Titrimetric analysis is a method of analysis in which a solution of the substance being determined is treated with a solution of a suitable reagent of exactly known concentration. The reagent is added to the substance until the amount added is equivalent to the amount of substance to be determined.
A chemical reaction describes what occurs in a chemical change. It shows not only the kind but also the relative amounts of the substances involved in a change. The coefficients written before the formulas in a balanced equation represent the number of moles of each substance involved in a reaction. Since the number of moles is related to the mass of any substance and to the volume of any gaseous substance, the mole relationship can be easily changed to mass/volume relationship. The concepts on how to calculate molarity, molality and normality are important in identifying the relative amounts of the substances involved in a chemical reaction.
Volumetric Analysis
Types of titration
Acid- Base Theory
Reaction, End Point & Indicators
Acid- Base titration
Titration curve
Non- Aqueous Titration
Precipitation Titration
Complexometric Titration
Oxidation- Reduction Titration,
Calculation. Errors
General Informations,
Titrimetric analysis is a method of analysis in which a solution of the substance being determined is treated with a solution of a suitable reagent of exactly known concentration. The reagent is added to the substance until the amount added is equivalent to the amount of substance to be determined.
A chemical reaction describes what occurs in a chemical change. It shows not only the kind but also the relative amounts of the substances involved in a change. The coefficients written before the formulas in a balanced equation represent the number of moles of each substance involved in a reaction. Since the number of moles is related to the mass of any substance and to the volume of any gaseous substance, the mole relationship can be easily changed to mass/volume relationship. The concepts on how to calculate molarity, molality and normality are important in identifying the relative amounts of the substances involved in a chemical reaction.
Volumetric Analysis
Types of titration
Acid- Base Theory
Reaction, End Point & Indicators
Acid- Base titration
Titration curve
Non- Aqueous Titration
Precipitation Titration
Complexometric Titration
Oxidation- Reduction Titration,
Calculation. Errors
General Informations,
Learning objectives
Introduction
Conditions For Volumetric Analysis
Terms In Volumetric Analysis
Primary Standard
Methods Of Expressing Concentrations In Volumetric Analysis
Types of Titration Methods
Classification Of Titrimetric Or Volumetric Methods
Conclusion
References
Richard's aventures in two entangled wonderlandsRichard Gill
Since the loophole-free Bell experiments of 2020 and the Nobel prizes in physics of 2022, critics of Bell's work have retreated to the fortress of super-determinism. Now, super-determinism is a derogatory word - it just means "determinism". Palmer, Hance and Hossenfelder argue that quantum mechanics and determinism are not incompatible, using a sophisticated mathematical construction based on a subtle thinning of allowed states and measurements in quantum mechanics, such that what is left appears to make Bell's argument fail, without altering the empirical predictions of quantum mechanics. I think however that it is a smoke screen, and the slogan "lost in math" comes to my mind. I will discuss some other recent disproofs of Bell's theorem using the language of causality based on causal graphs. Causal thinking is also central to law and justice. I will mention surprising connections to my work on serial killer nurse cases, in particular the Dutch case of Lucia de Berk and the current UK case of Lucy Letby.
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I Introduction
II Subalternation and Theology
III Theology and Dogmatic Declarations
IV The Mixed Principles of Theology
V Virtual Revelation: The Unity of Theology
VI Theology as a Natural Science
VII Theology’s Certitude
VIII Conclusion
Notes
Bibliography
All the contents are fully attributable to the author, Doctor Victor Salas. Should you wish to get this text republished, get in touch with the author or the editorial committee of the Studia Poinsotiana. Insofar as possible, we will be happy to broker your contact.
DERIVATION OF MODIFIED BERNOULLI EQUATION WITH VISCOUS EFFECTS AND TERMINAL V...Wasswaderrick3
In this book, we use conservation of energy techniques on a fluid element to derive the Modified Bernoulli equation of flow with viscous or friction effects. We derive the general equation of flow/ velocity and then from this we derive the Pouiselle flow equation, the transition flow equation and the turbulent flow equation. In the situations where there are no viscous effects , the equation reduces to the Bernoulli equation. From experimental results, we are able to include other terms in the Bernoulli equation. We also look at cases where pressure gradients exist. We use the Modified Bernoulli equation to derive equations of flow rate for pipes of different cross sectional areas connected together. We also extend our techniques of energy conservation to a sphere falling in a viscous medium under the effect of gravity. We demonstrate Stokes equation of terminal velocity and turbulent flow equation. We look at a way of calculating the time taken for a body to fall in a viscous medium. We also look at the general equation of terminal velocity.
Nutraceutical market, scope and growth: Herbal drug technologyLokesh Patil
As consumer awareness of health and wellness rises, the nutraceutical market—which includes goods like functional meals, drinks, and dietary supplements that provide health advantages beyond basic nutrition—is growing significantly. As healthcare expenses rise, the population ages, and people want natural and preventative health solutions more and more, this industry is increasing quickly. Further driving market expansion are product formulation innovations and the use of cutting-edge technology for customized nutrition. With its worldwide reach, the nutraceutical industry is expected to keep growing and provide significant chances for research and investment in a number of categories, including vitamins, minerals, probiotics, and herbal supplements.
ISI 2024: Application Form (Extended), Exam Date (Out), EligibilitySciAstra
The Indian Statistical Institute (ISI) has extended its application deadline for 2024 admissions to April 2. Known for its excellence in statistics and related fields, ISI offers a range of programs from Bachelor's to Junior Research Fellowships. The admission test is scheduled for May 12, 2024. Eligibility varies by program, generally requiring a background in Mathematics and English for undergraduate courses and specific degrees for postgraduate and research positions. Application fees are ₹1500 for male general category applicants and ₹1000 for females. Applications are open to Indian and OCI candidates.
What is greenhouse gasses and how many gasses are there to affect the Earth.moosaasad1975
What are greenhouse gasses how they affect the earth and its environment what is the future of the environment and earth how the weather and the climate effects.
Professional air quality monitoring systems provide immediate, on-site data for analysis, compliance, and decision-making.
Monitor common gases, weather parameters, particulates.
ANAMOLOUS SECONDARY GROWTH IN DICOT ROOTS.pptxRASHMI M G
Abnormal or anomalous secondary growth in plants. It defines secondary growth as an increase in plant girth due to vascular cambium or cork cambium. Anomalous secondary growth does not follow the normal pattern of a single vascular cambium producing xylem internally and phloem externally.
The ability to recreate computational results with minimal effort and actionable metrics provides a solid foundation for scientific research and software development. When people can replicate an analysis at the touch of a button using open-source software, open data, and methods to assess and compare proposals, it significantly eases verification of results, engagement with a diverse range of contributors, and progress. However, we have yet to fully achieve this; there are still many sociotechnical frictions.
Inspired by David Donoho's vision, this talk aims to revisit the three crucial pillars of frictionless reproducibility (data sharing, code sharing, and competitive challenges) with the perspective of deep software variability.
Our observation is that multiple layers — hardware, operating systems, third-party libraries, software versions, input data, compile-time options, and parameters — are subject to variability that exacerbates frictions but is also essential for achieving robust, generalizable results and fostering innovation. I will first review the literature, providing evidence of how the complex variability interactions across these layers affect qualitative and quantitative software properties, thereby complicating the reproduction and replication of scientific studies in various fields.
I will then present some software engineering and AI techniques that can support the strategic exploration of variability spaces. These include the use of abstractions and models (e.g., feature models), sampling strategies (e.g., uniform, random), cost-effective measurements (e.g., incremental build of software configurations), and dimensionality reduction methods (e.g., transfer learning, feature selection, software debloating).
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Exposé invité Journées Nationales du GDR GPL 2024
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2. Introduction
Titration is analytical technique which allows the quantitative determination of a
specific substance (analyte) dissolved in a sample.
It is performed by the slow addition of one solution of a known concentration
(called a titrant) to a known volume of another solution of unknown concentration
until the reaction reaches neutralization, which is often indicated by a color
change.
The solution called the titrant must satisfy the necessary requirements to be a
primary or secondary standard.
In a broad sense, titration is a technique to determine the concentration of an
unknown solution
3. Introduction
The volume is considered as the signal of titration process.
The end point for titration is determined using either color indicator or
potentiometric
In Potentiometric, we measure the electric potential across the substance
Titration use simple apparatus
Titration techniques is not expensive
4. TYPES OF TITRATION
Titrimetric methods are classified also into four groups based on the type of reaction
involved.
These groups are:
Acid–base titrations, in which an acidic or basic titrant reacts with an analyte
that is a base or an acid;
Complexometric titrations involving a metal–ligand complexation reaction;
Redox titrations, where the titrant is an oxidizing or reducing agent;
Precipitation titrations, in which the analyte and titrant react to form a
precipitate.
5. ACID-BASE TITRATION
A titration in which the reaction between the analyte and titrant is an acid–base
reaction.
According to Arrhenius: the definition of acid is a substance which yields
hydrogen ion (H+) in an aqueous medium’; and that of a base is—‘a substance
which yields hydroxyl ions (OH–) in an aqueous medium’.
According to Lowry and Bronsted’s theory—‘an acid is a substance capable of
yielding a proton (hydrogen ion), while a base is a substance capable of accepting
a proton’.
According to Lewis—‘an acid is an electron pair acceptor, whereas a base is an
electron pair donor’.
6. ACID-BASE TITRATION ( Cont.)
According to the Lux-Flood concept—‘an acid is the oxide-ion acceptor while a
base is the oxide donor’.
According to Usanovich
Acid : It is a chemical species that reacts with a base thereby giving up cations or
accepting anions or electrons.
Base : It is a chemical species that reacts with an acid thereby giving up anions or
electrons or combines with cations
In an acid-base titration, the acid will not release a proton unless the base capable
of accepting it is simultaneously present
7. ACID –BASE TITRATION( cont.)
The acid may be strong or weak and the base may be also Strong or weak
Strong acid and bases titrated in aqueous medium
Weak acid and bases can not be titrated in aqueous medium because water itself
can act as an acid or base in this case the titration is performed in a non-aqueous
environment
in acid base titration, we use indicator solution to indicate an end point
Acid –base titration may be carried out in different manner like, direct method and
back titration
8. Acid- base titration: direct titration
The sample is titrated directly with suitable standard solution
The amount of reagent consumed to the equivalent point is the amount of
substance to be determined
Mathematically: M1× V1 = M2×V2
Where:
M1: Concentration of standard solution
M2: concentration of sample
V1: Volume of standard solution consumed to reach end point
V2: Volume of Sample
9. Acid- base titration: direct titration( cont)
Example: Assay of Aspirin Tablets BP 75 mg
Two tablet of aspirin tablet taken during quantification analysis of new brand of aspirin. Each tablet have
been claimed to contain 75 mg of API, those tablet was dissolved with 50% ethanol and titrated with
phenolphthalein indicator to the end point with 8ml of 0.1N NaOH solution
Molecular Formula, C9H8O4 or CH3COOC6H4COOH
acetylsalicylic acid is a weak Acid
Ethanol is used to dissolve aspirin
Sodium hydroxide(0.1M NaOH) is used as standard solution
Phenolphthalein is used as indicator
10. Acid-base titration: direct titration( cont)
Procedures for quantitative determination of aspirin
i. Standardize sodium hydroxide solution
ii. Take two tablets and weight them to get its mass
iii. Dissolve them in 50% ethanol solution
Data and calculations
i. Mass of two tablets: 0.168g
ii. Average weight of tablet: 0.084g
iii. Volume of NaOH used to neutralize aspirin: 8ml
iv. Molecular mass of aspirin: 180.158g/mol
11. Aspirin (acetyl salicylic acid reacts with sodium hydroxide according to the
following equation:
C9H8O4 + 2OH- → C7H5O3
- + C2H3O2
- + H2O
1mole of aspirin consume 2mole of sodium hydroxide
Calculations:
i. Number of moles of NaOH reacted:
8 𝑚𝑙 ×0.100𝑚𝑜𝑙
1000𝑚𝑙
= 0.0008 mole
ii. 0.0008 moles neutralize 0.0004 moles of Aspirin
iii. 1 moles of Aspirin contains 180.158g
12. The mass of aspirin in tablets= actual number of moles x molecular mass
Mass of aspirin = 0.0004 moles x 180.158g/mol=0.0720603g
Each tablet contains 72.06 mg
Percentage assay:
𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
× 100 =
72.06 𝑚𝑔 ×100
75 𝑚𝑔
= 96.1%
Shortly percentage assay=
V×N×Mm×100×Av wt
LC×wt spl taken
By considering the specification of USP where the API must be not less than 90
and not more than 110, we can conclude that the sample meets the specifications
13. Acid-base titration ( back titration)
A titration in which a reagent is added to a solution containing the analyte, and
the excess reagent remaining after its reaction with the analyte is determined by a
titration.
Back titration or residue titration is normally employed in the following two
situations, namely : Case I : when a chemical reaction proceeds rather slowly or
sluggishly, Case II : when the substance under determination fails to give a sharp
and distinctly visible end-point with an indicator by direct titration.
For example: assay of Aspirin tablet
14. Example: assay of aspirin
1.427 g of aspirin was dissolved in 50% ethanol and 50.00 mL of 0.500 mol/L
sodium hydroxide solution was added. Then the excess sodium hydroxide have
been titrated to a phenolphthalein end-point with 31.92 mL of 0.289 mol/L
hydrochloric acid.
sample solution was heated in water bath to speed up hydrolysis
only base remaining after the reaction is the excess base that has not reacted with
the aspirin
Titrate the excess sodium solution with HCl until the pink color disappear
You are doing a strong acid-strong base titration.
15. Data and Calculations
Step 1. Start with the balanced equation.
C9H8O4 + 2OH- → C7H5O3
- + C2H3O2
- + H2O
Step 2. Calculate the moles of NaOH used.
Moles NaOH=0.050 00L NaOH×0.500 mol NaOH1L NaOH=0.025 00 mol
Step 3. Calculate the moles of HCl used in the back-titration.
Moles of HCl=0.031 92L HCl×0.289 mol HCl1L HCl=0.009 225 mol
Step 4. Calculate the moles of excess NaOH
NaOH+HCl→H2O+NaCl
Moles of excess NaOH=0.009 225mol HCl×1 mol NaOH1mol HCl=0.009 225 mol
16. Data and Calculations
Step 5. Calculate the moles of NaOH used in the reaction.
Original moles = moles reacted + excess moles
Moles reacted=original moles - excess moles=0.02500 - 0.009 225=0.015 775 mol
Step 6. Calculate the moles of aspirin.
1 moles of aspirin consumed by 2 moles of NaOH
Moles of Asp=
0.015 78mol
2mol
=0.007 888 mol
Step 7. Calculate the mass of aspirin.
Mass of Asp=0.007 888mol Asp×180.16 g Asp1mol Asp=1.421 g
Step 8. calculate the percentage Assay of the aspirin.
Percent by mass
mass of pure Asp
mass of impure Asp
× 100=
1.421g
1.427g
×100 = 99.6%
17. Complexation Titration
A titration in which the reaction between the analyte and titrant is a complexation
reaction.
Complex is a compound that is formed by the combination of a metal ion with a
molecule that is capable of donating electrons,
It is used in determination of metal salts
It is performed by either direct or back titration
EDTA is commonly used as titrant
Titration with EDTA is pH dependant
18. COMPLEXATION TITRATION
The metals that react strongly with EDTA can be titrated in acidic solution. Zinc is an
example. The metals that react more weakly with EDTA must be titrated in alkaline
solution. Calcium and magnesium are examples
The end point is detected using dye indicator
The general equation is:
Insoluble metals are estimated by back titration
Excess EDTA is titrated with salts solution containing Zn or Mg ion of known
concentration.
19. Example
An accurately weighed portion of calcium acetate tablet powder, equivalent to
about 300 mg of calcium acetate, Dissolved and diluted to 100ml with
hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide.300 mg of hydroxy naphthoblue were
used as indicator. Then 2ml of sample of the total solution were titrated with the
0.01 M edetate disodium solution to a blue endpoint. The mean corrected titration
volume was 14.6mL
20. Answer
Step 1: write a balanced Equation
Ca2+
(aq) + EDTA4-
(aq) → Ca(EDTA)2-
Step 2: calculate moles of EDTA
mol of EDTA:Volume EDTA (L) × Molarity EDTA (mol/ L
moles ol of EDTA =
14.6mL×0.01mol
1000ml
=0.000146 mol
21. Answer
Step 3: calculate number of moles of Calcium
from the equation one moles of EDTA consumed by one mole of Calcium
Moles of Calcium=0.000146 moles
Step 4: calculate mass of Calcium reacted
mass of calcium
0.000146mol ×40.08g×1000mg
1mol×1g
=5.85168mg
The total mass of Calcium=
5.8516mg ×100ml
2ml
= 292.584mg
Percentage assay=
𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙
×100 =
292.584mg
300mg
×100 = 97.5%