called a Core Audit [1].
The Core Audit is the heart of all possible energy audits and includes the
following steps of:Evaluating the current energy performance
Identifying of energy saving possibilities
Reporting.
If any of these elements is missing, there is no Core Audit and the activity is not an
Energy Audit but some other kind of survey or consultant work [1]. Figure 3.1
describes the core element of energy audit.

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FIGURE 3.1 : The Core Audit.

3.2 The Properties of Basic Energy Audit
Models
When conducting energy audit, there are different levels of instruction for auditing
and it varies according to different focus of a site or building. The purpose of
introducing the basic energy audit models is to avoid misunderstanding and
confusion over the different approaches. The understanding of the term ‘model’ in
this context indicates that there is a set of agreement in features or requirements
which are designed for specific types of energy audit application. In a model, the
goal and objectives, actual scope, the details of the survey or the duration & cost of
the survey are defined. Hence, the criteria of a ‘model’ should be fulfilled by those
different practices and procedures, which is a good term to be used in order to
separate the standard procedures from the ‘do-as-you-like’ procedures [1].
In the Basic Energy Audit Models, the following properties are defined:The goal and objective
The scope
The details of the survey
The duration and cost.
Although the basic models can be applied in practice, these Basic Energy Audit
Models should be seen more as modeling tools than actual adaptable working
methods. The basic models can present the next level of accuracy to the general
term energy audit by defining the goal & objective, scope, details of the survey and

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the duration & cost. There is a significant difference in understanding if we speak
about just a vehicle or about pick-ups, bus or car, as described in Chapter 1.
The goal and objective of an energy audit may varies according to the purposes for
conducting the energy auditing, i.e. either for general purposes such as pointing out
the major savings areas or for describing in detail the actual saving measures so that
they can be implemented easily. This goal and objective may be either survey and
study the areas of possible energy savings or analyzing in detail the individual
energy saving measures for further implementation.
The scope of an energy audit may be different because an energy audit may cover a
site or a building in various ways. At the ‘narrowest’, an energy audit covers
typically only one specific system or a process, whereas at the ‘broadest’ scope, it
covers everything inside the site fence. Between these ‘narrow and broad ends’
there are energy audits that deliberately ignore some areas or issues.
An energy auditor can use ‘general or a comprehensive’ approaches when looking
for saving potential in which it describe the detail of the survey. The detail of the
audit is connected to the audit model, and is normally directly related to the
duration and cost spent on the project.
The cost of an energy audit is based on the auditors’ fee, the labor cost of the
client’s own personnel, auditing instrumentation or other indirect expenses which
required to conduct the energy audit. The duration of the project can ranged from
few days to few years depending on the types of auditing. The duration and cost of
the energy auditing can be either ‘ice or gold’, i.e. cheap and short period or
expensive and extremely long period.
These properties of energy audit models are illustrated in Figure 3.2.
The Goal and Objective
To Implement

To Study
The Scope
Narrow

Broad
The Details of the Survey
Comprehensive

General
The Duration and Cost
Ice

Gold

FIGURE 3.2 : The Properties of Basic Energy Audit Models

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3.3 Levels or Types of Energy Audits
Three common audit levels are described in more detail below, although the actual
tasks performed and level of effort may vary with the auditor providing services
under these broad headings. The only way to insure that a proposed audit will
meet your specific needs is to spell out those requirements in a detailed scope of
work. Taking the time to prepare a formal solicitation will also assure the building
owner of receiving competitive and comparable proposals.
The following table demonstrates the different audit levels as compare to their
respective characteristic. The details of each characteristic will be discussed in the
following section.
TABLE 3.1: Energy Management Framework

Characteristic

Technology

Methodology
Scope
Monitoring
&
Measurement
Control
Cost
Timeframe

Levels
Fundamental
Intermediate
Advanced
DMAIC
DMAIC/DMADV
DMADV
Machine/Equipement
Production
Plant/Building
Line/Departmental
Low Cost Data
On-line Monitoring Web-based/
Logger
Remote
Operational

Low Cost
Automation

Capital
Investment

Low
One-off

Moderate
Mid-term

High
Long-term

3.3.1
Fundamental Audit
The fundamental audit, alternatively called a simple audit, preliminary audit,
screening audit or walk-through audit, is the simplest and quickest type of audit. It
involves minimal interviews with site operating personnel, a brief review of facility
utility bills and other operating data, and a walk-through of the facility to become
familiar with the building operation and identify glaring areas of energy waste of
inefficiency.
Typically, during this type of audit, it will only cover the major problem areas.
Corrective measures are briefly described, and quick estimates of implementation
cost, potential operating cost savings, and simple payback periods area also
provided. This level of detail while not sufficient of reaching a final decision on
implementing a proposed measure, is adequate to prioritize energy efficiency
projects and determine the need for a more detailed audit.
In recap, it is a visual inspection of the facility is made to determine maintenance
and operation energy saving opportunities plus collection of information to
determine the need for a more detailed analysis. Referring to the Table 3.1, the best

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methodology which is suitable is the DMAIC steps. This is because in this level,
there will not be major changes in the existing system but only an operational
improvement to the current performance, which involve low cost investment and
the duration is very short. Moreover, the scope of involvement or concentration,
not limited to the specific area, is normally within the machine or equipment level
and the technologies used are usually the low cost data logger.
3.3.2

Intermediate Audit

The intermediate audit alternatively called a mini-audit, general audit, site-energy
audit or complete site energy audit expands on the fundamental audit as described
above by collecting more detailed information about facility operation and
performing a more detailed evaluation of energy conservation measures identified.
Utility bills are collected for a 12 to 36 month period (if available) to allow the
auditor to evaluate the facility’s energy/demand rate structures, energy usage
profiles and trending. Additional metering of specific energy-consuming systems is
often performed to supplement utility data. In-dept interviews with facility
operating personnel are conducted to provide a better understanding of major
energy consuming systems as well as insight into variations in daily and annual
energy consumption and demand.
This type of audit will be able to identify all energy conservation measures
appropriate for the facility given its operating parameters. A detailed financial
analysis is performed for each measure based on detailed implementation cost
estimates, site-specific operating cost savings, and the customer’s investment
criteria. Sufficient detail is provided to justify project implementation.
In recap, this type of audit requires tests and measurements to quantify energy uses
and losses and determine the economics for changes. Referring to Table 3.1, the
most suitable steps for this level could be either DMAIC or DMADV, depending
to the requirement of the organization. This is because if the DMAIC steps could
not further improve current performance, hence the DMADV steps should be
applied. However, with this options, the cost of investment in this level should be
kept moderate and not too expensive because the scope of auditing does not
involve the whole plant but merely production line or departmental levels.
Moreover, the technologies that will be applied at this level are usually semipermanent based tools because of the timeframe of this audit, i.e. mid-term which
is usually within 1-3 years. The mentioned tools are more suitable if it can be
monitored online and the implementation of low cost automation could be applied
too in order to further improve the energy performance in the organization.
3.3.3

Advanced Audit

In most corporate settings, upgrades to a facility’s energy infrastructure must
compete with non-energy related investment for capital funding. Both energy and
non-energy investments are rated on a single set of financial criteria that generally
stress the expected return on investment (ROI) [8]. The projected operating
savings from the implementation of energy projects must be developed such that

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they provide a high level of confidence. In fact, investors often demand guaranteed
savings.
The advanced audit alternatively called an investment-grader audit, detailed audit,
maxi audit, or technical analysis audit, expands on the intermediate audit as
described above by providing a dynamic model of energy use characteristics of
both the existing facility and all energy conservation measures identified. The
building model is calibrated against actual utility data to provide a realistic baseline
against which to compute operating savings for proposed measure. Extensive
attention is given to understanding not only the operating characteristics of all
energy consuming systems, but also situations that cause load profile variations on
both an annual and daily basis. Existing utility data is supplemented with
submetering of major energy consuming systems and monitoring of system
operating characteristics [8].
In recap, this type of audit contains an evaluation of how much energy is used for
each function such as lighting, process, etc; and also requires a model analysis such
as a computer simulation, to determine energy use patterns and predictions on a
year-round basis, taking into account such as variables weather data. Referring to
Table 3.1, the best applied steps could be DMADV because in this level, there will
be major changes in the plant, so that maximum improvement from the current
energy performance could be achieved and the duration is also very timely and
long, usually more than 3 years. The main objective for this level is to ensure that
the capital investment are well planned and there will be maximum investment
return which is in according to the energy policy of the organization. Moreover,
the ‘permanent’ monitoring and measurement tools are usually installed in the plant
with the capability of continuous monitoring , either through internet or remote
monitoring system, to constantly ensure that the optimum steps are taken and
energy performance are kept at the best level.

3.4 Which Type of Survey or Energy Audits
Should I Use?
The type of survey or audit to use will be determined by several factors. The
purpose, reason, or need for performing a survey or audit will help determine
which type is required for each project. For example, if the building owner or
property manager simply wants a ‘checkup’ of the energy systems or wants to know
if there is potential for a energy system upgrade that will pay back in a certain time,
then a fundamental audit will satisfy these needs. However, if the systems have
been in place for more than 20 years and not much has been done to upgrade to
newer technology, then the advanced audit is more suitable. The type of building
can also help determine the type of survey or audit. The cost of the survey or audit
can also be a factor in deciding which type of survey to use. The size and scope of
a facility will also influence the decision. Intermediate audits are commonly used
for schools, hospitals, hotels and restaurants. However, a college campus with
many different building types, built over several decades, will benefit most from an

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advanced audit. Also, when the client/customer wants to explore several upgrade
options, the advanced audit is most suitable.
The more data required, the more measurements needed – and more
measurements require more analysis. As the need for more data and
measurements becomes apparent, the auditor is moved up the hierarchy from
fundamental to advanced audits. Firms that perform audits on a regular basis have
little difficulty deciding which type of survey or audit is best for any given project.
This decision will be based on their past experience involving many different
building sizes and types, the scope of the upgrade, and the cost of the audits.
The following table proposed a list of questions, which help to determine the level
of audit that best suits your needs.
TABLE 3.2: Proposed Recommendation of Energy Audit from California Energy

Commission [9].
Questions to determine which
level of audit needs
Do you want a general analysis
of the potential for energy
project in the facility?
Do you already have an energy
audit completed?
Have some energy efficiency
projects been installed?
Do you have limited funds to
spend on an audit?
Do you know what projects
you want to implement?
Do you want a document that
serves as an energy plan for
your facility?
Are you concerned about
accuracy of energy project
savings and cost?

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We recommend this if
the answer is “Yes”
Fundamental Energy
Audit

We recommend this if
the answer is “No”
Intermediate Energy
Audit

Existing studies may
only need to be
updated to get project
funded.
Intermediate audit
focusing on specific
projects not previously
analyzed
Fundamental or
Intermediate Audit
Intermediate Audit

Fundamental audit,
Intermediate audit or
Advanced audit.

Advanced audit
Advanced audit

Fundamental audit,
Intermediate audit or
Advanced audit.
Advanced audit.
Fundamental or
Advanced audit.
Fundamental or
Intermediate audit
Intermediate audit


Chapter

4
Energy Audit
Methodology
An Energy Audit is NOT done once and for all.

A

n energy audit is not done once and for all. It is an ongoing process of
comparison between theory and practice, leading to an ever-improving
understanding of what energy is being used, why it is being used, how it is
being used and at what cost.

By understanding in detail the ways in which energy is utilized in a factory, ways
and means of effecting savings can be identified. Hence, this chapter will focus on
the methodology of energy auditing to achieve the ultimate goal of the energy
management.

4.1 The Audit Procedure
The main purpose of having defined the audit procedure is to covers all basic
actions from the beginning of the actual audit work to the reporting and finishing
of the project. The procedure in practice varies according to the audit model in use
and to the possible application or interface, into which the energy audit is
connected. The main objective regulating the audit procedure is to ensure the
quality and conformity of the audits within an audit program.
A successful energy audit starts with a detailed site investigation to observe and
determine when and where your facility uses energy. Each energy consuming
system is fully characterized so that potential improvements can be quantified in
terms of both energy and cost savings. Several levels of calculation methods are
applied to quantify energy savings.
Plant engineering and maintenance or facility personnel are interviewed since they,
above all persons, understand the operation of the building, where the problems
lie, and usually what the energy efficient solutions are. Field measurements of
actual conditions are made to substantiate system operating parameters. In
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photographic record of the building envelope and major system components is
compiled.
As mentioned in Chapter 2, basically the audit procedure can be divided into two
types of steps, i.e. the DMAIC or DMADV. Depending on the requirement and
the need of the organization, the auditor has the choice to choose between
DMAIC and DMADV. However, there are difference between Six Sigma
DMAIC and DMADV, as discussed in Chapter 2. Nevertheless, those steps will
be conceptualized and incorporated into the energy audit procedure.
For the DMAIC, the generic statement for each steps are as follows:Define the properties of Energy Audit; i.e. to define the goals and objectives,
the scope, the details of survey and the duration and cost of the audit level.
Measure, monitor and survey the site to determine current performance of
energy in the proposed site.
Analyze and evaluate the energy performance to determine whether does it
meet the organization requirement on energy performance and to identify
the root cause(s) of the low performance.
Improve energy performance by identifying the possibilities steps in energy
saving
Control future process performance by proper documentation in reporting
and continuous monitoring.

FIGURE 4.1 : Five Distinct DMAIC Steps of Energy Audit Procedure

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The generic statement for DMADV steps are as follows:Define the properties of Energy Audit; i.e. to define the goals and objectives,
the scope, the details of survey and the duration and cost of the audit level.
Measure, monitor and survey the site to determine current performance of
energy in the proposed site.
Analyze and evaluate the energy performance to determine whether does it
meet the organization requirement on energy performance and to identify
the root cause(s) of the low performance.
Design and re-engineered the existing system to enhance the energy
performance in the plant/building.
Verify the design performance and ability to meet the targeted energy
performance level

FIGURE 4.2 : Five Distinct DMADV Steps of Energy Audit Procedure

As described earlier, the first three steps of these DMAIC and DMADV share the
same generic statement because those steps are the necessary steps to determine
which steps should follows next. With the results from the analysis, the auditor has
the determine the next steps, which can be either improvement steps, i.e. DMAIC,
or redesign the whole system in the plant using the DMADV steps. The choice of
choosing either steps very much depending on the engineering judgment of the
auditing team. However, one can follow the suggested procedure as tabulated in
Table 3.1, which is suitable for any organization to adopt it..

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4.2 Recommended Survey or Audit
Instrumentation
The requirement for an energy audit to quantify as well as to identify where energy
is being used necessitates measurements. These measurements require the use of
instruments. The basic instruments used in energy audit work are described below.
Normally, these instruments are portable, durable, easy to operate and relatively
inexpensive.
With the advancement of technology in the electronic world today, these
instruments are more sophisticated in its performance and simple to used, and in
short, it is also known as ‘Plug-n-Play’ (PnP) concept.
While being similar, many of the instruments considered operate differently. For
this reason, detailed operating instructions for all instruments must be consulted
and staff should familiarize themselves with the instruments and their operation
prior to actual audit use.
4.2.1 Measuring Electrical System Performance
To conduct an electrical survey, there are few parameters, which normally required
in order to perform the analysis. Those parameters are ampere, voltage, real power
(W), reactive power (VAR), apparent power (VA), power factor and power
consumption (kWh). The parameters can be either from the single phase or three
phase system, depending on the equipments or monitoring site. Most of the
instruments should be easily attached and removed. These instruments are
described below.
4.2.1.1

Energy Meter

In order to do an Energy Audit, it is natural that the Energy Meter is the first tool
that you should come into your mind. Choosing the right tool for the right job may
need careful consideration.
There are essentially two main groups of Energy Meter which serve to address
different needs of the Energy Auditor. They are the portable type and the
permanently install type.
Portable type Energy Meter comes in a form of a handheld with the option having
a limited memory build in for data storage. This type of device is ideal if the Energy
Auditor wish to obtain quick but coarse energy data from his building. He is able to
move around the building and collect energy data which can help to have a first
level understanding of the existing condition. While the portable meter is an handy
tool to acquire data, it often time is not able to capture enough data or trending to
allow a more in depth behaviour of the system.
Permanently installed Energy Meter, on another hand, is able to provide the energy
auditor with a wealth of data for more in depth analysis. However, permanently
installed meter requires a higher monetary investment in term of purchasing the
meters as well as installation work. Permanently installed meter has ranged from

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traditional analogue meter to digital meter which allows long distance
communication that eliminate the meter reading work.
With an energy meter which is able to provide a broader spectrum of measurement
apart from energy consumption, other form of saving can be achieve.
Example: An energy meter which also measure current and power factor may be
able to give diagnostic information about an air-con compressor which has
unbalance load and poor factor. By conducting a thorough check on the system,
breakdown may be prevented which may cause disastrous effect in a mission
critical application such as clean room and internet data centre (iDC).

FIGURE 4.2 : An Example of Permanently Installed Power Meter (Courtesy of Veris
Industries, LLC.)

FIGURE 4.3 An Example of Permanently Installed Power Meter (Courtesy of
ElectroIndustries/GaugeTech)

4.2.2 Environmental Measurements
It has been proven that substantial energy cost can be saved just by carrying out
some operational adjustment, especially in the area of air-conditioning system.
Studies have revealed that many buildings are having air-con rooms which are
much too cold for the comfort of the occupants. This findings establish a starting
point for the energy auditors to tackle the energy consumption by measuring the
environmental parameters such as temperature.
To maximize the system performance, knowledge of the environmental parameters
is important. Those information are such as temperature of a fluid, surface, light

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density, relative humidity, indoor air quality, etc. Several types of those devices are
described in this section.

FIGURE 4.4 : An Integrated RH/Temp/Light Logger (Courtesy of Onset Computer
Corporation.)

4.2.2.1

Light ON//OFF Logger

Light ON/OFF Logger provides information on the status of lighting in a
particular location. This is a tool which can be used to reduce the unnecessary ON
time of lighting which can be easily implemented by fine tuning the daily operation
or install automatic timer to shut down the lightings.
4.2.2.2

Temperature / Humidity Logger

This is the basic tool which any Energy Auditor will require to have the
temperature and relative humidity of a location. As have been mentioned
previously, many air-conditioned buildings have found to have temperature which
is way too cold for the comfort of the occupants. The temperature/humidity logger
can effectively identified places where the temperature & humidity has been “overconditioned” and resulting in wasting energy unnecessarily.
The Singapore local energy code has specified a max/min dry bulb temperature of
25.5°C /22.5°C and a relative humidity of max 70% for air-conditioned space.
This can be used as a reference on how efficient the energy has been used on the
air-con system.

FIGURE 4.5 : Different types of Air Quality Sensors (Courtesy of Veris Industries, LLC)
4.2.2.3

Carbon Dioxide Sensor

Another parameter which dictate how comfortable a room condition is, apart from
temperature and humidity is the Carbon Dioxide (CO2) level. These sensors can be
used to check if the air-con has been turn on unnecessarily. Should the sensor
senses very low CO2 content, it can be safely concluded that no people is actually

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occupying the room, and proper system can be implemented to switch off the aircon or lighting accordingly to save energy.
4.2.2.4

Infrared Thermography

Infrared Thermographic Camera has been widely used traditionally as a diagnostic
tool to locate faulty parts or loose switch gear connection. It is, however, able to be
used as a tool to locate area where hidden energy wastage is taking place.
By rectifying problems such as loose switch gear connection and leakage in the aircon system, the overall efficiency of the system can be improved and much energy
wastage can be avoided.

FIGURE 4.6 : Infrared Camera (Courtesy of ITC International)

FIGURE 4.7 : Infrared Thermography image showing overheating in a motor
(Courtesy of ITC International)

4.3 Presentation of Energy Audit Results
An energy audit is only as good as the quality of the final report in regardless to
how accurate and precise the data and how careful and comprehensive the
calculations. An energy audit report is essentially like a sales document. Its
purpose is to ‘sell’ management on the idea of investing money in energy
conservation measures in competition with other investment alternatives. Like all
good sales material, it must be concise, direct and convincing.
In principle, the reporting of an energy audit can be done at three different levels.
The three options described in the following are also closely connected to the

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thoroughness of the audit work as well as to the program level properties of
monitoring and quality control.
4.3.1 Brief Reporting
Typical brief reporting usually is of the following types or a combination of them
[1]:
A summary
A check-list
A statement
This type of reporting is very brief, which usually very focused and also technically
sound. It may include simple graphs and tables for explanation. It is most suitable
for the fundamental energy audit model. Moreover, it concentrates strictly on the
suggested energy saving measures whereas the other options often describe the
technical systems of the building.
4.3.2 General Reporting
General Reporting consists of the following [1]:
Concentrates on the detected energy saving measures
Includes descriptions of the proposed energy saving measures (savings and
costs)
Shows the present consumption figures
Introduces the site very briefly
As compare to brief reporting, the general reporting gives the management a quite
good illustration on the current situation. It still does not go into the detail
descriptions of the technical systems but all suggested energy saving measures are
presented at a level which gives the management some concrete data for decision
making.
4.3.3 Comprehensive Reporting
Comprehensive reporting consists of the following information [1].
Includes a comprehensive description of the site (systems, operation,
production)
Presents a breakdown of the total energy consumption
Introduces all profitable energy saving measures in detail, including some
comments on implementation, saving calculations, cost estimates
Ranks the saving measures according to e.g. simple payback time

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Shows a comparison of the energy consumption data with statistical values,
benchmarking indexes, etc.
Includes tables and graphs of measured values to improve the information
value of the report.
Comprehensive reporting is suitable for all detail analyzing models. On the basis of
the information presented in the comprehensive reporting, all the proposed energy
saving measures can be either implemented, or at least the decision of
implementation can be made.
All calculations are presented with the
corresponding basic criteria so that the applicability of the suggested saving
measures can be checked [1].
Table 4.1 shows a suggested outline for a typical energy audit report. The report
should begin with an executive summary, which briefly describes the procedures
that were carried out and concentrates primarily on the final results. The executive
summary should contain a table of energy conservation project recommendations
listed in order of priority.

TABLE 4.1: Suggested Outline for an Energy Audit Report

Executive Summary
Chapter 1: Introduction to the Energy Audit Program
Chapter 2: Energy Audit Procedures and Methodology
Chapter 3: Description of the Plant Energy Distribution/Breakdown
Chapter 4: Analysis of Energy Conservation Opportunities
Chapter 5: Recommendations/Suggestions for Project Implementation
Chapter 6: Conclusion
Appendixes:
Data Compilation
List of Equipments
Sample Calculations

The concept of the audit and what it is intended to produce should be described in
the introductory chapter. Moreover, it should also familiarize the reader with the
organization energy systems . It should be kept in mind that not many reader will
have the intimate knowledge of the details of the process acquired by the members
of the audit team. Therefore, the introduction should include a listing of the major
points of energy use within the process. This will lead into a discussion in the next
chapter of the points of concentration of the audit.
The general procedures and methodology carried out in the audit should be
described following the introduction. The steps for obtaining the data should be
outlined in brief and it is not necessary to include the detailed data here. For
example, the measurements and methods used to conduct lighting tests should be

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summarized, but the tabulations of actual test data should be included in the
appendix.
The following chapter should recap the distribution of energy use in the
organization. Calculation procedures need not be covered at great length, although
they might be described briefly; example calculations can instead be presented in an
appendix. The primary objective of this chapter is to justify quantitatively the
major points of interest. Energy distributions can be presented either in tabular
form or graphically.
The analysis of the energy conservation opportunities that are considered in the
study should be cited in the following chapter. The summarized results of the
energy savings calculations and economic evaluations for each item should be
included too. The results can be presented primarily in tabular form.
The final chapter of the report should contain the priorities and recommendations
for implementation of energy conservation opportunities immediately or near
future. The priority assigned to each item should be explained so that necessary
corrective steps can be taken. A short payback period will not always be the sole
criterion in setting priorities. Since this chapter is really the high point of the report,
it is expected that much of the executive summary will be drawn from it, and hence
a certain amount of redundancy is acceptable.
Eventually the report should include appendixes that contain most of the detailed
data, calculations, list of equipments used, and other material valuable for future
reference but not essential to a general understanding of the audit and its results. If
the report is too lengthy, these appendixes might be incorporated in a separate
volume.
The importance of good reporting should be recognized early in the planning of
the audit, and a substantial amount of time and effort must be devoted to it. All
too often, preparation of the report is viewed as a necessary evil by engineers who
would really rather spend more time testing and calculating. A realistic assessment
of the time and effort necessary to do a first class job of documentation can spell
the difference between a report that produces results and on the gathers dust on a
shelf.

4.4 Monitoring of Energy Audit Results
The purpose of monitoring the energy audit results is to compare the effect of the
applied saving measures (practical and actual aspect) with the set targets (theoretical
and goals). The level of monitoring energy audits may range from no monitoring
(just some random cases and sample projects) to actual monitoring of savings
achieved.

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Chapter

5
Fundamental Audit
Although Fundamental Audit is the cheapest, it can yield a
preliminary estimate of savings potential and a list of low-cost
savings opportunities.

F

undamental Audit is the least costly audit among the other level of auditing.
The fundamental audit is a tour of the facility to visually inspect each
system. Although this audit is the cheapest, it can yield a preliminary
estimate of savings potential and a list of low-cost savings opportunities
through improvements in operational and maintenance practices. The fundamental
audit information may be used for a more detailed audit later if the preliminary
savings potential appears to warrant further auditing activity. The main objective of
this fundamental audit is to provide an idea of an energy project’s potential prior to
spending money on a detailed study. This chapter describes in detail the practical
aspect of the fundamental audit.

5.1 Audit Instrumentation
In this level of auditing, sophisticated and expensive instrumentation is not a must
or compulsory. If those tools are available, it would be an advantage and great help
in the auditing. A simple and easy to use tool is essential to give an overview of the
energy profile in the organization. Those tools are discussed below.
5.1.1
Measuring Electrical System Performance
At this stage, the essential tool that will give you the information on the
performance of electrical system in the organization is the electrical bill. With the
electrical bills, you can identify and gather a handful of information regarding your
electrical system performance throughout the whole year or a particular survey
period.
Besides, through frequent checking of electrical meter reading from the kWh meter
on an interval period basis, a trend or ‘pattern’ of energy usage could be identified
within the organization. The gathering of those information could be done more
easily if proper tools are being used. However, for a start, gathering of electricity
bills and frequent checking are essential to gather the required information for
auditing purposes.

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5.1.2
Environmental Instruments
The bulk of consumed energy is to enhance the organization comfort, in terms of
lighting systems, HVAC, water heaters, etc. In order to gather those information,
the environmental instruments are required, such as the sensor or logger for
temperature, relative humidity, light, thermocouple, etc. Nevertheless, the main
parameters that are sufficient for this level of audit are temperature, relative
humidity and light density. With these information, the level of comfort and the
usage ‘pattern’ can be concluded and linked with the electrical performance system.
5.1.3
Other Tools
In order to have an overview of the whole energy system in the organization, the
right person to be interviewed is the plant, facility or maintenance personnel. They
are the most knowledgeable person in the organization to know the ‘health’ of the
building energy system. Hence, an interview or survey form is required to gather
information from them. This form should be customized according to individual
needs and requirements.

5.2 Fundamental Audit Methodology
As discussed earlier in Chapter 3, the Fundamental Audit is a scanning model. The
main aims of a scanning are to point out areas, where energy saving possibilities
exist (or may exist) and also to point out the most obvious saving measures which
are normally ‘good housekeeping’ and other no-cost measures. The fundamental
audits do not go deeply into the profitability of the areas pointed out or into the
details of the suggested measures. Before any action can be taken, the areas
pointed out need to be analyzed further. The reason why the fundamental audit
report includes only a few suggestions that provide the client adequate information
for implementation, is the very limited budget which does not allow thorough
analysis, calculations or measurements.
The time spent on a fundamental audit depends naturally on the site and its size.
The time spent on the audit itself is not a criterion to specify whether the model is a
fundamental audit or the other basic option, an analyzing audit. It is clear that
auditing a small tertiary building is totally different challenge than auditing a large
industrial site. Therefore the fundamental audit can be carried out in a few hours in
a small site but it may as well take one week or more at the other end of the scale.
The following is the suggested details procedure for the fundamental audit:-

I. Define the Energy Audit properties (Refer to Figure 3.2)
a. Definition and Identification of Properties
• Prior to other activity, the properties of energy audit should
be defined and identified so that there is a guideline and
boundaries to this auditing.
b. Define all assumption and clarify all the necessary information

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Any assumption and clarification should be defined in this
steps so to avoid confusion, miscommunication and
smooth process throughout the whole auditing.

II. Measure, Monitor and Survey the site to determine current performance of energy
a. Interview with key facility personnel
• A meeting with the key facility personnel to kick off the
project.
The purpose is to establish the operating
characteristics of the facility, energy system specifications,
operating and maintenance preliminary areas of invitation,
unusual operating constraints, anticipated future plant
expansions or changes in product mix, and other concerns
related to facility operations.
b. A brief review of facility utility bills and other operating data (if
available) for the 12 past months to 36 months (if available)
• Available facility documentation are reviewed with facility
representatives. These documentations should include all
available architectural and engineering plans, facility
operation and maintenance procedures and logs, and utility
bills for the previous three years if applicable.
c. Facility tour with the audit instrumentation
• A tour of facility is arranged to observe the various
operations first hand, focusing on the major energy
consuming systems including the architectural, lighting and
power, mechanical and process energy systems.
d. Get the essential data from the site
III. Analyze and Evaluate the Energy Performance
a. Compare the energy usage data with the utility bills through a
simple calculation as shown in Section 5.4.1.
• Simple calculation is essential for this level. A detail
analysis on energy usage should be covered in next level of
auditing.
b. Study the pattern of the room temperature in days or weeks
through logger, and the usage of energy consumption for a year
from the utility bills. See example in Section 5.4.2.
• At this level, the utility analysis is a brief review of energy
bills from the previous 12 to 36 months. This should
include all purchased energy, including electricity, natural
gas, fuel oil, liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) and purchased
steam, as well as any energy generated on site. Billing data
reviewed includes energy usage, energy demand and utility
rate structure.

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IV. Improve energy performance by identifying the possibilities steps in energy saving
a. Simple corrective measures are briefly described. Refer to
Section 5.4.3.
• Some practical corrective measures which does not
required huge investment could be proposed at this stage.
Those corrective measure can be as simple as creating
awareness among the staffs and personnel in the
organization on energy savings.
b. Brief recommendation on the next level of energy audit.
• The need of next level of auditing depending on the current
finding. It also include which level of auditing and briefly
describe the next level auditing properties; i.e. the goal &
objective, the scope, the details of the survey and the
duration & cost.
V. Control future process performance by proper documentation in reporting and
continuous monitoring
a. A brief reporting is sufficient for this stage.
• The results of the findings and recommendations are
summarized in a final report. It incorporates a summary of
all the activities and effort performed throughout the
project with specific conclusions and recommendations.
This report can also be proposed and presented to the
management on the fate of the energy audit in the
organization.
b. This report should contain at least:
i. A summary of the audit
ii. A check-list of tools used
iii. Simple calculation from Section II
iv. Brief recommendation from Section III.

FIGURE 5.1 : Five Distinct DMAIC Steps of Fundamental Energy Audit

Procedure

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The flow diagram for the above steps are shown in Figure 5.2.
Starts
a. Definition and
Identification of
Properties
b. Define all Assumptions
and Clarification

Define the Energy Audit Properties
(Refer to Fig. 3.2)

Measure,
Monitor and
Survey the site

No

a.
b.

Compare the energy
usage data with the
utility bills
Study the pattern of the
room temperature and
the usage of energy
consumption

Enough Data
for analysis?

a. Interview with key facility
personnel
a. A brief review of facility utility
bills and other operating data
(if available) for the 12 past
months to 36 months (if
available)
b. Facility tour with the audit
instrumentation
c. Get the essential data from the
site

Reporting

Yes
Reporting

Analyze and Evaluate the
Energy Consumption
a.
b.

Improve by Identifying the
possibilities of Energy Saving

Simple corrective
measures are briefly
described.
Brief recommendation
on the next level of
energy audit.

Reporting

Required
Information

Control the Audit

A brief reporting is
sufficient for this stage.

Quality by reporting

FIGURE 5.2 : Steps Flow Diagram for Fundamental Audit

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5.3 Recommended Analysis and Practices
This section will demonstrates the recommended analysis, simple calculation and
suggested corrective measure for this level.
5.3.1 Calculating Load Use
Generally, the electric bill varies from month to month. The size of the electric bill
is determined by two things:
Watts, which is the amount of electricity that each load uses, and
Hours, or the length of time each load are being used
The combination of watts and hours - or kilowatt-hours (kWh) - is use to calculate
the bill for each month. So saving on the bill is as simple as reducing either the
wattage or the time of use an appliance.
To determine electric usage of your loads, follow these steps:
1.

Find the wattage of the load.

2.

Estimate hours of use per month.

3.

Calculate the approximate number of kilowatt-hours each load uses by
applying this formula:
Watts × Hours of Operation
= kWh
1000 Watts

Example: You use a 1500-watt oven about 10 hours a month. Here’s how you
would calculate electric usage:
1500 Watts ×10 hours per month
= 15kWh
1000 Watts
5.3.1.1

Calculating cost

To calculate the annual cost to run an load by multiplying the kWh per year by the
rate per kWh consumed.
For example:
Exhaust fan: 200 Watts x 4 Hours used per day x 120 days used per year = 96 kWh
x 8.5* cents/kWh =$8.16 per year.
* 8.5 cents is the rate we used for this example. Your actual rate is listed on your statement.

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5.3.2 Examples of Analysis
Example 1: Pattern analysis of the room temperature with HOBO H8 Logger.
Refer to Figure 5.3 for recorded data of room temperature for a period of about 24
hours.

FIGURE 5.3 : Historical Data for Room Temperature

From the diagram shown above, it can be concluded that during the period from
1900 hours on 18 July 2001 till 0700 hours on 19 July 2001, the air-conditioner has
been switched off. The rise of temperature from 1900 hours till about 0200 hours
the next day demonstrates that the room doors and windows are tightly closed.
When the air-conditioner is in operation, the energy consumption should increased,
especially when it started to operate at about 0700 hours on 19 July 2001. Hence,
the energy consumed should be quite similar ‘pattern’ as the temperature of the
room.

Example 2: Pattern analysis of the room relative humidity with HOBO H8 Logger.
Refer to Figure 5.4 for recorded data of room relative humidity for a period of
about 24 hours.
As compare with Figure 5.3, the relative humidity varies according to the room
temperature. When the temperature is low, the relative humidity is relatively low.

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FIGURE 5.4 : Historical Data for Room Relative Humidity

Example 3: Pattern analysis of the room lighting with HOBO H8 Logger. Refer to
Figure 5.5 for recorded data of room lighting for a period of about 24 hours.

FIGURE 5.5 : Historical Data for Room Lighting

The historical data demonstrates a clear information regarding the light density in
terms of lumens per square feet (lum/sqf). Whether the light is switch on or off
can also determine through the diagram. The density for this room varies from 515 lum/sqf. A recommended corrective measure regarding light density will be
discussed in the following section.

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5.4 Recommended Corrective Measure by
Energy Market Authority, Singapore
5.4.1 Lighting
Check

Purpose

1.

Singapore Standard
Code of Practice for
Artificial Lighting in
Buildings CP38 –
1999.

Ensure that the lighting levels are within the recommended illumination
levels in terms of glare & color rendition for the required tasks.

2.

Use of Most Efficient
Lamp for Appropriate
Task/Requirement

Use lamps with high luminous efficiency i.e. lumens/Watt as this saves
electricity. For example replacing incandescent bulbs with compact
fluorescent lamps can reduce electricity consumption by 75% without any
reduction in illumination levels. Also when selecting lamps, other factors
such as starting characteristics, color rendition, lifespan and location
should be considered.

3.

Fluorescent Tube
Ballasts

Consider replacing the standard conventional ballast (12W loss) with
electronic ballast (± 2W loss). The use of electronic ballast allows for
substantial energy savings in the lighting system. Select those electronic
ballasts that comply with the Singapore Standard 380: Part 1: 1996 or the
International Standards IEC 928 and 929.

4.

Provision of Separate
Switches for
Peripheral Lighting

A flexible lighting system, which makes use of natural lighting for the
peripherals of the room, should be considered so that these peripheral
lights can be switched off when not needed.

5.

Lamp Fixtures or
Luminaries

Reduce your lighting electricity consumption by as much as 50% without
any reduction in illumination levels by using the optical lamp luminaries.
Optical lamp luminaries made out of aluminum, silver or multiple
dielectric coatings have improved light distribution characteristics. These
efficient luminaries reduce discomfort, glare and reflections. Also clean
the lights and fixtures regularly. For best results, dust at least 4 times a
year.

6.

Integration of Lighting
System With AirConditioning System

In open-plan offices, the air-conditioning and lighting systems can be
combined in such a way that the return air is extracted through the
lighting luminaries. This measure ensures that lesser heat will be directed
from the lights into the room.

7.

Use of Light Colors
for Walls, Floors, and
Ceilings

The higher surface reflectance values of light colors will help to make the
most of any existing lighting system.

8.

Switch off Lights
When Not in Use

Leaving a twin-fluorescent tube fitting switched on in an empty office
overnight wastes enough energy to heat water for 1,000 cups of coffee.

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5.4.2 Air-Conditioner
Check
Purpose
1. Temperature and
Humidity Settings

Ensure human comfort – not too cold or hot. The recommended
temperature setting is between 23oC and 25oC while the relative
humidity should be equal to or less than 75%

2. Chilled Water Pipes
and Air Ducts

Ensure that the insulation for the chilled water pipes and ducting
system is maintained in good condition. This helps to prevent heat
gain from the surroundings.

3. Chiller Condenser
Tubes

The condition of the condenser tubes affects the energy efficiency
of the chiller. Fouling in condenser tubes, in the form of slime and
scales, increases with time and reduces the heat transfer capacity of
the condenser tubes. Mechanical cleaning should be carried out at
least once every 6 months.

4. Cooling Towers

Ensure that the cooling towers are clean to allow for maximum
heat transfer so that the temperature of the water returning to the
condenser is less than or equal to ambient temperature.

5. Air-handling Unit
Fan Speed

The fan motor is initially designed and installed to meet the
maximum heat load of the room. However, during normal
operation, the fan will be operating at a level well below the
maximum rated level. Explore the possibility of installing devices
such as frequency converters to vary the fan speed thereby
reducing the energy consumed by the fan motor. By installing
frequency converters, as much as 15% of the fan energy
consumption can be saved.

6. Air Filter Condition

Maintain the filter in a clean condition by periodically removing
dirt and solid particles that have settled on the cooling coils. This
will improve the heat transfer between air and chilled water
thereby reducing energy consumption.

7. Chilled Water
Leaving
Temperature

Ensure high chiller energy efficiency by maintaining a chilled water
leaving temperature at or above 7oC. As a rule of thumb, the
efficiency of a centrifugal chiller increases by about 2¼ % for
every 1oC rise in the chilled water leaving temperature.

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5.4.3 Air-Compressor
Check
Purpose
1. Load Characteristics

Maximize the on-load time of the compressor. It is normal for
most air-compressor motors to use as much as 1/3 of the rated
power during off-load condition.

2. Leaks
in
the Carry out regular leak detection checks at pipe and valve joints.
Energy wastage is substantial in a leaking compressed air
Tubes/Air Pipes
distribution system. Air leaks cause air-compressors to overwork
and hence use more energy. Also use proper air hose together
with quality hose clamps and ensure that the blowguns used are
standardized.
3. Delivery
Setting

Pressure Ensure that the delivery pressure is set to suit the compressed air
requirement. Typically by reducing from 7 to 6 bars, 8% of the
compressor energy can be saved. Pressure settings for control
valves should be between 2 bars and 3 bars while that for
pneumatic tools at about 5.5 bars.

4. Location of Inlet Ensure that the inlet air is as cool as the ambient air. For every
Air Duct
4oC reduction in inlet air temperature a 1% savings in energy is
possible. As air in Singapore is humid, air dryers are normally an
essential item. Air at 30oC, 80% RH contains as much as 25 ml of
water for every 1000 liters of air.
5. Compressed
Distribution
Pipework

Air Make sure that the air velocity in the air distribution pipework is
between 6 m/s and 10 m/s to ensure that there will be no
excessive pressure drops within the distribution system.

6. Drainage of Carry- Arrange the air distribution pipework to slope downwards to
Over Water in the several suitably located draining points, which are fitted with
Distribution
automatic traps. A well-drained system will minimize water carryPipework
over to tools and processes. Excessive water causes corrosion to
tools and damage to the finished products.
7. Installation of After- The after-cooler separator removes oil and water from the air that
Cooler Separator
has been condensed out by the after-cooler. Removal of moisture
helps prevent equipment and product damage.
8. Provision of High Quality air for instrumentation is expensive to produce and is not
Quality Air Only required for all areas of compressed air use. If only a small
Where Needed
demand for instrument air is required, consider fitting a small
capacity dryer downstream to supply this required quantity of air
only.

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Purpose

1. Steam Pressure
Setting

For efficient operation, the boiler should not be allowed to operate
below the minimum pressure setting recommended by
manufacturer.

2. Insulation of the
Steam Piping.

Minimize heat and steam losses from pipes by having proper and
good insulation. Heat loss from insulated pipes should not exceed
200 W/m2.

3. Flue Gas
Composition At
Boiler Stack (using a
CO2 and O2
analyzer)

Ensure complete combustion at all times with a margin of excess
air to suit the particular burner, boiler and fuel. Ensure that
incoming air flow rate is correctly maintained because a high air
flow rate increases the heat loss to the flue gas. Low air flow rate
will mean that a proportion of fuel remains unburned.
For oil-fired boilers:
Excess air is about 15%-25%
Flue gas: CO2 is about 13%-14%
For gas-fired boilers:
Excess air is about 10%-20%
Flue gas: O2 is about 3%-5%
CO2 is about 9%-10%

4. Flue Gas
Temperature at
Stack

The stack temperature should be between 170oC and 200oC. At
temperatures below this range acid formation results thus leading
to gradual corrosion of the exhaust stack, while at temperatures
above this range unnecessary fuel wastage results.

5. Heat Recovery from Heat recovery enables savings in boiler fuel oil. As a rule of
Flue Gas
thumb, for every 5.6oC rise in boiler feedwater temperature there is
savings of 1% in boiler fuel oil. Heat transfer from flue gas to
boiler feedwater can be effected using an economizer.
6. Condensate Water
Tank is Covered
and Insulated

Ensure minimal heat loss from the sides of the tank. Heat loss
should not exceed 200W/m2 from the side surfaces of the
condensate water tank.

7. Condensate Pipe
and Boiler Surface
Insulation

Ensure minimum heat loss from the pipe surfaces. Heat loss from
boiler surfaces should be less than 300 W/m2.

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8. Whether
Condensate
Recovery is possible
(if condensate is not
contaminated)

Ensure maximum condensate recovery – this will reduce the
amount of feedwater intake and hence reduce the fuel required to
achieve the desired steam pressure and temperature. Energy
savings of about 25%-30% are possible.

9. Sufficient
blowdowns are
carried out.

Blowdown is required to control the total dissolved solids and to
discharge sludge that has been accumulated at the bottom of the
boiler. However the number of blowdowns should be kept to a
minimum to reduce the amount of steam loss.

5.5 An Example of Energy Audit
We believe any energy audit project shall start small in order to build our
confidence. In this section, we have designed a small energy audit project which
can help to relate how different temperature setting of a split core unit air-con can
potentially save a small amount of energy.
The following procedure will guide you through the small project:a) Select an air conditioned room where the air-con or lighting may not need to
be turn on for the entire day. Example: Meeting Room.
b) Locate the power cable that supply to the air-con unit in the room. Use an
analogue current sensor and logger to start logging the current consumption of
the air-con unit. Only one of the phase need to be logged. We can estimate
the total consumption by multiplying the value by three.
c) Locate a place in the room free from draught to place the temperature / light
logger. Leave the logger on for a week.
d) After one week, retrieve the temperature, light and current consumption data
from the logger.
e) Analyze the data to identified the following:
i) Is there a time when the light is off, but the air-con is still on ?
ii) Is there a time when the temperature drop below 20°C ?
iii) Note down the current consumption correspond to different
temperature.
f) By knowing the answers to the above simple questions, steps can be taken to
cut down the ON time of the air-con. Some of the steps may be:
i) Putting sign at the exit, reminding the last person to turn off the aircon when meeting is finish.

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ii) Check the thermostat periodically to ensure temperature setting not
being set at too low a temperature.
iii) Periodically check if the current consumption goes up for the same
temperature. This may indicate maintenance is required on the air-con,
such as cleaning the air filter to bring the air-con back to its optimum
condition.
g) After implementing the above energy conservation program, check to see what
amount of energy has been saved by continuous monitoring.

5.6 Conclusion
Fundamental energy audit give auditor the tools to meet the basic and overview of
energy ‘health’ in the organization. This fundamental audit directly addresses a
specific area and it is the cheapest and simplest audit among the other audit level.
The proposed steps can be expended or modified according to the auditor
requirement. However, the procedure as discussed is the essential steps to conduct
the first level of auditing. Those tools which are used at this level is temporary, i.e.
it is not permanently installed at the site. The subsequent level of auditing will dealt
with more in-dept and detail analysis with the aid of semi-permanent tools. Those
tools are installed for a period of time to gather more detail information.

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References & Bibliography
[1] Save-Project Final Report. 1999. “The Guidebook for Energy Audits,

Programme Schemes and Administrative Procedures”. EU.
2001. “What is a Manufacturing and

[2] Optimum Utility Systems.

Processing Plant ‘Energy Audit’?”. U.S.
[3] EMAS Guidebook. 1999. “Integrating Energy- and Environmental

Management”. U.S.
[4] Energy Audit Symposium. 1980. “Energy Auditing”. USA: The Fairmont
Press, Inc.
[5] Regional Energy Development Programme (RAS/84/001) . 1987.

“Training Manual on Energy Management (RAS/84/001/A2/1987)”. United Nations Development Programme and Economic and
Social Commission For Asia and the Pacific
[6] Witte, Larry C., Schmidt, Philip S., and Brown, David R.. 1988. “Industrial

Energy Management and Utilization”. USA: Hemisphere Publishing
Corporation.
[7] Thumann, Albert. 1995. “Handbook of Energy Audits”. Fourth Edition.
USA: The Fairmont Press, Inc.
[8] GARD Analytics, Inc. 2001 “Energy, Economic and Environmental

Research”. US
[9] California Energy Commission. 2000. “ENERGY AUDITOR: To

Identify Energy Efficiency Projects”: US
[10] Wildi, Theodore. 2000. Fourth Edition “Electrical Machines, Drives,

and Power Systems”. US: Prentice Hall International, Inc.
[11]Pyzdek,

Thomas.

2000.

“The

Six Sigma Revolution”. Better

Management.com
[12]Simon, Kerri. 2000. “DMAIC Versus DMADV”. ISixSigma LLC.

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Index
A

L

advanced, 7, 8

levels, 5, 10, 17, 30

air

light, 13, 23, 29, 30

quality, 3, 13, 15, 16, 17, 28, 30, 31, 32,

logger, 17, 23, 24, 37

33, 37
Analyze, 4, 11, 24

M

audit, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12,

management, i, 2, 3, 10, 18, 25

14, 15, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24,

Measure, 4, 11, 23, 30

25, 34, 37

measurements, 7, 8, 10, 12, 17, 20, 23

B

method, 2, 4

basic, 4, 5, 10, 11, 12, 23, 34

N

models, 4, 5, 6

brief, 6, 18, 19, 20, 24, 25

network, 13

C
comprehensive, 2, 4, 6, 18, 19

O

consumption, 1, 2, 4, 7, 12, 13, 24, 28, 30,

objective, 2, 5, 10, 20, 22, 25

31
Control, 4, 11, 25

P

Core, 4, 5

practical, 1, 21, 22, 24

cost, 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 13, 14, 22,

preliminary, 6, 22, 23

23, 25, 27

pressure, 17, 32, 33, 34

D

principle, 1

density, 13, 23, 29
details, 2, 5, 11, 20, 23, 25

Q

duration, 2, 5, 6, 25

quality, i, 3, 4, 10, 13, 17, 18, 32

E

R

economical, 1

relative, 13, 15, 23, 28, 31, 37

electricity, 22, 24, 27, 30

report, 2, 18, 19, 20, 23, 25

element, 1, 4

S

procedure, 2, 10, 11, 23, 34

energy, i, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12,
13, 14, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24,

saving, 1, 4, 5, 6, 7, 21, 23, 27

25, 28, 30, 31, 32, 34, 37

scope, 1, 2, 5, 6, 8, 25

environmental, 3, 13, 23

sensors, 14, 15, 17

F

survey, 2, 4, 5, 6, 8, 12, 22, 23, 25

facility, 2, 3, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 22, 23, 24, 37

T

fundamental, 6, 7, 8, 22, 23, 34

systems, 2, 7, 8, 20, 23, 24, 30

G

temperature, 13, 14, 16, 17, 23, 24, 28,

general, 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 20

thermocouple, 16, 17

goal, 2, 5, 10, 25

tool, 22

H

transducer, 17

humidity, 13, 15, 23, 28, 31, 37

I

31, 32, 33, 34, 37

U
utility, 2, 7, 8, 24, 37

Improve, 4, 11, 24

W

instrumentation, 6, 14, 22, 24, 32, 37

water, 2, 17, 30, 31, 32, 33

intermediate, 7

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Energy Glossary
adjustable speed drive (ASD) - An electronic device that controls the rotational
speed of a piece of motor-driven equipment (e.g., a compressor, fan, or pump).
Speed control is obtained by adjusting the frequency of the voltage applied to the
motor. This approach usually saves energy for variable-load applications.
anaerobic digestion - A decomposition process by which organic matter is
decomposed by anaerobic bacteria. The process generates a product called "biogas"
that is primarily composed of methane, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen sulfide.
ASHRAE - Acronym for American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and AirConditioning Engineers.
ballast - A device that provides starting voltage and limits the current during normal
operation for electrical discharge lamps such as fluorescent lamps.
bin method - A method of predicting heating and/or cooling loads by doing load
calculation at different outdoor temperatures and then multiplying the result by the
number of hours of occurrence of each temperature.
biogas - A product of decomposing organic matter such as manure or food
processing wastes using anaerobic bacteria. Biogas is primarily composed of methane,
carbon dioxide, and hydrogen sulfide.
blowdown - The removal of water from an evaporative system (e.g., cooling tower
or boiler) to reduce mineral concentration that can cause scaling
boiler horsepower - A rate of steam production equal to the evaporation of 34.5
pounds of water per hour at a temperature of 212°F into dry steam at 212°F. One
boiler horsepower is equal to 33,475 Btu per hour of steam production.
British thermal unit (Btu) - A unit of heat energy approximately equal to the
quantity of heat required to raise one pound of water by 1°F.
CFC (chlorofluorocarbon) - A family of chemicals used as refrigerants that is being
tightly regulated and phased out of production due to stratospheric ozone depletion
potential. Examples: R-11, R-12, R-113, R-114, R-115.
coefficient of performance (COP) - A measure of refrigeration efficiency. The
ratio of the rate of heat removed (cooling effect) to the rate of heat input required,
expressed in the same units.
cogeneration - The generation of electricity and the concurrent use of rejected
thermal energy as an auxiliary energy source (e.g., for heating or absorption cooling).
declining block rate - An electric supply rate structure in which the unit price of
electricity decreases as the amount of electricity used increases. Savings for energy


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conservation occurs at the lowest (or "incremental" or "marginal") rate, not the
average rate.
demand-side management (DSM) - The process of managing the consumption
of electrical energy, generally to minimize demand and costs.
energy conservation measure (ECM) - An energy audit recommendation.
energy conservation opportunity (ECO) - An energy audit recommendation
energy performance contract (EPC) - A way to finance and implement a capital
improvement project by using utility cost savings to cover project costs.
energy services company (ESCO) - A company that offers to reduce a client's
utility costs, often with the cost savings being split with the client through an energy
performance contract (EPC) or a shared-savings agreement.
geothermal heat pump - A heat pump that uses the ground, ground water, or pond
water as a heat source or heat sink, rather than using outside air. Ground or water
temperatures are more stable and are warmer in winter and cooler in summer than air
temperatures. Geothermal heat pumps can operate more efficiently than other types
of heat pumps.
hardness - The amount of dissolved calcium salts and/or magnesium present in
water. Hardness is measured in units of parts per million (ppm) or grains per gallon
(gpg). [gpg x 17.1 = ppm] Poor water treatment can result in excessive scale that
provides excessive resistance to heat transfer and thus inefficiency and higher costs.
heat pipe - A device that transfers heat by the evaporation and condensation of an
internal fluid.
heat recovery ventilator - A device that captures heat from exhaust air from a
building and transfers it to the fresh air entering the building to preheat the air and
thus reduce energy consumption and cost.
horsepower (hp) - (Electrical/mechanical horsepower, not boiler horsepower.) A
shaft energy output rate of 550 foot-pounds per second, usually specified for electric
motors as the maximum output. One electrical hp is equal to 0.7457 kW or 2,545
Btu/hour. The actual kW required will be higher due to motor inefficiency.
HVAC systems - Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning systems. Common
systems capable of providing tremendous amounts of comfort and tremendous
amounts of waste, sometimes simultaneously.
interruptible service - Utility service (electric or natural gas) supplied under
agreements that allow the supplier to curtail or stop service at times in return for a
discounted rate at other times.
kilowatt (kW) - A unit of electric power or capacity equal to 1,000 watts.
“Demand” or “capacity” charges for electricity are usually based on the peak kW

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occurring during the billing period, often only as measured during times defined as
“on peak” hours.
kilowatt-hour (kWh) - A unit of electric energy consumption equal to that
consumed in using a power level of one kilowatt (1,000 watts) for a duration of one
hour. Example: Illuminating ten 100-watt bulbs for one hour consumes 1 kWh.
load factor - The average percentage of capacity of a utility that is used over a given
period of time such as a month or year. Deregulated electricity sellers prefer clients
with high load factors (i.e., stable and predictable loads) and sometimes offer them
preferred rates.
low-E coating (for windows) - A coating applied to the surface of window glazing
to reduce heat transfer through the glazing by reducing the emissivity.
luminaire - A complete lighting unit consisting of lamp(s), lamp protector(s),
ballast(s), and components to direct and control the light.
marginal rate - The rate that has to be paid for the last increment of service. For
example, with a declining block electric rate, the marginal rate is the rate in the last
rate block used and is lower than the average rate. Savings from reducing
consumption will occur at the marginal rate, not the average rate.
MCF - One thousand cubic feet of natural gas, having an energy value of
approximately one million Btu.
measurement and verification (M&V) - A process capable of keeping an energy
performance contract fair to all parties.
occupancy sensor - A control device that senses the presence of a person in a given
space and is commonly used to control lighting. Occupancy sensors are sometimes
used to control heating, ventilation, and air conditioning too.
outside air - Fresh air taken from outside that has not previously circulated through
the HVAC system. Outside air often requires substantial heating and air conditioning
and should be carefully controlled.
power - The time rate of doing work or consuming energy, usually measured in
Btu/hour, horsepower, or kW. Power use is often billed in addition to energy use
(e.g., an electric bill will have both kW and kWh charges).
power factor - The ratio of power actually being used in an electric circuit, expressed
in kW, to the power that is apparently being drawn from the power source, expressed
in kilovolt-amperes (kVA). In other words, the ratio of "active" or "real" power (that
actually turns the motor shaft) to "apparent power." The apparent power includes
"reactive power" strictly used to develop the magnetic field. Reactive power creates
no useful work, results when current is not in phase with voltage, and can be
corrected using capacitors or other devices.


43

E N E R G Y

A U D I T O R

T R A I N I N G

-

L E V E L

1

( E A 1 )

R-value - A measure of thermal resistance used to compare insulating values. The
higher the R-value number of a material, the better its insulating properties and the
slower the heat flows through it.
reactive power - Electrical power strictly used to develop magnetic field. Reactive
power is never converted to useful power such as shaft power, but it often gets billed
anyway. Power factor correction can reduce reactive power costs. See "power
factor."
therm - 100,000 Btu. A common unit for quantifying the energy content of natural
gas delivery.
time-of-use (TOU) rate - Pricing of electricity based on several time blocks per 24hour period (e.g., on-peak, mid-peak, off-peak, etc.) and on seasons of the year (e.g.,
summer and winter).
ton of refrigeration (tonR) - 12,000 Btu/hour of cooling capacity. One ton of
capacity is equal to the heat required to melt 2,000 pounds of ice in 24 hours.
U-factor or U-value - A measure of how well heat is transferred by a window, thus
affecting heating and air conditioning costs. U-factor is the inverse of R-value. The
lower the U-factor, the better the window will retain heat on a cold day or cooling on
a hot day. U-factors may vary tremendously from one window product to another.
variable speed drive (VSD) - An electronic device that controls the rotational speed
of a piece of motor-driven equipment (e.g., a blower, compressor, fan, or pump).
Speed control is obtained by adjusting the frequency of the voltage applied to the
motor. This approach usually saves energy for variable-load applications.
VAV system (variable air volume system) - An HVAC system serving multiple
zones that controls the temperature in each zone by controlling the amount of heated
or cooled air supplied to the zone.

44


E N E R G Y

A U D I T O R

T R A I N I N G

-

L E V E L

1

( E A 1 )

Conversion Formulae
To Convert

Multiply By

Inches to cm

2.5400

Cm to inches

0.3937

Feet to meters

0.3048

Meters to feet

3.2810

Yards to meters

0.9144

Meters to yards

1.0940

Miles to km

1.6090

Sq ins to sq cm

6.4520

Sq cm to sq ins

0.1550

Sq meters to sq feet

10.7600

Sq feet to sq meters

0.0929

Sq yards to sq meters

0.8361

Sq meters to sq yards

1.1960

Sq miles to sq miles

0.3861

Acres to hectares

0.4047

Hectares to acres

2.4710

Cu ins to cu cum

16.3900

Cu cm to cu ins

0.0610

Cu feet to cu meters

0.0283

Cu meters to cu feet

35.3100

Cu yards to cu meters

0.7646

Cu meters to cu yards

1.3080

Cu inches to liters

0.0163


45

E N E R G Y

A U D I T O R

T R A I N I N G

Liters to cu inches

-

L E V E L

1

( E A 1 )

61.0300

Gallons to liters

4.5460

Liters to gallons

0.2200

Grains to grams

0.0648

Grams to grains

15.4300

Ounces to grams

28.3500

Grams to ounces

0.0352

Pounds to grams

453.6000

Grams to pounds

0.0022

Pounds to kilograms

0.4536

Kilograms to pounds

2.2050

Tons to kilograms

1016.0000

Kilograms to tons

0.0009

Pascal to Newton/m2

1

Inch water to Pascal

249

Millimeter water to Pascal

9.8

Psi to kpa

6.89

Psi to inch water

27.7

Psi to mm water

703.3

Bar to psi
Bar to kpa

14.51
100

o

C to oF

9/5

Btu/hr to kCal/hr

0.2519

Btu/hr to watts

0.2931

Watts to Btu/hr

46

3413


E N E R G Y

A U D I T O R

T R A I N I N G

-

L E V E L

KCal/hr to btu/hr
Horsepower to watt


1

( E A 1 )

3.97
746

47

Energy auditor training level 1 (2001)

Energy auditor training level 1 (2001)

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