2. I. Introduction:
A. More than 60% of our foods are carbohydrates.
Starch, glycogen, sucrose, lactose and cellulose are
the chief carbohydrates in our food. Before intestinal
absorption, they are hydrolysed to hexose sugars
(glucose, galactose and fructose).
B. A family of a glycosidases that degrade
carbohydrate into their monohexose components
catalyzes hydrolysis of glycocidic bonds. These
enzymes are usually specific to the type of bond to
be broken.
3. Digestion of carbohydrate by salivary α -amylase (ptylin) in
the mouth:
A. This enzyme is produced by salivary glands. Its optimum pH is
6.7.
B. It is activated by chloride ions (cl-).
C. It acts on cooked starch and glycogen breaking α 1-4 bonds,
converting them into maltose [a disaccharide containing two
glucose molecules attached by α 1-4 linkage]. This bond is not
attacked by -amylase.
Because both starch and glycogen also contain 1-6 bonds, the
resulting digest contains isomaltose [a disaccharide in which two
glucose molecules are attached by 1-6 linkage].
E. Because food remains for a short time in the mouth, digestion of
starch and glycogen may be incomplete and gives a partial
digestion products called: starch dextrins (amylodextrin,
erythrodextrin and achrodextrin).
F. Therefore, digestion of starch and glycogen in the mouth gives
maltose, isomaltose and starch dextrins.
4. III. ln the stomach: carbohydrate digestion stops
temporarily due to the high acidity which
inactivates the salivary - amylase.
IV. Digestion of carbohydrate by the pancreatic - amylase small
intestine in the small intestine.
A. α-amylase enzyme is produced by pancreas and acts in small
intestine. Its optimum pH is 7.1.
B. It is also activated by chloride ions.
C. It acts on cooked and uncooked starch, hydrolysing them into
maltose and isomaltose.
Final carbohydrate digestion by intestinal enzymes:
A. The final digestive processes occur at the small intestine and
include the action of several disaccharidases. These enzymes
are secreted through and remain associated with the brush
border of the intestinal mucosal cells.
5. B. The disaccharidases include:
1. Lactase (β-galactosidase) which hydrolyses lactose into two
molecules of glucose and galactose:
Lactase
Lactose Glucose + Galactose
2. Maltase ( α-glucosidase), which hydrolyses maltose into two
molecules of glucose:
Maltase
Maltose Glucose + Glucose
3. Sucrose (α-fructofuranosidase), which hydrolyses sucrose into
two molecules of glucose and fructose:
Sucrose
Sucrose Glucose + Fructose
4. α - dextrinase (oligo-1,6 glucosidase) which hydrolyze (1 ,6)
linkage of isomaltose.
Dextrinase
Isomaltose Glucose + Glucose
6. VI. Digestion of cellulose:
A. Cellulose contains β(1-4) bonds between glucose molecules.
B. In humans, there is no β (1-4) glucosidase that can digest
such bonds. So cellulose passes as such in stool.
C. Cellulose helps water retention during the passage of food
along the intestine → producing larger and softer feces →
preventing constipation.
7. Absorptions
A.The end products of carbohydrate digestion are monosaccharides:
glucose, galactose and fructose. They are absorbed from the
jejunum to portal veins to the liver, where fructose and galactose
are transformed into glucose.
B.Two mechanisms are responsible for absorption of
monosaccharides: active transport (against concentration
gradient i.e. from low to high concentration) and passive
transport (by facilitated diffusion).
C. For active transport to take place, the structure of sugar should
have:
1. Hexose ring.
2. OH group at position 2 at the right side. Both of which are present
in glucose and galactose. Fructose, which does not contain -OH
group to the right at position 2 is absorbed more slowly than
glucose and galactose by passive diffusion (slow process).
3. A methyl or a substituted methyl group should be present at
carbon 5.
I. Introduction
8. II. Mechanisms of absorption:
A. Active transport:
1. Mechanism of active transport:
a) In the cell membrane of the intestinal cells, there is a mobile
carrier protein called sodium dependant glucose transporter
(SGL T-1) It transports glucose to inside the cell using
energy. The energy is derived from sodium-potassium
pump. The transporter has 2 separate sites, one for sodium
and the other for glucose. It transports them from the
intestinal lumen across cell membrane to the cytoplasm.
Then both glucose and sodium are released into the
cytoplasm allowing the carrier to return for more transport
of glucose and sodium.
9. b) The sodium is transported from high to low concentration
(with concentration gradient) and at the same time causes
the
carrier to transport glucose against its concentration
gradient.
The Na+ is expelled outside the cell by sodium pump. Which
needs ATP as a source of energy. The reaction is catalyzed by
an enzyme called "Adenosine triphosphatase (ATPase)".
Active transport is much more faster than passive transport.
c) Insulin increases the number of glucose transporters in
tissues containing insulin receptors e.g. muscles and adipose
tissue.
10. B. Transport Proteins
Transport proteins = Integral membrane proteins that
transport specific molecules or ions across
biological membranes.
Protein
(Figure 8.9)
11. B. Passive transport (facilitated diffusion):
Sugars pass with concentration gradient i.e. from high to low
concentration. It needs no energy. It occurs by means of a sodium
independent facilitative transporter (GLUT -5). Fructose and
pentoses are absorbed by this mechanism. Glucose and
galactose can also use the same transporter if the concentration
gradient is favorable.
C. There is also sodium – independent transporter (GLUT-2),
that
is facilitates transport of sugars out of the cell i.e. to circulation.
2. Inhibitors of active transport:
a) Ouabin (cardiac glycoside): Inhibits adenosine triphosphatase
(ATPase) necessary for hydrolysis of ATP that produces energy
of sodium pump.
b) Phlorhizin; Inhibits the binding of sodium in the carrier protein.
12. Summary of types of functions of most
important glucose transporters:
Function Site
SGLT-
1
Absorption of glucose
by active transport
(energy is derived from
Na+
- K+
pump)
Intestine and renal
tubules.
GLUT -
5
Fructose transport and
to a lesser extent
glucose and galactose.
Intestine and sperm
GLUT -
2
Transport glucose out
of intestinal and renal
cells → circulation
-Intestine and renal
tubule
-β cells of islets-liver
13. III. Defects of carbohydrate digestion and
absorption:
A. Lactase deficiency = lactose intolerance:
1. Definition:
a) This is a deficiency of lactase enzyme which digest lactose into
glucose and galactose
b) It may be:
(i) Congenital: which occurs very soon after birth (rare).
(ii) Acquired: which occurs later on in life (common).
2. Effect: The presence of lactose in intestine causes:
a) Increased osmotic pressure: So water will be drawn from the tissue
(causing dehydration) into the large intestine (causing diarrhea).
b) Increased fermentation of lactose by bacteria: Intestinal bacteria
ferment lactose with subsequent production of CO2 gas. This causes
distention and abdominal cramps.
c) Treatment: Treatment of this disorder is simply by removing lactose
(milk) from diet.
14. B. Sucrose deficiency:
A rare condition, showing the signs and symptoms of lactase deficiency. It
occurs early in childhood.
C. Monosaccharide malabsorption:
This is a congenital condition in which glucose and galactose are absorbed
only slowly due to defect in the carrier mechanism. Because fructose is not
absorbed by the carrier system, its absorption is normal.
IV. Fate of absorbed sugars:
Monosaccharides (glucose, galactose and fructose) resulting from
carbohydrate digestion are absorbed and undergo the following:
A. Uptake by tissues (liver):
After absorption the liver takes up sugars, where galactose and fructose
are converted into glucose.
B. Glucose utilization by tissues:
Glucose may undergo one of the following fate:
15. 1. Oxidation: through
a) Major pathways (glycolysis and Krebs' cycle) for production of energy.
b) Hexose monophosphate pathway: for production of ribose, deoxyribose
and NADPH + H+
c) Uronic acid pathway, for production of glucuronic acid, which is used in
detoxication and enters in the formation of mucopolysaccharide.
2. Storage: in the form of:
a) Glycogen: glycogenesis.
b) Fat: lipogenesis.
3. Conversion: to substances of biological importance:
a) Ribose, deoxyribose → RNA and DNA.
b) Lactose → milk.
c) Glucosamine, galactosamine → mucopolysaccharides.
d) Glucoronic acid → mucopolysaccharides.
e) Fructose → in semen.
17. I. Glycolysis (Embden Meyerhof
Pathway):
A. Definition:
1. Glycolysis means oxidation of glucose to give pyruvate (in the
presence of oxygen) or lactate (in the absence of oxygen).
B. Site:
cytoplasm of all tissue cells, but it is of physiological importance in:
1. Tissues with no mitochondria: mature RBCs, cornea and lens.
2. Tissues with few mitochondria: Testis, leucocytes, medulla of the
kidney, retina, skin and gastrointestinal tract.
3. Tissues undergo frequent oxygen lack: skeletal muscles especially
during exercise.
18. C. Steps:
Stages of glycolysis
1. Stage one (the energy requiring stage):
a) One molecule of glucose is converted into two molecules of
glycerosldhyde-3-phosphate.
b) These steps requires 2 molecules of ATP (energy loss)
2. Stage two (the energy producing stage(:
a) The 2 molecules of glyceroaldehyde-3-phosphate are converted into
pyruvate (aerobic glycolysis) or lactate (anaerobic glycolysis(.
b) These steps produce ATP molecules (energy production).
D. Energy (ATP) production of glycolysis:
ATP production = ATP produced - ATP utilized
19. •In the energy investment phase, ATP provides
activation energy by phosphorylating glucose.
–This requires 2 ATP per glucose.
•In the energy payoff
phase, ATP is
produced by
substrate-level
phosphorylation
and NAD+
is
reduced to NADH.
•2ATP (net) and
2 NADH are produced
per glucose.
Fig. 9.8
22. Energy production of glycolysis:
ATP produced ATP utilized Net energy
In absence of oxygen
(anaerobic glycolysis)
4 ATP
(Substrate level
phosphorylation)
2ATP from 1,3 DPG.
2ATP from
phosphoenol
pyruvate
2ATP
From glucose to
glucose -6-p.
From fructose -6-p to
fructose 1,6 p.
2 ATP
In presence of
oxygen (aerobic
glycolysis)
4 ATP
(substrate level
phosphorylation)
2ATP from 1,3 BPG.
2ATP from
phosphoenol
pyruvate.
2ATP
-From glucose to
glucose -6-p.
From fructose -6-p to
fructose 1,6 p.
6 ATP
Or
8 ATP
+ 4ATP or 6ATP
(from oxidation of 2
NADH + H in
mitochondria).
23. E. oxidation of extramitochondrial NADH+H+:
1. cytoplasmic NADH+H+ cannot penetrate mitochondrial membrane,
however, it can be used to produce energy (4 or 6 ATP) by respiratory
chain phosphorylation in the mitochondria.
2. This can be done by using special carriers for hydrogen of NADH+H+
These carriers are either dihydroxyacetone phosphate (Glycerophosphate
shuttle) or oxaloacetate (aspartate malate shuttle).
a) Glycerophosphate shuttle:
1) It is important in certain muscle and nerve cells.
2) The final energy produced is 4 ATP.
3) Mechanism:
- The coenzyme of cytoplasmic glycerol-3- phosphate dehydrogenase
is NAD+.
- The coenzyme of mitochodrial glycerol-3-phosphate dehydogenase is
FAD.
- Oxidation of FADH, in respiratory chain gives 2 ATP. As glycolysis
gives 2 cytoplasmic NADH + H+ → 2 mitochondrial FADH, 2 x 2
ATP → = 4 ATP.
b) Malate – aspartate shuttle:
1) It is important in other tissues patriculary liver and heart.
24. Differences between aerobic and
anaerobic glycolysis:
Aerobic Anaerobic
1. End product Pyruvate Lactate
2 .energy 6 or 8 ATP 2 ATP
3. Regeneration of
NAD+
Through respiration
chain in mitochondria
Through Lactate
formation
4. Availability to TCA
in mitochondria
Available and 2
Pyruvate can oxidize to
give 30 ATP
Not available as lactate
is cytoplasmic substrate
25. Substrate level phosphorylation:
This means phosphorylation of ADP to ATP at the reaction itself .in
glycolysis there are 2 examples:
- 1.3 Bisphosphoglycerate + ADP 3 Phosphoglycerate + ATP
- Phospho-enol pyruvate + ADP Enolpyruvate + ATP
I. Special features of glycolysis in RBCs:
1. Mature RBCs contain no mitochondria, thus:
a) They depend only upon glycolysis for energy production (=2 ATP).
b) Lactate is always the end product.
2. Glucose uptake by RBCs is independent on insulin hormone.
3. Reduction of met-hemoglobin: Glycolysis produces NADH+H+, which
used for reduction of met-hemoglobin in red cells.
26. Biological importance (functions) of glycolysis:
1. Energy production:
a) anaerobic glycolysis gives 2 ATP.
b) aerobic glycolysis gives 8 ATP.
2. Oxygenation of tissues:
Through formation of 2,3 bisphosphoglycerate, which decreases the
affinity of Hemoglobin to O2.
3. Provides important intermediates:
a) Dihydroxyacetone phosphate: can give glycerol-3phosphate, which is
used for synthesis of triacylglycerols and phospholipids (lipogenesis).
b) 3 Phosphoglycerate: which can be used for synthesis of amino acid
serine.
c) Pyruvate: which can be used in synthesis of amino acid alanine.
4. Aerobic glycolysis provides the mitochondria with pyruvate, which gives
acetyl CoA Krebs' cycle.
27. Reversibility of glycolysis (Gluconeoqenesis):
1. Reversible reaction means that the same enzyme can catalyzes the
reaction in both directions.
2. all reactions of glycolysis -except 3- are reversible.
3. The 3 irreversible reactions (those catalyzed by kinase enzymes) can be
reversed by using other enzymes.
Glucose-6-p → Glucose
F1, 6 Bisphosphate → Fructose-6-p
Pyruvate → Phosphoenol pyruvate
4. During fasting, glycolysis is reversed for synthesis of glucose from non-
carbohydrate sources e.g. lactate. This mechanism is called:
gluconeogenesis.
28. Comparison between glucokinase and
hexokinase enzymes:
Glucokinaase Hexokinase
1. Site Liver only All tissue cells
2. Affinity to glucose Low affinity (high km) i.e. it
acts only in the presence of
high blood glucose
concentration.
High affinity (low km) i.e. it acts
even in the presence of low blood
glucose concentration.
3. Substrate Glucose only Glucose, galactose and fructose
4. Effect of insulin Induces synthesis of
glucokinase.
No effect
5. Effect of glucose-6-p No effect Allosterically inhibits hexokinase
6. Function Acts in liver after meals. It
removes glucose coming in
portal circulation, converting
it into glucose -6-phosphate.
It phosphorylates glucose inside
the body cells. This makes glucose
concentration more in blood than
inside the cells. This leads to
continuous supply of glucose for
the tissues even in the presence of
low blood glucose concentration.
29. Importance of lactate production in anerobic
glycolysis:
1. In absence of oxygen, lactate is the end product of glycolysis:
2. In absence of oxygen, NADH +
H+
is not oxidized by the
respiratory chain.
3. The conversion of pyruvate to lactate is the mechanism for
regeneration of NAD+
.
4. This helps continuity of glycolysis, as the generated NAD+ will be
used once more for oxidation of another glucose molecule.
Glucose → Pyruvate → Lactate
30. •As pyruvate enters the mitochondrion, a
multienzyme complex modifies pyruvate to
acetyl CoA which enters the Krebs cycle in the
matrix.
–A carboxyl group is removed as CO2.
–A pair of electrons is transferred from the
remaining two-carbon fragment to NAD+
to
form NADH.
–The oxidized
fragment, acetate,
combines with
coenzyme A to
form acetyl CoA.
Fig. 9.10
