Negrito Race: The Ultimate Link of Filipinos to the World

Running Head: NEGRITO RACE: THE ULITMATE LINK OF FILIPINOS TO THE WORLD 1

Negrito Race: The Ultimate Link of Filipinos to the World

Jewel D. Mercader

Anthropology Division

National Museum of the Philippines

Padre Burgos st., Manila

NEGRITO RACE: THE ULTIMATE LINK OF FILIPINOS TO THE WORLD 2

Abstract

Essentially, this paper discusses the significance of Negritos with regards to

Filipinos‘ relation to the rest of the people of the world. This is supported by previous

accounts stating that the Negrito people are one of the earliest modern humans and

extant species settlers of the country, next to Mamanuas of Agusan; thus also part of

the earliest migrations to inhabit the earth. With respect to the forerunners of the

studies on this subject, notable anthropologists and researchers, their contributions,

methods and approaches are briefly talked over. In addition, earliest accounts on

pygmies before studies of scholars are shown. An introduction on Negrito Filipinos

is tackled including its brief history, distribution, acculturation and relationship with

the non-Negritos. Also, the author has gladly compiled a few substantial claims with

regard to the Great Wave Migration (Out-of-Africa and other several supporting and

opposing theories). Significant archaeological, physiological and genetic findings are

presented. Ultimately, a conclusion on the above studies, a reflection on the

significance of Negritos to Filipinos and a world view on human race are shared.



Cultural communities in the Philippines are often regarded as pagans,

minorities, barbarians and other derogatory labels. They make up about eight

percent of the Filipino people and apparently they are marginalized one way or

another. The Negritos who are thought to be one of the earliest modern human and

extant settlers in the country, next to Mamanuas, are not considered ―Filipinos‖,

noted by the Ilustrados. In Filomeno Aguilar‘s Tracing Origins, Renato Constantino

pointed out that the designation ―Filipino‖ originally referred to Spaniards born in the

colonial Philippines, but it was transformed by Ilustrados into a ‗class concept‘ until it

finally embraced the entire nation and became a means of national identification.

What Rizal considered ‗ancient Filipinos‘ are those who are civilized. He has a clear

distinction of his perception of the Malay-Filipinos—those who were civilized and

have accepted Christianity and not those who lived in the mountains. Those who

settled in the lowlands who were part of the third migratory wave were the ones

Ilustrados consider having racial and cultural affinity with.(2005) In terms of human

race, which is basically distinguished through sharing the same physical features or

classified through historical accounts such as wave migrations, it is agreeable that

Negritos are not Malay-Filipinos. However, to extend the implied discrimination on

treating these Negritos as ‗aliens‘ from the land they belong to is unfair. They are

just like the others who fostered and took care of the country‘s natural resources.

Although it seems that the feeling is mutual, when according to Lawrence Reid‘s

Historical Linguistics and Philippine Hunter-Gatherers, Negrito groups are careful to

maintain their own identity, distinguishing themselves from their neighbors by

developing distinctive linguistic emblems, by calling themselves ‗Negrito person‘, and

having a distinct term for all non-Negrito people.(2007)


Nonetheless, for the sake of self-awareness, it is still righteous to give them respect

and recognize their legacy in this country. We may have our differences, but it

cannot be denied that they are still part of this one big family of Filipinos, thus

contribute to its unified cultural identity.

Pioneering Scholars and Earliest Accounts on Pygmies

This section of the paper was referred from Rahmann‘s The Philippine

Negritos in the Context of Research on Food-Gatherers During this Century. (1975,

pp. 204-236)

S.V.D (Societas Verbi Divini) is one of the earliest institutions which showed

great concern and interest on studying ‗pygmies‘ pioneered by Arnold Janssen. He

guided then the notable Father Wilhelm Schmidt (founder of Anthropos) with his

researches. Father Paul Schebesta was also a member of the society belonging to

the first post-Schmidt generation. People mentioned above agree with the same

school of thought. Other anthropologists who played significant role in the society

are Fritz Bornemann, Hermann Hochegger and Jesus Azcona.

There were a number of researchers who dwelled on Philippine Negritos such

as Father Morice Vanoverbergh (started 1925) on Negritos of northern Luzon; Father

Schebesta on Philippine Negritos in general along with the Semang of Malaysia and

pygmies of Central Africa. Also Gusinde, accompanied by Marcelino Maceda spent

a few weeks in Panay, and then went to study the Mamanua in northeastern

Mindanao. However they were not able to finish this research. As per the first

accounts on Pygmy peoples, it is known that Georg Schweinfurth was the first to re-

discover the African Pygmies (after the ancient Egyptians), by meeting some of them

in a Congo village. After then, in 1929, Schebesta began his systematic field work

among Pygmies of Central Africa.


Back to the Ancient Egyptians who first encountered the pygmies, it is said

that they had a good knowledge of the dwarfs in tropical Africa who were highly

cherished cultic dancers at the court of the pharaohs. The account was supported

by a letter of Pharaoh Phiops II of the Sixth Dynasty, 2500-2300 B.C.(Rahmann,

1975, p. 207) Also, ca. 800 B.C., pygmies had come to the attention of the Greeks

and Romans even at the time of Homer. This had a rather extensive, although

vague knowledge of the African pygmies when these people were only mentioned in

a passage/third song in Iliad. Later, St. Augustine and St. Albert the Great reckoned

the pygmies to be among the human monstrosities and asked whether they were

descendants of Noah and ultimately, of Adam.

A better understanding on food gatherers was gained only after some

erroneous views had been expressed. This was started by Ernst Haeckel when he

advocated biogenetic law which upholds that ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny (this

was soon rejected). This was followed by J. Kollman advocating a special

evolutionary theory. He considered the pygmies of our time as the last remnants of

the original pygmy races. This was also assumed by Schmidt, however in contrast,

he said that there was only one uniform Pygmy race originally. Eugen Fischer

opposed Kollman by advocating the degeneration theory when he pioneered studies

on human heredity. He said that the African pygmies only developed their present

economy, food gathering, when they moved from the steppe into virginal forest. This

was opposed by Schebesta saying that Bambuti culture is of a primary-primitive

nature and developed within the virginal forest though he admitted that there was a

mutation towards a bodily pygmaean growth. On the other hand, Rudolf Martin

agrees partly with Kollman that the low stature of the Semang was an original

element that was preserved by heredity and not a form of degeneration. Rudolf


Poech distinguished five groups of Pygmy peoples: Southeast Asian Negritos,

central African Pygmies, the Bushmen, the Lapps, and the Veddoid wherein he did

not assume their racial unity.

Schebesta however made a few points on the study of the problem of racial

affinity between the Negritos of Southeast Asia and the African Pygmies: Only the

Andamanese, Semang and the Philippine Aeta belong to the Negritos and that their

characteristics exhibit them as Negroid. The Negrito race constitutes racial elements

of melanosoid, Veddoid, premongoloid and australoid origin together with the Negrito

base, thus it is not a homogenous race. Ultimately, Negritos are not Pygmies but

there is a possible genetic connection between them. Schmidt on the other hand,

dealt with the pygmies‘ belief on the existence of a high god or Supreme being.

Schmidt was inspired by Andrew Lang‘s work who asserted that the belief in high

god existed among the materially low tribes of Southeast Australia and among the

Andamanese.

Several anthropologists followed and because of all their extensive work, food

gathering culture is now well known somatologically and culturally but there are more

to know. Comprehensive monographs and comparative studies on Philippine

Negritos might be extended to the Semang and Andamanese as a check on

Schebesta‘s hypothesis of a basic cultural unity of Southeast Asian Negritos. Also,

not just cultural anthropology, but social anthropology and applied anthropology

should have a full share in the scholarly endeavor.

Negritos of the Philippines

Brief History and Distribution

Aetas are tentatively known as the first modern human settlers in the country

who came around 30,000 years ago via land bridges, coming from Mainland Asia


when the Malay Peninsula was still somehow connected with the Sundaland.(Noval-

Morales, 1979, pp. 5-7) After some time, based from genetic studies of Omoto, the

Mamanuas of Agusan are thought to have arrived to the archipelago as early as

50,000 years ago. (III. Identification of the Carbonic Anhydrase-1 Variant, 1981)

Negritos are thought to have come from the same race as the Great Andamanese of

Andaman Islands, Semang of Malaysia and Mani of Thailand. They are low-statured

people whose main occupation and skill is hunting and gathering. When new and

more advanced migrants came into the Philippines, they moved and lived into the

mountains. As per the map updated by Dr. Jesus Peralta of the ethnic groups in the

Philippines,(The Filipino People: Differentiation and Distribution Based on Linguistic,

Cultural and Racial Criteria, 1974) it showed that Negritos are composed of Aburlin,

Agta (Angat, Casiguranin Dumagat, Central Cagayan, Ebukid, Iriga, Isarog,

Katabaga, Manide, Abiyan, Northeast Cagayan, Palanan, Roso, Sta. Margarita

Tageilog, Umiray Dumagat, Villaviciosa, and Yaga), Alta, Atta, Ati, Ayta (Bataan,

Tayabas, and Zambales) and Batak. The Mamanuas who are considered negritos

earlier are listed separately.

According to William Reed,(Negritos of Zambales, 1904) Negritos of more or

less pure blood, known variously as Aeta, Agta, Baluga, Dumagat etc. are found in at

least eleven other provinces of Luzon. On the mainland of the Province of Tayabas,

the Negritos are generally called Aeta and maybe regarded as being to a large

degree of pure blood. On another note, Zuniga said that the eastern side of

Cordillera is also the undisputed possession of Negritos and the only spot in the

Philippines in which the original masters of the Archipelago were hold of unrestricted

possession. Quoting Blumentritt‘s opinion by William Reed, it is said that the number

of Negritos will not exceed 25,000. Of these the group largest in numbers and


probably purest in type is that in the Zambales mountain range, western Luzon. The

Negritos of Panay, Negros and Mindanao are also to be regarded as pure to large

extent. On the east side of Luzon and in the Island of Paragua, there is a marked

evidence of admixture.

Lifestyle and Acculturation

According to Headland‘s The Casiguran Dumagats Today and in 1936, (1975)

Negritos are basically nomadic and would move into different sites in accordance to

weather and availability of resources. Their resting places are more often than not

elevated from the ground. The flooring has a length of a man but the shade/roof has

a height less than of a man. In a collective setting, they would form their huts in a

circle so that they are able to see everyone while dancing, performing rituals and

anything under the sun. They practice a simple way of living wherein they find

contentment. An interviewed negrito by Thomas Headland in this study, mentioned

that they do not want to get accustomed with change, for when they do, they would

never stop looking for it and would not be able to settle in life--making them unhappy.

Dwellings of Negritos in various regions also differ. In Orion, Bataan province,

floors consist of three or four whole bamboos. They would also eat on banana

leaves. In Tuao, Cagayan, they would have a rectangular roof. Their rice would

come from Kalingas and during meal, they always desire for salt. Amongst all

negritos, they are the ones who bathe the most. The Casiguran Dumagats‘ usual

dwellings from then and now are lean-tos hut with low and and unwalled shed. In

food, their staple meal would be rice or processed starch extracted from the soft

inner pulp of the caryota palm. To obtain rice, they make trades with the Malay with

hunted deer, wild pig and monkey. They also gather some seafood for

supplementary viand. In terms of drinking, even since then, Dumagat people love to


drink liquor/‘tuba‘. It has been a part of their daily routine that it has brought serious

problems to their community with regards to productivity and health concerns.

As per their occupation, they all started as keen hunters and gatherers but as

time went by, more and more Negritos chose to work as laborers for the Malays to

afford other necessities. In connection to this, ‗ahibay‘ system (socioeconomic trade

relationship between Dumagat and Malay) was developed. This system upholds the

idea of having a ‗debt of gratitude‘ or ‗utang na loob‘ between the two groups in a

way that Malay Filipinos would act as go-betweens or spokesmen of the Dumagat

people in marriages and help them with other economic transactions, while in return,

the latter would help the former and serve them as laborers. Sometimes this system

is abused however it is still notable that a lot of Malay and Dumagat people are loyal

and are in good terms with each other.

In clothing, men and boys usually wear G-string and girls wear ‗tapis‘.

Married ones would be usually bare from waist and up but single girls would wrap

the ‗tapis‘ around covering their breasts. In the late 1960s, women began to use

machine-sewed clothes and men started to wear long or short pants. Dumagat men

and women are also naturally modest so to speak; when they undress or bathe, they

cover their genitals (neither the woman assisting in childbirth would dare to look

under the blanket of the pregnant woman). Another customary to the Negritos is the

filing of teeth and gums but thought to be not indigenous to the group; instead it was

influenced by the Ilongots. They also cut geometric designs using glass blades onto

the back and outer arms (padit). Filing of teeth and cutting geometric designs are

done for aesthetic purposes.

Dumagat women usually go under puberty at age 17 and then marry, while

men marry on their early twenties. They also practice the ‗sakad‘ system of the


Panay negritos. It is when the groom-to-be visits the girl‘s house three times and

then consummates their love eventually. Negritos are strictly monogamous although

two cases had been reported which showed practice on having more than one wife.

There had been no case of rape/sexual abuse neither divorce, unless the other has

eloped.

Religion has been consistently animist but through time they had an idea of

‗God‘ and were speculated to have been influenced by the advent of Christianity.

Education was obviously oriented and encouraged to the Dumagat people though

ever since, they had been very reluctant of heeding to the system, thus very few

Dumagat are literate and might also one big reason why there had been a little

change in their culture and customs. In language, in light with defining basic

elements of an earlier Negrito culture, it was concluded that no linguistic elements

held in common among the Negrito groups which are distinct from other Philippine

groups.

In conclusion, there had been little change in culture of the Negrito which

might be caused by minimal orientation with education. Most of the changes

occurred after 1960; for example, instead of continuing the hunting and gathering

custom, most Negritos now just work as laborers for the Malays. Lastly, their

population gets even worse having a ratio of twenty-three to one between Malays

and Negritos respectively.

Relationship with the Non-Negritos

In Tessa Minter‘s paper Contemporary Relations between Agta and Their

Farming (2009), it presented three cases including the three places wherein Agtas

are mostly situated in the northern Luzon: Divisoria, Diangu and Disabungan. The

whole study focused on whether the farmers and foragers are mutually dependent to


each other or the latter being exploited by the former. The Agta and farmers

underwent turbulent circumstances from the past century; the relationship between

the two has had many fluctuations. In the end, it is understood that neither gives an

accurate disposition of the case – that over time, relations between Agta and non-

Agta may develop, breakdown, and redevelop. They may be characterized by

tension or intimacy. They may be mutually beneficial or exploitative. However, it

seems that which greatly influences the relationship between the foragers and

farmers is the pressure on land.

Speaking of land matters, Lourdes Amos, on her Cultural Integrity: Promoting

Cultural Survival and Decentralizing Good Forest Governance in Ancestral Domains:

The Agta-Dumagat People: Province of Aurora, Philippines,(2003) discussed the

case of the Agta-Dumagat as an example of how the complex interstices of capital

interests, local and national government and local community interests can be

successfully negotiated for an end result of respect for Indigenous People‘s

customary rights and good forest governance.

The IPRA was enacted by Ramos in 1997, for recognition, protection and

promotion of the Indigenous People‘s rights. However this threatened migrant

settlers to be excluded from access within the Ancestral Domains. To take note, the

Agta-Dumagat benefit from the subsistence value of their traditional resources while

migrant settlers and private groups benefit from commercial potential of these

resources—thus, conflicts arouse. According to Larsen, in forming a common

management strategy, the varying interests of local people over resource use needs

to be balanced by inter-relating cultural development and environmental justice.

In light with the above mentioned strategy, it is good to know that the

authorities of the Agta-Dumagat promote inclusive decision-making through


consensus processes in a centralized system of collective leadership. Having the

idea of consensus decision-making is good but the one that has to be worked out is

the decentralization of power. Achieving cultural independence within a symbiotic

relationship between the Agta-Dumagat and the migrant settlers/private groups is the

key to have a just and harmonious access to the ancestral domains. A few

organizations have initiated this advocacy (TAGPUAN, KASAPI, NCIPP and PLANT)

along with the six Agta-Dumagat organizations. Their campaign fostered the

concept of pre-conquest rights to lands and domains primarily Native Title and

Cultural Integrity.

With symbiotic living being said, it must consider the benefits of both parties.

It is understood that development in the cultural context is geared towards devising

means of promoting cultural heritage and passing it down to posterity -- in which

Agta-Dumagat are mostly concerned of. With a financial help from other government

and private groups, state and development of the ancestral domains will be secured

and Agta Dumagat customs and traditions will be preserved. To determine the use

of the Domain, sharing it with the non-IP, the IP conducts an initial review of

traditional patterns of resource use and is overlaid onto those that exist at present.

Thus, in conclusion it has been decided that specific land use within the Domain is

now classified as agricultural/settlement/residential, hunting/fishing ground, and

sacred ceremonial/burial sites. To date, TAGPUAN is involved in facilitating

community protocols and decision-making is still consensus.

Great Wave Migration Theories (Out-of-Africa and Other Supporting and

Opposing Theories)

This section was primarily referred from George Weber‘s website Lonely

Islands (2009). Also, all figures used were taken from this web-site.


The Andaman Association built by George Weber aims to document and

explain further the scientific study of all aspects of the Negrito and other

remnant people in Asia and elsewhere in the world, their ethnology,

anthropology, genetics, archaeology, prehistory and history, their outside

relationships to other populations and (if not extinct) their present situation -

and last but not least their place in the origins and history of the human

race.(Weber, The Andaman Association, 2009)

Reading a few of their articles helped so much in providing information about

the human race, specifically the Great Wave Migration.

According to this website, which the author of this paper thinks most would

agree is that, the whole point of continuously studying the human race is to be able

to have complete new insights into the human condition, its past, its origins and

perhaps even its future. While anthropologists and other concerned scholars deal on

wave migrations, one striking problem has to be considered, and that is the strange

lack of variation in the modern human genome. This means that there had to be a

mother of all genetic bottlenecks in our relatively recent past. It is thought that the

Toba volcanic eruption (73,000 years ago) played an important role in the vast lost of

genetic variety since the Great migration (Out-of-Africa) started 100,000 years ago.

In this Great Wave Migration, some groups stayed in Africa while others took their

journey.


1. The mtDNA gene flow shows the routes various modern people took to get
to where they are now and where groups split off from a source population.
From a genetic perspective, all humans are therefore Africans, either residing
in Africa or in recent exile.

Genetically speaking, we can group the human species into 5 groups which

are African, European, Asian, Austronesian and Papuan/Australian.

2. The genetic relationships within the human race today (or at least of many
major groups within it) has been published by L.L. Cavalli-Sforza et al, 1994,
The History and geography of Human Genes, Princeton University Press.
(This chart is an adaptation)


In accordance to human evolution, a very human-like presence of two sets of

footprints were found in Laetoli, Tanzania (East Africa) which were made roughly 3.7

million years ago and most likely candidate species of Australopithecus afarensis

(known to have lived in the area 3.2 million years ago). Another was recently

discovered on the now dormant Italian Roccamonfina volcano from north of Naples.

With all of these findings, we might want to know what first made the first humans

different. It is said that the ancestors of the early humans were omnivorous; eating

anything except if it is poisonous. Latter, the early humans soon discovered that

while running, they could also throw stones and then developed their skill into

hunting, now by throwing pointed sticks. A pebble tool was found out in Ethiopia and

is thought to have been hammered into the shape of a scraper 2.5 million years ago.

Chimpanzees, however, have been observed using pebbles as hammers to crack

open nuts.

The next chart is a rough-and-ready sketch of human and pre-human species

with the help of skimpy archaeological and genetic evidences provided by the living

and the dead. Of all the pre-humans discovered, the Neanderthal Man or Homo

neanderthalensis is the one which puts conflict on the initial suggested theory that

apes, pre-humans and everything genetically connected came from Africa, since

Neanderthal remnants were never found in Africa except for the tools under the

stone tool technology of the Mousterian and Levalloisian technology, which is said to

be initiated by these people. The Great Human Migration must have begun to

intrude into Neanderthal territory from before 70,000 years ago when it is thought

that they were pushed by the migrating Homo sapiens in the area (Europe). Their

last known traces were found in a cave near Gibraltar, dated to 24,000 years ago.

Also, the enigmatic remains of pre-human species in Java and China (among a few


others) suggest that there have been some early ―Out of Africa‖ migrations long

before Homo sapiens existed, should the former remnants could not be explained as

‗local developments‘.

3. The chart shows a selection of Homo and pre-Homo species.

As earlier mentioned, some stayed in Africa while others joined the Great

Wave Migration. These people who stayed are the Sanid people (Khoisan) and

Negrids (Capoids). Studies in molecular genetics have shown that of all human

groups the Khoisans are the closest to the roots of the Homo sapiens family tree,

and that they are the oldest identifiable surviving human group today.The Negrids

and Sanid people just had a clear separation from each other from around 5,000

years ago, when the former were pushed by the latter to go to the south of Africa.

Around 5,000 years ago the Bantu began to dramatically develop their metal-working


skills and produced superior weapons which led to improved agricultural and

horticultural skills and eventually caused population explosion (Bantu explosion).

This event led to large-scale colonization of the the territories of the hunter-gatherer

Khoisanids. This discovery led researchers to speculate that the growing

technological sophistication might have encouraged the most successful groups to

expand, to conquer better hunting grounds, thus to migrate. However according to

George Weber, this is just something interesting to think about and is purely

hypothetical. Also, this might not be applied generally since for example according

to Dr. Jesus T. Peralta, in the Philippines, the earliest carbon 14 date flake tools

obtained from Tabon cave were for about 30,000 years B.C, and that these are

made exactly the same as the tools found in Cagayan Valley which date about

700,000 years earlier.(Glances: Prehistory of the Philippines, 2011) This means that

people then have been using the same technology and was just later on modified

about 100,000 or more years ago.

During the Great Wave Migration which started 100,000 years ago, those

people who came out of Africa branched into two directions which are the southern

and northern routes. The southern branch had more or less, reached their present

location before 30,000 years ago. This include the Dravidians in India, the Negrito in

India and Southeast Asia, the Papuans in Newguinea and some Pacific islands, the

Australians in Australia and the Tasmanians in Tasmania. Thus descendants are

specifically the Andamanese, Nicobarese, Shompen, Mani, Semang, Tasmanians,

Palau Islanders and if proven true, some of the oldest Americans/pre-Amerinds who

are Pericuans and Fuegians. However, vaguely, some Negrito-like groups have

existed in southern China and have not been there for at least several thousand


years, thus possible related people survivors, however still managed to hang on in

Taiwan.

4. Southern Branch Migration

There is some slight controversial evidence that outliers of the southern

branch may have reached the Americas, as early as 50,000 years ago when wind

and sea currents in the Pacific could have been favorable to carrying lost sailors

eastwards towards America. These evidences include human traces in Monte Verde

dated to 30,000 years, oldest finds dated to 36,000 years in Pedra Furada, Brazil

and the Pericu tribe, an unusual group on the Californian peninsula in Mexico(these

could have been among the last survivors of a pre-Amerind population, although the

tribe died out during the late 18th century).

The people who joined the Northern Migration, on the other hand had a

problem adapting to a drastic change in climate moving into the north from Africa.

What attracted them to go to the icy north must have been the enormous amount of

meat available like mammoth, elks, deer, wooly rhinoceros and many others who

once lived in now largely empty Siberia. These people were the ancestors of today‘s

Europids and Mongolids (many Siberian people, Chinese, Mongolian, Korean,

Japanese, Vietnamese, and Burmese) as well as less directly, of the modern Inuit-


eskimo and the Amerindians. The ancestors lived in Siberia for about 60,000 years

(long enough for them to adapt to the climate). Once they had dark skin colors but

then this eventually changed to white or yellow. The slit eyes of Mongoloids are also

probably an adaptive measure against cold and especially glare from the sun.

12,000 to 10,000 years ago, climate in Siberia warmed dramatically and

plentiful food animals died out, thus Homo sapiens had to adapt or perish. The two

main Siberian human groups, Mongolid and Europid had to look for new hunting

grounds. Mongolid moved mostly south towards what is now China and Southeast

Asia. This event must be connected with the remarkable patchwork of people and

languages in Siberia. On the way, they seem to have hived off a group which moved

east into the Americas and became the Amerind people and later the Inuit and

Aleuts.

5. Northern Branch Migration

They say the Austronesians though are the offshoot of both Northern and

Southern Branches. Earliest traces of modern humans in Taiwan dated around

30,000 years ago suggest that they might have been part of Southern Migration and


were related to Negrito, Papuans and Australians. Thinking that China, the mainland

of Taiwan was greatly involved also in the Northern Branch at the time, there might

had been a mingling of people at the fringes of China, including Taiwan, coming from

both Northern and Southern Migrations. Around 5,000 years ago, prehistoric

Taiwanese started the Austronesian explosion, the time when civilization of Ur in

Mesopotamia was in its flower while Chinese civilization had only just begun.

However according to Solheim‘s Nusantao Maritime Trading and

Communication Network theory which was carefully based on artifact findings, said

that trade network first spread in Asia-Pacific consisting of both Austronesian and

non-Austronesian. Instead of Taiwan as the origin of Austronesians, he placed it in

the ‗Early Central Lobe‘ or in Eastern coastal Vietnam at around 9000BC. He

suggested that people spread around 5000BC in the ‗Late Central lobe‘ including

Philippines, southern China and Taiwan. From there, Austronesian became the

official language and continued to spread eastward and westward. Solheim‘s idea

was more akin to concentric circles compared to Bellwood‘s linear

expansion.(Wikipedia, 2012) Austronesians were the earliest wet-rice farmers and

known to have settled along the coast of the East and the South China Seas. These

people have been the world‘s most daring and successful seafarers the world has

ever seen.

Negrito Migration

Following the southern branch migration out-of-Africa, the aboriginal Filipinos

(Negritos) descended from ancestors who came from Central Africa passing through

Indian subcontinent and then reached the Andamanese Islands. It went through

Southeast Asia and is now known as the ‗Orang Asli‘ or Semang in Malaysia and

Aetas in Philippines. Jesuit Francisco Colin in 1663 said that the Negritos from India


were only pushed away by the succeeding civilized migrants from Sumatra, Java,

Borneo and Macassar. Moving on and still following the wave migration, it seemed

that Australia was first inhabited by immigrants around 50,000 years ago passing

through Indonesian archipelago. Prior to that, the Andamanese formed part of a

large Southeast Asia.(Padilla, 2000) These Great Andamanese are now confidently

considered as of the same kind of Negritos like Aeta of the Philippines, Mani of

Thailand and Semang of Malaysia. The question is whether the less unified Negrito

population just broken up and largely destroyed by the Great Migrations of modern

speaking languages of Austronesian(Malayan etc.), Austroasiatic (Khmer, Nicobari,

etc.) and Sino-Tibetan (Thai, Burmese, etc.) families from the North about 8,000 and

5,000 years ago.(Weber, Prehistory and Theories, 2006)

Significant Findings on Migration and Genetic Relations of Negrito Race

Archaeological

Pottery and Shell Middens:

According to Reid Lawrence, provided that the earliest movement of Neolithic

peoples came from Taiwan around 4500 to 4000 years ago, it is speculated that prior

to this movement of Austronesian-speaking group, Philippines was probably

occupied by several separate groups, with widely disparate languages. Also, these

people before the Austronesian-speaking group have occupied coastal areas as they

still do in northern Luzon and broad river valleys. Thus, we are to consider the

founded extensive shell middens and other pre-Neolithic remains near Lal-lo and

other sites along the lower Cagayan River in northern Luzon dated to 5000 BP, a

thousand years prior to the arrival of Austronesians in the area.(Reid, 2007) The

‗Out-of-Taiwan‘ movement was supported by archaeological evidences such as

pottery from Torongan and Sunget in the Batanes Islands between Taiwan and


Luzon which were dated to between 3600 and 3000 BP recovered from site at

Nagsabaran Cagayan Valley of Northern Luzon.

Stone Tool Industries (Microliths):

According to George Weber it is important to connect a specific population

whether extinct or alive to a specific prehistoric tool technology that is discovered.

For one example is the study of archaeological findings of the Andamans or

Tasmanians. It is speculated that the stone tools found in Andamanese kitchen

midden are closely related to the Toalean stone tool industry which on the other

hand started and were found all over the Indonesian archipelago and beyond. This

might conclude that if Andamanese tools are Toalean, all Toalean must have been

made by Negrito, but something quite impossible. However, it is considerable that if

Andamanese used Toalean, then Negrito ancestors were much more widespread in

the past and not isolated then as they were during the last 2,200 years.

It is found that microliths in South Sulawesi are of the same Toalean type as

the stone tools found in Andamanese kitchen midden. Toalean is dated back to mid-

Holocene found in number of caves in Sulawesi, Indonesia around 6000BC up to 1st

millennium AD overlapping the pottery from the late 3 rd millennium BC. Also, some

of the Toalean findings are found, aside from Sulawesi, in areas wherein Negritoid

people are still living. (Weber, Prehistory and Theories, 2006)

There is also a thought whether the Hoabinhian stone tool industry had been

a forerunner of Toalean. The former flourished around 17,000 to around 3,000 years

from the present. On the other hand, there is no evidence that Negrito groups used


Hoabinhian tools except that two sites (Sumatra and Southern China) wherein both

are still Negritoid territories were found with these tools. (Ibid.)

In Philippine studies, stone tools were also excavated in Cagayan Valley,

along with fossils of an extinct animal, elephas, on the same bedrock layer, which

known to have lived around 750,000 years ago. According to Dr. Jesus Peralta,

(Glances: Prehistory of the Philippines, 2011) these stone tools were made exactly

the same as the tools used by the found Homo erectus earlier in Indonesia (Java

man) and China (Peking man). Thus, to date, it is considered that Homo erectus

people are the first inhabitants of the archipelago. This is another one of the many

probable proofs of having earlier migration long before the Great Wave Migration.

Nevertheless, continues works are pursued to finally find the remains of the people

who made these stone tools.

Fossil Finds:

The following list of archaeological fossil finds was taken from George

Weber‘s web-site, Lonely Islands. (2009) This is a compilation of evidences

gathered, accumulated and evaluated over the past 200 years. Those findings

which date earlier than the said Great Wave Migration has started, suggest that

there could have been earlier migrations, provided that these are not ‗local

developments‘ within the area.


In the Philippines, in 2007, Armand Salvador discovered the Callao man in

Callao Cave through its metatarsal remains, which was found to be about 67,000

years old. Its biological classification is still uncertain whether it is a modern human

or a Homo floresiensis (the latter is sometimes treated as a subspecies or a

pathological specimen of the former). Earlier, Robert Fox also discovered a skull

cap of a Homo sapiens sapiens in Tabon Cave, Palawan which dated to 22 to 23

thousand years old.(Peralta, Glances: Prehistory of the Philippines, 2011) The

Tabon man indicates that it was Pre-Mongoloid. However two experts opined that

the mandible is ‗Australian‘, and that these people cannot be Negritos.(Wikipedia,

2012)

Physiological

In David Barrow‘s The Negrito and the Allied Types in the Philippines,(1910) it

revealed the presence of Negrito blood of several other pagan people in the

Philippines determined by measurement and observation of physical features from

those who are considered pure Negrito.

The Negritos who were first measured and considered of pure blood are those

from south slope of Mount Mariveles in Bataan. Subjects were assessed with

accordance to the methods of Topinard‘s system of nomenclature: stature/arm

reach, cephalic index (long heads/dolichocephalic, medium heads/mesaticephalic,

broad or round heads/brachycephalic), nasal index (broad and flat nose/platyrhinian,

medium nose/mesorhinian, and thin high nose/leptorhinian), skin color (dark brown,

yellowish/saffron, light), hair, muscular development, eyes and lips.

As per the pure blooded Negritos, it was found out that their stature is

distinctly ‗pigmy‘ and they have unusually long arms; their heads while usually


decidedly round (brachycephalic), has considerable variation and approaches

mesaticephaly; the shape of their nose is peculiar wherein the root is deeply

depressed and the bridge is short and low with an end rounding and bulbous

(platyrhinian). The Negritos‘ color is dark brown with a hair typically African (kinky

and grows in little clusters). Their body proportion is good except that the head

appears a little large and the arms are excessively long. They are usually slender

than stocky and their eyes are pretty, dark brown in color and well opened. Their lips

are full and their chins are slightly retreating, their ears are well shaped and

attached.

Moving on to the North, the author has also measured some Igorots. All in all,

the researcher was able to measure 53 Igorots wherein 8 are women. In conclusion,

Igorot is one of the exceptionally short races, with long arms, muscular race of dark

brown to saffron skin color, with black hair which is usually straight or wavy, having

full lips and broad noses, with high nasal index and heads usually mesaticephalic or

brachycephalic. Apparently, some distinct features are Negrito, or at least

characteristic of the black race of Oceania, still however, at base, they are Malayan,

especially in consideration of their culture.

In terms of the Ilongot, after the test was done to a few, it was found out that

their stature is a little less than the average of Igorot, who are brachycephalic and

platyrhinian; although color is much lighter than the Igorots for they are less exposed

to sunlight, but neither comparable to white or Mongol races. As per its culture, it is

a composite of Malayan and Negrito elements.

David Barrow also added that the Ilongots resemble the ‗Sakay‘ of the Malay

Peninsula who exhibit both Negrito and Malayan characters. In the end, the author


believed that the Sakay, like so many of the types of the Philippines, is an exhibit to

the widely diffused Negrito element in Malayan peoples.

Genetics

Understanding Negrito Race in General

This section was referred from George Weber‘s article on Andamanese:

Genetics and Possible Relations.(2006) This article gave significant information on

human variability which includes race based on Genetics using individual differences

in DNA sequence. The responsible researchers characterized whole-genome

patterns of common human DNA variation genotyping 1,586,383 nucleotide

polymorphisms (SNPs) in 71 Americans of European, African and Asian ancestry.

The results showed a strong correlation between extended regions of linkage

disequilibrium and functional genomic elements, providing a tool for exploring

questions with regards to causal role of common human DNA on genetic variation

within and between human populations.

The study used haplogroups, group of haplotypes (series of alleles) which

determine genetic traits. All known haplogroups are present in sub-saharan Africa

and that many occur only there, supporting the theory that everyone came out from

the continent.

It was given emphasis that one of the most sought-after ethnic groups to be

used as basis of studies on human race is the Andamanese, for they were isolated

for the longest time of all, maybe next to the Khoisans of Africa. They are included

as one of the Negritos or suspected relatives along with the Semang of Malay

Peninsula, Aeta of Philippines, Vedda of Sri-Lanka, Dravidian group, Tasmanians in


Australia, Papuans, Khoisan of South Africa, Congo pygmies, Pericu of the

Calfornian peninsula in Mexico and the remnants of southernmost South America

which are the Fuegians.

It was also mentioned that though Negritos, such as the Andamanese, who

settled in their areas not going back to more than 2,200 years ago, are not African

pygmies; there are however fascinating connections to the Khoisan of South Africa.

It can be assumed too that the Negritos represent an ancient if not the most ancient

component in the prehistoric peopling of Asia by anatomically modern humans as

such they could go back 70,000 years ago.

There are two opposing school of thoughts with regards to the Negritos and

their relationships to other population. First holds that Negritos were one group living

in a large area of tropical Asia many thousands of years ago when new and more

aggressive immigrants arrived who pushed the Ancestral Negritos and Veddoids into

the remoter jungle areas. This school has received a massive boost from the latest

genetic evidence. The other school of thought holds that Negritoid and Veddoid

groups developed independently from each other and are not really related, thus,

similarities are not regarded as ancestral traits but result of similar life style in similar

environments. This school‘s impression seemed baffling; hence it is more than a

little doubtful whether the various and originally quite different groups had enough

time for physical adaptations of near-perfect similarity to have occurred.

A study on the evolutionary history of Andaman was also presented in the

article from the American Journal of Human Genetics.(Kashyap, 2003) Genetic and

epigenetic data are interpreted as favoring the long-term isolation of the

Andamanese, extensive population substructure and/or two temporally distinct


settlements. An early colonization featured populations bearing mtDNA line M2, and

this lineage is hypothesized to represent the phylogenetic signal of an early southern

movement of humans through Asia. This suggested that there may have been at

least distinguishable founding events for the Andaman Islands; the earlier one could

be as early as the southern migration out-of-Africa.

The early colonization of the Andaman archipelago by bearers of the M2

lineage supports the growing evidence of an early movement of humans through

southern Asia and indicates the phenotypic similarities with African groups are

convergent. It also suggests that early human migrants were capable of reaching all

the islands of southern Asia, therefore, near Oceania, by the late Pleistocene. Such

dispersal is consistent with the scattered distribution of negrito populations.

Also, the whole of the Indonesian archipelago and Papua-New Guinea is

scattered with tribes showing unusual frequencies. It has been suggested on the

basis of blood frequencies that the Muruts of North Borneo, the Papuans of

Schouten and Halmahera, the Bagobos, the Igorots of the Philippines as well as the

Angami Naga of north-east India, the Sakay of Malaya, the Mois of Indo-China and

all Negritos are related, representing a very ancient element of population that is also

distantly connected to the Australian aborigines. The Negritos on the Malay

Peninsula and in the Philippines are undoubtedly related to the Andamanese, yet

their blood frequencies are quite different, reflecting intensive and long-standing

contact with their neighbors.

Genetic Studies on Mamanwas

In an article from the Anthropological Science,(Mirandai, 2004) JC virus (JCV)

is ubiquitous in the human population, usually being transmitted from parents to


children during cohabitation. JCV genotyping is a useful means of elucidating the

origins of various ethnic groups in the world. The authors used this method to gain

insights into the origin of the Mamanwa, a Philippine Negrito in tribe in Northeast

Mindanao. The Mamanuas are presumed to be among the oldest indigenous

peoples in the region. Their direct ancestors of the present-day Mamanwa have

been postulated to be either the Proto-Malay population of late Pleistocene

Sundaland or the Negritos from Borneo, Sumatra, and Malaya who came via the still

remaining land bridges some 30,000-25,000 years ago.

According to genotyping, it is found that the Mamanwa carried two major JCV

genotypes, B3-b/2E and SC-f/7A. This was in contrast with the JCV genotype profile

of modern Filipinos who carry up to five genotypes, with B3-b/2E showing only a low

frequency. B3-b/2E is spread throughout Oceania but rare on the Asian continent.

In contrast, SC-f/7A is spread out though Southeast Asia (including neighboring

Oceanic islands) but rare in remote Oceania. The present findings thus suggest that

Mamanwa group was formed by early colonization by people carrying B3-b/2E

followed by an admixture of more recent immigrants carrying SC-f/7A. As the

indigenous group (the Chamorro) in the Mariana Islands has essentially the same

JCV genotype profile as the Mamanwa, other indigenous groups in Southeast Asian,

Oceanic islands may have a population history analogous to that suggested for the

Mamanwa.

Based on Population Genetic Studies of the Philippine Negritos,(Omoto, III.

Identification of the Carbonic Anhydrase-1 Variant, 1981) investigation of blood

samples from 277 Mamanwas of northeastern Mindanao, Philippines, confirmed the

concentration of the variant carbonic anhydrase-1 (CA1 3N) in this group. This also

occurred in Manobos but in a low frequency.Survey of samples were also done in


Aeta and Ifugao of Luzon. The finding suggested that Aeta and Mamanwa have

different origins although both are usally referred to as Negritos. The mentioned

above variant was also recorded in Chamorros of Guam and Saipan, Mariana

Islanders, Filipinos in United States and probably Malaysians and Indonesians as

well. In conclusion of results, the frequency found in the Mamanwas is by far the

highest among the values thus far obtained. This suggests that this variant was

once common in an aboriginal population of the Western Pacific from which was

scattered by gene flow. This variant was also absent in Aeta, suggesting that they

have different origins with Mamanwa representing distinct migrations to the

Philippines. Later on, on Keiichi Omoto‘s several genetic studies, it is concluded that

Mamanuas of Agusan came to the islands around 49,000 years ago predating the

occurence of Aetas.

Conclusion

Salient Points on Findings on the Great Wave Migration and the Negrito Race

Human race has been a relentless and sought-after discourse for our notable

anthropologists; and by far, they admit that the more evidences they are able to

gather, the more questions arise and the more gaps to fill with explanations. On the

other hand, they seem to be confident with their findings at least since the Great

Wave Migration which started 100,000 years ago, but earlier than that, questions are

yet to be answered by our children. Also, due to fossils unraveled from different

parts of the world which date back earlier than 100,000 years ago, it is speculated

that there could have been earlier migrations before the Pleistocene period, before

Homo sapiens started to appear. It is also thought that modern humans and pre-

modern humans lived side by side with each other. The question now is left on the


case of Neanderthals, who happen to have been never found in Africa albeit the

consistently assumed idea that all homo and pre-homo species came from this

continent. Nevertheless, the found Mousterian and Levalloisian stone tools by

Neanderthals in Africa helped patching the disparity; but of course, only concrete

evidences would ultimately solve the case.

We have been studying and tracing the origins of human race, however we

spend little time on discussing the reasons behind human expansion, migration and

ultimately conquering lands. As mentioned earlier, according to Weber‘s

hypothetical idea, it must have been the advancement of technology which

encouraged people to look for bigger and better hunting grounds. It is because they

knew better that they wanted change, development and expansion. This idea was

taken from the event wherein due to the ‗Bantu Explosion‘, (when the Bantu learned

a more advanced tool technology) Khoisanids were pushed down south of Africa, for

they have a more primitive technology and that they were inferior, population wise.

In any case, this might not be applied in general terms since based from Dr. Jesus

Peralta‘s studies, at least what is evident in the Philippines, modern human and pre-

modern human settlers in the archipelago have been using the same stone tool

technology when they came, although modifications were applied in between of their

arrivals.

The Austronesians are said to be an offshoot of both southern and northern

migration. During the southern migration, it is noted that some groups of people

have also travelled at the fringes of south China, which explains the Negrito-like

groups of people in the country. Also, China had been a major part of the northern

migration wherein first Mongolids occurred or developed. Overtime, there could

have been a mingling between people from northern and southern migration before


the advent of Austronesians coming from Taiwan around 12,000 years ago. With

regards to the origin of Austronesian speaking people, Solheim‘s Nusantao Maritime

Trading Theory postulated a different claim. He proposed that there had been a

trading originally between Austronesian and non-Austronesian speaking people in

the Asia Pacific. Instead of Taiwan, he said that Austronesian language spread first

in the ‗Early Central Lobe‘ in Eastern Coastal Vietnam at around 9000 B.C and

continued to extend in the ‗Late Central Lobe‘ around 5000 B.C. in southern China,

Taiwan, Philippines reaching southwards and eventually westwards to the rest of

Oceania.

Another interesting point is that according to traces on genetics, it is possible

that there had been two separate migrations into the Andaman Islands – an earlier

colonization which might have happened as early as 70,000 years ago, before its

initially known isolation since around 2200 years ago. This finding greatly supports

the early southern migration and thus, the dispersal of Negrito groups. The

Andamanese are undoubtedly related and are of one kind as of the Semang in

Malaysia and Aeta in the Philippines.

As per studies on blood frequencies, all Negrito, Muruts of North Borneo, the

Papuans of Schouten and Halmahera, the Bagobos, the Igorots of the Philippines as

well as the Angami Naga of north-east India, the Sakay of Malaya, the Mois of Indo-

China are all related and represent an ancient element of population distantly

connected from the Australian aborigines. The Mamanwa in the Philippines on the

other hand was found out with a variant carbonic anhydrase-1 (CA1 3N) wherein it is

said that this variant was once common in an aboriginal population of the Western

Pacific from which was scattered by gene flow. This variant was also absent in Aeta,

suggesting that they have different origins with Mamanwa representing distinct


migrations to the Philippines. The Mamanwas are concluded to have occured in the

country about 49,000 years ago predating the Aetas.


Clearly, Filipino Negritos deserve respect and recognition just like the other

groups in the country. Technically, as one of the earliest modern human inhabitants

and extant species of Philippine Islands, next to Mamanuas, they have the rights and

authority to freely utilize its natural resources, live just like the Malay-Filipinos and be

treated equally. Just because they are technologically primitive and inferior, does

not mean they should be ‗left behind‘. How dare we marginalize these people when

in fact, Austronesians (Malays) are also thought to have come or atleast having an

admixture with a Negrito blood. Our Negrito neighbors could give so much answers

to our questions. Also, if proven that the Andamanese (from where Negrito Filipinos

believed to have come from) had an earlier colonization dating back to 70,000 years

ago, we may speculate that the Negrito bloodline can be traced from the original

stock who first inhabited Asia.

Everyone is a part of each other. We should focus more on seeking of

similarities and not on exploiting of differences to achieve a clear understanding of

our culural identity, thus to a live a peaceful, more accepting and harmonious life.

Genes may mutate, develop and evolve; anthropologists may explore and

understand the tiniest of things possibe; Science may branch into even more

complex disciplines; and technology may soon discover bending time and space, but

at the end of the day, what is important is that we understand that in order to survive,

we should and we will always depend on one another. And for the record, we study

human race not to be discriminated on how people are divided, but to be enlightened

on how unified we are – for we all are one.


Acknowledgement

I would like to give thanks to the following: Mr. Artemio Barbosa, our Curator II

head of Anthropology department, for giving me this opportunity to practice my

profession in a manner that is well-supported and guided by him and my colleagues;

to Dr. Jesus Peralta who screened this paper along with Mr. Barbosa and gave

substantial commentaries and advice; to Ms. Cyril Santos who kindly lent almost

sixty percent of my references which made my life so much easier; to Mrs. Maritess

Tauro who is always willing to help whenever available and possible; lastly to Ms.

Gladys Mateo, Mr. Nicolas Cuadra, Mr. Jonathan Faustino, Mr. Roger Benitez, Mr.

Donato Zapata, Mr.Jason Tio and Mr. Totong Sotto who due to their presence,

created a cheerful and lively ambience conducive for work less the stress.


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