The document summarizes human evolution from Australopithecus to Homo species. Key points include: - Australopithecus had smaller brains and more primitive tools than Homo. Homo habilis was the first toolmaker. - Homo erectus had a larger brain and more advanced tools than earlier species. It was the first hominin to spread globally. - Later Homo species like Homo neanderthalensis and Homo sapiens had even larger brains and more advanced stone tool technologies.

1. Fossil Hominins From Australopithecus to Homo

2. Model of Human Evolution: Australopithecus to Homo Australopithecus afarensis to A. africanus : Gracile Australopithecines Paranthropus robustus and boisei: Robust Australopithecines—Dead end? A. africanus to Homo habilis : Rise of tool manufacture? H. habilis to H. erectus: Global spread; increased tool assemblage H. erectus to H. sapiens: Tool specialization and population explosion H. neanderthalensis: Dead end?

3. Fossil Hominins: General Trends Large bulbous cranium Short face compared to ape Vertical carriage of head Hands and Forelimbs Adapted to Tool Making and Use Bipedal Structure of Postcranial Skeleton

4. Fossil Trends: Encephalization (Cranial Capacity Increase) A. afarensis: 390-500 cc; av. 440 cc A. africanus: 435-530 cc; av. 450 cc A./P robustus: 520 cc, one specimen A.P. boisei: 500-530 cc; av. 515 cc. H. habilis: 500-800 cc; av. 680 cc. H. erectus: 750-1250 cc; av. 1000 cc Neanderthal: 1300-1750 cc. av: 1450 H. (s.) sapiens: 900-2350 cc. av. 1400

5. Fossil Trends: Forelimbs and Hands Shortened forelimb Hands (manipulation, not locomotion) Enlarged thumb Straight, noncurved finger Enhanced finger sensitivity

6. Fossil Hominins: General Trends--Bipedalism S-shaped vertebrae (backbone) Short, wide, bowl-shaped pelvis Femoral head (ball of femur at pelvis) angled and strengthened Lengthened hindlimb Angle of knee: femur “slopes” to pelvis Platform (arched) structure of foot Nonopposable big toe; toes not curved

7. Lucy ( Australopithecus afarensis ) and Us (Homo sapiens) Note the Following: Shorter (3’6”) Longer arms Curved fingers Shorter lower legs Greater prognathism Sloped forehead Smaller cranial capacity What are the Similarities? Hint: it’s all related to bipedalism

8. Bipedalism: A. afarensis and H. sapiens compared, Fine Points

9. When We Became Bipedal (According to Gary Larson) “ Hey! Look! No hands!” (Does he look like Lucy to you. . .?)

10. Gracile and Robust Australopithecines For A. africanus (top), note: Somewhat rounder skull No Sagittal crest Prognathous jaw For Paranthropus boisei, note: Sagittal crest (ate a lot of veggies) Massive lower jaw (mandible) Flatter face Massive cheek bones (zygomatic arch)

11. Summary of Australopithecines Cranial capacity increased marginally All australopithecines had Sloping foreheads Prominent brow ridges Prognathous lower face and jaws Bipedal postcranial skeletons Robust forms probably were dead ends Graciles likely evolved toward Homo .

12. Australopithecus and Homo Compared—Frontal View Left: A. africanus Right: H. habilis Note: Different Cranial Capacities Brow Ridge Size

13. Australopithecus and Homo Compared—Side View Top: A. africanus Bottom: H. habilis Compare: Mass of Jaws Size of Crania Prognathism

14. Postorbital Constriction Left: Homo erectus Right: Australopithecus africanus Note the narrower constriction of A. africanus’s postorbital constriction than that of H. erectus

15. Homo habilis: The First Known Toolmaker Note the following: Face is much flatter Reduced brow ridge (supraorbital torus) Larger cranial capacity (680 cc.) Toolmaking Technique Hammerstone used to strike A core (lump of stone) to knap A Flake (stone chip) Note: Stone has to be crystalline (so it will fracture predictably)

16. Homo habilis According to Gary Larson

17. Australopithecines and Homo Compared I Cranial capacity Australopithecines: 400-530 cc Homo: 500-2300 Maximum braincase width Australopithecines: low on skull Homo: near top Postorbital constriction Australopithecines: marked Homo: moderate to slight

18. Australopithecines and Homo Compared II Supraorbital torus (brow ridge) Australopithecines: large to moderate Homo: large to slight Zygomatic arch Australopithecines: large, flaring Homo: small, not flaring

19. Australopithecines and Homo Compared III Facial size relative to brain case Australopithecines: large Homo: small Jaw A: Massive and prognathic; no chin H: Not massive Prognathism slight to nonexistent; Chin present in sapients Molars and premolars Australopithecines: large; afarensis with diastema Homo: small

20. Australopithecines and Homo Habilis Compared: Skulls General trends Encephalization: Cranial capacity increases Dentition: Cheek teeth are reduced Sagittal Crest (where chewing muscles attach) A./P. robustus and boisei: pronounced A. africanus: sagittal keel or absent H. habilis: absent

21. Australopithecines and Homo Habilis Compared: Skull/Face Braincase A./P. robustus/boisei: less rounded A. africanus: more rounded H. habilis: most rounded of the three Zygomatic arch A./P. robustus/boisei: very pronounced A. africanus: less pronounced H. habilis: far less pronounced than the australopithecines

22. Homo habilis: Hands and Feet Hands Curvature of finger bones are apelike, indicate powerful grip (arboreal) Indications of greater manipulative skill Larger blood supply to hand than earlier hominids Evidence of greater nerve supply Feet: existing fragments indicate modern form: Remains lacked toes

23. Tool Traditions: Oldowan Named after Olduvai Gorge Among the finds at Olduvai: Side chopper, a core tool Several flake tools, including End scraper Side scraper Burin Utilized flakes of unknown function Belongs to Lower Paleolithic

24. Manufacturing Choppers Procedure Knapper strikes a spherical piece of stone Flake falls off opposite side Tool flipped over and procedure repeated Several blows create a cutting edge Requirements reflect Intelligence Planning and foreknowledge of design Knowledge of breakage pattern of rock Hand-eye coordination

25. Oldowan Tradition End chopper Heavy duty scraper Flake scraper Spheroid Hammerstone Chopper Horn core tool or digger

26. Homo habilis and Homo erectus Compared to H. habilis, H erectus had: Larger brain (1000 cc vs 680 cc average) Forehead flatter, less sloping More rounded occipital torus endocasts indicate hemispheric asymmetry Homo erectus and Homo sapiens

27. Homo erectus or ergaster Note: Apelike but larger cranium Postcranial Skeleton Vertebrae: S Shaped Ribcage: Not funnel shaped, now like ours Pelvis: Bowl shaped Angle of Thighbone

28. Homo erectus and Homo Sapiens: Cranium (Braincase) Forehead (Frontal) H. erectus: sloping; low and flat H. sapiens: vertical, indicating frontal lobe Supraorbital torus (brow ridge) H. erectus: prominent--extending as a bar H. sapiens: slight or absent Occipital torus: H. erectus: present H. sapiens: slight or absent

29. Homo erectus and Homo sapiens: Cranium and Face Sagittal keel H. erectus: present; vestige of crest? H. sapiens: slight or absent Postorbital constriction H. erectus: pronounced H. sapiens: slight or nonexistent

30. Homo erectus and Homo sapiens: Facial Skeleton Facial skeletion H. erectus: Relatively large, with large orbits and nasal opening H. sapiens: Relatively small, with small orbits and nasal opening Prognathism (jutting jaw) H. erectus: Pronounced H. sapiens: minimal or nonexistent

31. Homo erectus and Homo sapiens skulls Compare: Brow ridges (supraorbital tori) Prognathism Constriction behind eye sockets (postorbital constriction) Presence versus absence of chin

32. Tool Traditions: Acheulean Named after St. Acheul Characteristics of Acheulean handaxe Bifacial: both sides knapped Symmetrical in breadth Shaped to a point on one end The edge is thin and sharp Broad end is curved, but edge is still sharp Part of Lower Paleolithic

33. Acheulean Axe as “Swiss Army Knife”; Abbevillean variation Swiss Army Rock? Sharp tip: used for piercing Thin edge: used for cutting (hide or meat off bone) Broad end: used for chopping or scraping Abbevillean Variation: Bifacial, like the Acheulean Not quite so symmetrical Olduvai specimen: transitional type?

34. Manufacturing Acheulean Handaxes A demanding task Symmetrical, finely shaped Dozens of flakes removed, from 25 to 75 Each flake blow must be precisely positioned Core must be turned over again and again to maintain symmetry to keep edge straight All the exterior rind ( cortex ) was removed

35. Abbevillian and Acheulean Handaxes Left: Abbevillian. Note asymmetry, rough retouch Right: Acheulean. Note symmetry, fine retouch

36. Homo heidelbergensis or “Archaic” Homo sapiens Left: Skull. Note heavy brow ridge, prognathism Right: Mandible. Note arc-like dental arcade, absence of diastema, absence of chin

37. Manufacturing Levallois Cores and Flakes Knappers Draw outline of flake on stone module Strikes flake of desired shape Requires knowledge of breakage pattern of rock Prepares rock beforehand to control how rock breaks when struck Ensure right shape (e.g. cutting, perforation, piercing) is struck

38. Levallois Flake and Flaking Technique

39. Homo neanderthalensis : Skeleton Left: Homo neanderthalensis Right : Homo sapiens Compare Relative thickness of bones Breadth of ribcages Size of skulls

40. Homo neanderthalensis: Cranium Left: H. neanderthalensis : note larger cranial size, occipital bun, prognathism, brow ridge Right : H. sapiens : Note rounded cranium, presence of chin, absence of prognathism and brow ridge

41. Mousterian Tradition Positively identified with Neanderhals Le Moustier, France is a Neanderthal site Belongs to Middle Paleolithic More sophisticated than Oldowan or Acheulean, both Lower Paleolithic

42. Mousterian Tool Assemblage Sample includes Scrapers, Points, and Handaxes

43. Upper Paleolithic: The Great Leap Forward? Probably begins about 50,000 BP Primary Attributes Shift from flake tools to blades Subsistence on greater range of animal and plant species Larger sites Increase of bone, antler, ivory, shell, and other materials for tools

44. Upper Paleolithic: Associated Attributes Associated Attributes Greater use of “imported” goods: raw materials obtainable only from great distances from inhabited sites which suggests trade More elaborate burials, with grave goods Appearance and elaborate use of symbols and works of art.

45. Upper Paleolithic: The Blades Blades begin roughly 40,000 Years BP Comparative efficiency Levallois cores may produce 5 flakes Many more blades could be produced from same core--and with longer cutting edge Unlike other traditions, blade traditions are shorter lived Oldowan: from ca.2.5 m. yrs BP Acheulean: from ca 1.9 m. yrs BP

46. Upper Paleolithic Assemblage Upper Paleolithic Tools (left to right): biconical bone point, Perigordian flint blade, prismatic blade core, Soluterean Willow leaf point, double-row barbed harpoon point (various sites in France)

47. To Sum Up: Representatives of Five Species The species: 1. Australopithecus afarensis 2. Australopithecus africanus 3. Homo habilis 4. Homo erectus 5. Homo neanderthalensis