CREAM report

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CHAPTER ONE
OVERVIEW OF THE RESEARCH
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Precast concrete has been used as cladding on buildings since the 1920s and has
become increasingly popular since the 1950s. Recently the range of products has
broadened as manufacturers have incorporated new design aesthetics of the variety of
shapes and finishes. Panels are fabricated under controlled factory conditions to
exacting tolerances and manufacturers are now producing thinner panels with
simplified connections. Year round construction is possible with panels that are
quickly erected at the site, providing the opportunity to rapidly enclose a building and
speed up construction.
Precast systems, are sensitive to the installation and performance of each
component and it is important to consider the overall requirements of the envelope
during design and construction. Knowledge and understanding of precast concrete can
be used as an integral part of the building envelope to enable designers to make
appropriate design choices.
The use of architectural precast wall panels can be cost effective because of
reduced site construction time and site labor. The advent of larger capacity hauling
and lifting equipment required for handling and erecting precast concrete elements has
allowed builders to install larger panels and reduce construction time, enclosing the
building more quickly. This can be very beneficial since the building industry in
Malaysia is growing towards industrialization in construction by implementing
Industrialized Building System (IBS).

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1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
The advancement of technology has touched every part of our lives over the last
century – including construction industry. A conventional construction is the result
of many factors that can be technological, social or financial. The gap still exists
between manufacturing and construction industries in Malaysia. However,
construction industries practically continue to produce residential buildings in
conventional ways. The world has currently been alarmed with the issue of
environment and sustainability, and indeed the construction industry has constantly
been worried by the increasing cost of building maintenance and lifecycle issues.
Therefore, in the last decade, IBS was promoted to enhance the importance of
prefabrication technology rather than conventional method.
Historically, frames and infilling became the most universally accepted
principle of British residential buildings’ construction in the early 1950s. The
architects and engineers adopted the box frame method (consist of large precast
concrete panel wall and slab) for construction of housings (Glendinning & Muthesius,
2000). Therefore the load bearing large-panel precast concrete construction
residential buildings was introduced in England in 1956.
In order to maximize volume production, the ‘Modulor’ system has proponents
of an open system approach in the interchangeability of parts throughout the
construction industry of Europe in the 1960s (Glendinning & Muthesius, 2000 and
Abel 2004). Modulor Building System consists of modular parts at different
hierarchical levels that can be joined together according to the connection rules to
form a functional whole. The mudolor is an intermediate stage toward an eventual
evolvement of open system which allows for easy adaptation of prefabricated
components to any layout and their interchangeability within the building.

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Kendall (2005) said that France began their prefabricated building through
George Maurios who adopted Open Building System in 1975. Earlier, the
applications of renovation using Open Building System have been developed such as
ENTRA and MOBIT. Since the early 1970s, the Finnish BES system for housing
widely used a basic design unit and a multi-module of 12M. It employed slabs, walls,
bathroom, staircase and several components of standard dimension. Kendall (2005)
said, the prefabricated bathrooms with easy access for services systems are being
developed and are now available in the market. Today, complete single-sourced Infill
Systems are used widely in Finland. The advantages of open industrialization are not
only implicit in greater efficiency and economy for the production of a building but
also accompanied by other important aspects to be considered.
Construction industry in Malaysia began in the early days of Federation of
Malaya in 1948, together with the formation of the various states in the country. The
construction of the Malay traditional house mainly relies on its strength of a complex
jointing system made rigid by the use of timber wedges (Wan Hashimah, 2005).
According to Rodd (2003), timber that is relatively light-weight has always been at
what might be regarded as the cutting edge of the building technology of the era.
However, Kamaluddin (2009) claimed that concrete is the material of choice for
residential buildings in Malaysia by a significant margin.
About four decades ago, the industrialization has transformed the conventional
construction using timber into mass production of housing using precast concrete.
IBS of mass production housing is not new to Malaysian construction industry.
Projects utilizing large precast concrete panels called Danish Larsen-Neilson System
were undertaken at the Pekeliling Flats in 1966 and French Estiot System in Riffle
Range Road Flats in Penang after a year. Malaysia adopted the British Precast System

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where 1,200 units’ houses were built in Penang in 1978 and 2,800 units in Lumut in
1980 using Hazama Gumi System from Japan. However, its adoption has been limited
to the use of proprietary, stand-alone systems rather than Open Building Systems.
Nonetheless, the building design was very basic and did not consider the aspects of
serviceability and culture of living such as the need of wet toilet and bathroom.
Following these pilot projects, Malaysia adopted Modular Coordination (MC)
that acquired precast concrete technology from the Praton Haus International,
Germany and took up numerous housing projects from 1981-1993. Praton Haus
International has fit to the production system of which not all factories can produce.
Thus, on March 18th
, 1981, PKNS Praton Haus Berhad was formed as a housing
provider for Perbadanan Kemajuan Negeri Selangor (PKNS) at that time (Mohd
Sufian, 2009). There are two (2) types of construction systems which have been
introduced; large panel systems and skeleton systems.
Connections in such system of reinforced concrete structure are potentially the
most critical part of the IBS components (Tan, 2006). Joint are required for
durability, fire-proofing and water-proofing for architectural performance, strength,
rigidity, and ductility for mechanical efficiency and the ease of handling and clearance
for expansion as well as contraction. Constructively, it is the main factor in
controlling the performance of IBS residential building. Furthermore, it is equally
important that the detail design attributed must be able to be constructed. The purpose
of connections is to maintain the integrity of the structure under the applied load.
According to Elliott (2003), the definition of a connection is the action of forces
(tension, shear, and compression) and/or moment (bending and torsion) through an
assembly comprising one (or more) interfaces. The design of connection is therefore a
function of both the structural elements and of the joints between them.

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However, Essiz and Koman (2006) found that design demands (artistic and
technical) increase with each further step towards industrialization. The combination
of sociological and ecological standards together with functional and aesthetic designs
could utilize the full advantage of industrialization without creating lifeless buildings
and environment. Erman (2002) claimed that aesthetic considerations became an
inseparable part of the joint without putting its primary function aside. On the other
hand, the mechanical fasteners that have been developed as a substitute for intricate
interlocking joints played the major role for industrialization, mechanization and mass
production. Feasibility of demountable joints can be improved with the advance
working tools. The highly developed electronic working tools enable the
prefabrication of intricate interlocking joint. Therefore, the concept of adaptability
and flexibility for homes could be realized.
A basic interpretation of adaptability is the refitting of a physical environment
as the result of a new circumstance. Friedman (2002) defined adaptability for homes
as “providing occupants with forms and means that facilitate a fit between their space
needs and the constraints of their homes either before or after occupancy”. However,
homes in Malaysia have followed another path. It has always been conceived as
something necessarily static and safe. What happened to the sustainability and
“machine à habiter” that Le Corbusier proposed at the beginning of the 20th century?
The organized and accessible systems such as IBS-Housing will no longer be
useful except for the lowest commodity products for which competition is weak or
nonexistent, or for which there is a public monopoly (Kendall, 2005). Therefore, the
standard plug and play joint and connection are vital in prefabricated component of
IBS to avoid monopoly of IBS component in Malaysia construction industry. The
concept of plug and play of joint and connection are ease for construction and

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enhancing the ability to effectively access, repair, and modify over the lifecycle of the
house. Similarly, the design of IBS-Housing and its systems such as the interior space
can be reconfigured in a relatively straightforward manner as occupant living
requirements change over time. Thus, the concept of adaptability and flexibility
strongly overlaps in this matter. And while these concepts are being discussed, in
practice they are very much related and a single design approach or technology may
support both simultaneously. In fact, the ultimate goal of the IBS-Housing research is
to develop solutions that satisfy both of these principles.
According to Abu Hammad et al (2008), research and project experience shows
significant savings can be made when applying this approach. The potential to
develop 3D volumetric IBS-Housing in Malaysia needs combination of innovative
design and construction methods. It is important for an industry that is constantly
alarmed by the increasing cost of building maintenance and lifecycle issues (CIDB,
2009). Hence, it is very significant to select the appropriate building systems,
components, and materials that require minimum maintenance (Chew & Das, 2008) to
form the prefabricated volumetric IBS-Housing.
Whereas in Singapore, with ten years of accrued expertise in precast
technology for public housing, the engineering team of Housing Development Board
(HDB) had already perfected the design concepts utilising Large Precast Volumetric.
With this technique, complete boxes of the SA1 are produced offsite at approved
precast plants. Construction productivity is at a whopping six times minimum over
that of the equivalent conventional construction method. To date, the level of
prefabrication where the construction of the SA1 stacks concerned is at 100%.

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Durability is a key point to prevent the deterioration of structures and members
of buildings over time and to maintain the safety, comfort and health of the users.
According to Asiah et al (2009), most of the users in Malaysia are fairly satisfied with
their house finishing, such as noise transmission from outside into the room, and the
defect of building component. Crack remains the highest case of defect recorded for
the houses in Malaysia, especially for single and double storey terrace housing. As for
these cases, maintenance of external wall tiles is needed once every 20 – 30 years,
simply in terms of masonry joint repair. In addition, most Malaysians prefer to
improve their house by doing renovation and extension.
Therefore, the plug and play precast panel for external walls will enhance the
durability and waterproofing properties. The plug and play panel could be fixed
manually in place to maintain constant performance quality as well as ease for
maintenance and renovation. Since the precast panels have a fine surface irregularity
in order to maintain the high hydrophilic properties, they remain clean for a long
period. Unlike painted external walls and siding board external walls, this may
considerably reduce the amount of maintenance work, such as waterproofing and
repainting, which may be required.
According to Richard (2008), two types of spaces are present in any housing:
the “Served”, and the “Serving” areas. The Served areas such as living room, dining
room, family room, and bedrooms accommodate the main activities of the building
and occupy most of the floor areas (70% – 80%). The Serving areas such as kitchen,
bathrooms, and staircases are support facilities of generic nature occupying a limited
but strategic part of the floor areas (20% – 30%).

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As Malaysian households prefer to be different from their neighbours and have
varieties in their needs through time, the housing system should provide adaptability
for served areas whereas the serving areas, catering to more basic human needs, can
display similar features from one dwelling unit to another. As IBS technology is
mostly factory-related, the precast components reach for the best for plug & play
concept of IBS-housing in Malaysia. An optimal solution is offered by a hybrid
approach; concentrating on the serving areas in compact factory-made 3D modules
called Service Cores. On site, the Cores are positioned perpendicularly to the façade,
while locally built floors and exterior walls span longitudinally between them to
generate the served areas. The Service Core is to housing as what the engine is to the
body of an automobile, or to the fuselage of an airplane.
The Service Core approach that is considered as a Plug & Play concept fully
meets the sustainability agenda when mechanical (dry) joints are used in order to
permit reconfigurations without any demolition.
Therefore, the served areas generated between the cores are functionally
adaptable, open to a diversity of scenarios and accommodating either loft or
partitioned arrangements. The construction of the served areas, and its adaptability to
suit changing needs, is a simple activity which deserves to be done locally, both for
economical and cultural reasons. The exterior wall panels are plug and play tiles or
curtain walls connected to the Cores; they constitute an open sub-system in terms of
materials and forms, and they can play a determinant role in responding to the local
culture and harmonizing with the Malaysia Standard.

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Figure 1.1:
Typical combination of Japanese factory-made Service Cores with local technology
Source: Bruno (2008)
The conclusion is a recommendation to consider the existing Japanese
technology of 3D volumetric module as Load-Bearing Service Cores for IBS-Housing
in Malaysia. The conclusion is based on the fact that these modules are structurally
rigid, autonomous, of extremely high quality, and close to the size of a container; they
are framed at the edges, thereby leaving each horizontal or vertical plane completely
adaptable. The combination of such module with the available local technology of
IBS will form a plug and play concept of adaptable IBS-Housing for Malaysia.

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1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
The gap still exists between manufacturing industry and construction industry –
buildings are still being produced in conventional ways. The need to understand the
relationship between manufacture, detail design and assembly are as follows:
 the parameters for joint design and product selection (Foley, 2002; and Tan,
2006).
 the plug-in concept for the prefabricated component to meet the design
standard and users’ needs (Zulkefle, 2007)
 the design standard and users’ needs for IBS building to be green (Al-Waer et
al, 2008; and Tam 2007)
 a logical rule-based geometry that describes the connections between
elements (Mac Gairbheith, 2009)
According to Abu Hammad et al (2008), research and project experience show
significant savings can be made when applying IBS. Thus, it is important for the
industry that is constantly alarmed by the increasing cost of building maintenance and
lifecycle issues (CIDB, 2009). Hence, it is very significant to select the appropriate
building systems, components, and materials that require minimum maintenance
(Chew & Das, 2008). Table 1.1 shows the increasing cost of repair and maintenance
of building in Malaysia from 2003 to 2008.
Table 1.1: Construction Demand by Sector and Year Awarded
Source: CIDB (2008)
TYPE OF PROJECTS BY SECTOR
2003
*
2004
*
2005
*
2006
*
2007
*
2008
(forecast)*
Private Residential 11.22 14.93 15.39 13.57 12.84
35.95
Private Non-Residential 18.59 24.67 21.94 23.89 28.45
Public Residential & Non-Residential 19.26 14.73 17.66 21.50 46.68 33.05
Total 49.07 54.33 54.99 58.96 87.97 69.00
Repair & Maintenance (Private & Public) 1.68 1.67 2.39 2.16 2.17 2.00
* RM billion (current rate)

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According to Zulkefle (2007) the development of IBS component is related to
design, products and, technologies for buildings. He suggested that the possible future
research on IBS to focus on a new innovation of plug-in concept for the prefabricated
component to meet the design standard and users’ needs. The choice of which method
to employ is dependent upon the nature of the research problem (Khairul Baharein,
2008). Thus, the problem was derived from preliminary study which included an
extensive analysis of literature, visits to factory of IBS manufacturers as well as
housing projects using IBS in Malaysia, where discussion were undertaken with their
users, construction industry players, and with others involved in the project including
architects and government officers. From all these early investigations it was
identified that the attitude of the individual and of society towards the question of
house size and housing needs depends on many varying factors such as the following:
i) The physical area required for day to day activities of the individual, as part
of the family, and the family as a whole.
ii) The psychological feeling of space required for the individual and the
family which is often culturally defined.
iii) The ability of the family to cope with the financial burden of housing
expenses.
iv) The limitations of the national economy on the quality of building and
number of new housing starts.
From this research, two sets of problems were identified as follows:
i) The Durability of Joints and Connections of IBS Precast Component.
ii) The Ability for Access, Repair and Modify Over the Lifecycle of House.

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1.2.1 The Durability of Joints and Connections of IBS Precast Component.
As for IBS housing, the performance of joints and connections have even more
significance compared to traditional housing. The accomplishment of Malay
Traditional Housing depends largely on the craftsman’s effort to overcome problems
usually associated with the joineries (Ismail, 2006). However, a major problem
arising in the connection in IBS-Housing is different modular dimensions (Ricketts,
2004). Structural joints as well as joint weatherproofing systems of IBS require
detailed consideration to minimize the risk failure, and the parameters for joint design
and product selection need to be properly understood (Foley, 2002; and Tan, 2006).
1.2.2 The Ability for Access, Repair and Modify Over the Lifecycle of House.
Issues that occur during maintenance and renovation due to design deficiencies have
been identified as one of the problems in IBS-Housing. Consequently, the
construction industry in Malaysia is constantly alarmed by the increasing cost of
building maintenance and lifecycle issues (CIDB, 2009). In fact, crack remains the
highest case of defect occurred for the houses in Malaysia. As for these cases,
maintenance of external wall tiles is needed once every 20 – 30 years, simply in terms
of masonry joint repair. In addition, most Malaysians prefer to improve their houses
by doing renovation and extension. According to Asiah et al. (2009), most of the
users in Malaysia are fairly satisfied with their house finishing, such as noise
transmission from outside to the room, and the defect of building’s component.
Hence, it is very important to select the appropriate building systems, components,
and materials that require minimum maintenance (Chew & Das, 2008) to form the
housing using IBS.

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1.3 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES AND QUESTIONS
Based on the problem statement, the research objectives were developed as follows:
1) To explore the process of manufacturing and installation of IBS precast
components for housing.
2) To identify the type of IBS precast component for housing towards Open
Building System in Malaysia.
3) To examine the ability for access, repair and modify over the lifecycle of
housing using IBS precast components.
To address the aforementioned objectives and provide solutions to the research
problem, three research questions were identified and formulated as follows:
1) How do IBS precast components improve quality of housing?
2) What are the types of IBS precast components that could contribute to the
development of Open Building System for housing in Malaysia? and
3) How does the application of MS1064 enhance the values of housing in
terms of adaptability, modularity and buildability?
The questions above are relates to the adaptability model to ensure sustainability.
Sub-questions of this study included the exploration of the lifecycle and suggestions
of individuals involved in the process of design and construction of housing using
IBS.
The expected result of the research is the CSFs to IBS precast component for
housing in Malaysia. The result will also be published as a book or manual for IBS
precast panel system in Malaysia and a journal article.

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1.4 CONCEPTUAL MODEL
The conceptual model was designed by taking into consideration the conclusions of
the Expert Opinion as well as prior models. This model shows Open Building System
as dependent variable. Six independent variables and three moderators were used for
the study. The six independent variables were programming, adaptability,
buildability, quality control, plug & play, and modular coordination. The finalized
conceptual model for this study was developed using the factor approach to better
understand the relationship between causes and effects (Figure 1.2).
4)
Programming
5)
6)
7)
Adaptability
8)
9)
10)
Buildability
11)
12)
13)
Quality Control
14)
15)
16)
Plug & Play
17)
18)
19)
Modular Coordination
20)
21)
22)
Open Building
System
 Reliability of the factory
 Method of connections
 Classification of IBS
 Dimensions of components
 Performance characteristics
of components
23)
24)
DEPENDENT
VARIABLES
MODERATORS
25)INDEPENDENT
VARIABLES
Figure 1.2:
A Conceptual Model of Open Building System

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1.5 METHODOLOGY
In pursuance of the aim and objectives, the study was stratified into three (3) different
stages of research as follows:
 Phase One – Preliminary Discussion.
 Phase Two – Data Collection.
 Phase Three – Documentation.
PHASE ONE
Prelimininary Discussion
PHASE TWO
Data Collecting
PHASE THREE
Documentation
CATALOGING
COMPILING

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1.5.1 Phase One: Preliminary Discussion
Phase One aims at identifying information on design-related problems and
constructability principles in terms of quality, cost and time to establish the problem
area. Based on information identified through literature review, a series of discussion
are planned for four (4) times, to discuss the joints and connections system in IBS.
1.5.2 Phase Two: Data Collection
The methodology for data collection used in this research is case study. Stake (2000)
described three types of case studies that are going to be used for this research as
follows:
 Intrinsic: Explores a particular case to gain a better understanding of it
 Instrumental: A particular case is examined to provide information or insight
on issues or the refinement of theory.
 Collective: A number of cases are studied jointly in order to inquire into the
phenomena, population, or general condition.
Studying how the IBS precast components could be developed needs methods of
research that can capture the multiplicity of activities that make up the learning
process as well as an understanding of the environment that influences these activities.
Thus this method should be able to answer the research questions mentioned earlier.
Interviews were conducted with the Project Manager from the Developer’s side
(Encorp Sdn. Bhd.), and the other was with the Project Manager from the Main
Contractor’s side (Baktian Sdn. Bhd.); both of which were in charge of local projects
involving the use of IBS construction. The key questions regarding IBS precast
components that were asked in the interviews are as follows:

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 Programming: Clear directives from the developer on decision of whether to
adopt IBS precast components should be decided at early stage of the project.
 Adaptability: Control of the programme and project reliability.
 Buildability: Capacity and capability for hoisting and assembling IBS precast
components during construction.
 Quality Control: Mass production and mass customization of IBS precast
components.
 Plug & Play: Maximum efficiency and fewer mistakes on erection of IBS
precast components.
 Modular Coordination: Application of adaptability, modularity and
buildability according to the Malaysian Standards.
Site visits have the advantage of providing first person view and better understanding
of the issues and activities conducted on sites. It is unfortunate that during the
research, many of the projects described have been completed and handed over to the
clients. This makes the site visits less meaningful, but any useful observations noted
during the site visits would be used as a source of information whenever applicable.
Table 1.2 provides a summary of tools utilized and subjects used to address the
respective research questions. The American approach was used where the tools must
be able to answer the research questions posed.

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Table 1.2:
Research questions, research tools, and site/subject for the study
CODE RESEARCH QUESTION TOOLS SITE/SUBJECT
RQ1
How do IBS precast components
acquire standardization and modular
coordination?
Case study
analysis
(interview,
checklist and
document review)
Five (5)
IBS-Manufacturer and
three (3) IBS-housing
in Selangor, Perak and
Negeri Sembilan
RQ2
What aspect of IBS could be
contributed to the development of
Open Building System for housing in
Malaysia?
Case study
analysis
(interview and
observation)
Five (5)
IBS-Manufacturer in
Selangor and Negeri
Sembilan
RQ3
How does the application of MS1064
enhance the values of housing using
IBS in terms of adaptability,
modularity and buildability?
Case study
analysis
(interview and
observation)
Three (3)
IBS-Housing in
Selangor, Perak and
Negeri Sembilan
This study was instrumental to the extent that it shed light on problems and
issues of the ICT in IBS development efforts. The study also offers an initial logical
bounding of the case which could promote an Open Building System, and the other
various systems or components that are not firmly fixed or clear. Thus the study
provided a point of departure for what was investigated in the case study (i.e., the
environment, the processes, the entities, the stakeholders, etc.).
The consequences for IBS building components and the way of manufacturing
have been studied carefully in extensive visits to the factory. The identification of
different partial building elements such as structure, façade, walls, etc. were examined
at the housing using IBS with different methods in their own conditions and
requirements. The Open Building System to be attained in residential building was
included in the considerations since the minimal sizes of spaces are often dominant
over the size of components. Also, the type of interface such as linking (joints and
connections) and node were identified and their performances were analyzed during
visits.

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1.5.3 Phase Three: Documentation
The compilation of precast components for housing is a product to be published in this
research. Since CAD was a successful computer tool in architecture, the AutoCAD is
chosen as a software for drawing. The development of drawing shall be carried out at
the Postgraduate Workstation, Kulliyyah of Architecture & Environmental Design,
International Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM).
1.6 QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS
There are essentially three levels of qualitative data analysis in the present study
(Miles & Huberman, 1984). The first level involves the identification of recurring
patterns of themes and topics from the raw data based on the framework and literature
review for their similar method of pattern coding as a way to identify an emergent
theme, pattern, and explanation.
The second level of analysis involves the grouping of the recurring themes and
topics from the set of the analysed interviews, personal notes, and the observational
notes. This requires a close examination of each of them and a thorough comparison
with the other analysed interviews, and a tedious process of classification.
The third level of data analysis requires the categorisation of themes and topics
into a few tentative major headings for the purpose of data reduction. Miles &
Huberman (1984) presented three techniques: data reduction, conclusion drawing, and
verification.

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1.7 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
This study will benefit construction industry practitioners as it will provide a
compilation of precast components for IBS buildings in Malaysia. Furthermore,
through fulfilling adaptability and buildability, this study will help to achieve
sustainability in architecture and construction practice. Moreover, this study will be a
significant endeavour in promoting IBS among construction players who are still
hesitant to use it. In addition, it provides an alternative approach towards Open
Building System. The academic breakthrough for this research is to change the mind-
set for sustainability in future. This study anticipates this new idea as a contribution to
a body of knowledge and highlights the benefits for both the discipline and the nation
as follows:
 Provide a new design concept towards lowering the lifecycle cost and
enhancing the construction and occupancy standard.
 To assist the construction industry in determining the best and worst practices
in construction to fulfil an Open Building.
 Initiate collaboration with the professional, construction industry and
universities to develop new idea of transferring knowledge in IBS.
1.8 SUMMARY
This study consists of five (5) chapters. The first presents the background of the
study, the problem statement, the research objectives, the research hypotheses and
methodology. The second is literature review on housing using precast components.
The third presents the interpretation and data analysis of case study at IBS-Housing
and manufacturing factory, and the fourth provides the Critical Success Factors
(CSFs) to IBS. Lastly, it presents implications and recommendations of the study.

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CHAPTER TWO
HISTORICAL CHRONOLOGY OF HOUSING
USING PRECAST CONCRETE COMPONENTS OF THE
INDUSTRIALIZED BUILDING SYSTEM (IBS)
2.0 INTRODUCTION
The concept of precast (also known as “prefabricated”) construction includes those
buildings where the majority of structural components are standardized and produced
in plants in a location away from the building, and then transported to the site for
assembly. These components are manufactured by industrial methods based on mass
production in order to build a large number of buildings in a short time at low cost.
The main features of this construction process are as follows:
 The division and specialization of the human workforce
 The use of tools, machinery, and other equipment, usually automated, in the
production of standard, interchangeable parts and products
This type of construction requires a restructuring of the entire conventional
construction process to enable interaction between the design phase and production
planning in order to improve the construction. One of the key premises for achieving
that objective is to design buildings with a regular configuration in plan and elevation.
Thus this chapter will investigate and explore the relationship between the
evolution of industrialization and how it will play a role to develop a new paradigm in
our construction industry through Industrialized Building System (IBS). This chapter
will highlight the process of prefabrication as a part of industrialization for housing
scheme in Europe, America and Asia. The evolution of industrialization from
modernism and the industrial age until now will be described chronologically.

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2.1 MODERNISM AND THE INDUSTRIAL AGE
Under the influence of industrialization, new standards of quality were established in
the building industry with regard to construction, space and form. Industrialization
was brought to prefabrication not long after the introduction of Ford’s assembly line
in 1908. His concept of the modern production of automobiles also revolutionized
modern culture. The architects of the avant-garde were also greatly influenced by the
automotive industry. Likewise, architecture needed to be fundamentally renewed in
formal, social and economic terms, with the assistance of industry (Staib et al, 2008).
Thus the prefabricated house should be produced in series of factories, standardized
and prefabricated, so that they could be assembled on site.
The first prefabricated “kit” house was offered by Aladdin Readi-Cut in 1906.
However the most notable company offering these houses was Sears, Roebuck & Co.
which sold nearly 100,000 houses between 1908 and 1940 (Arieff & Burkhart, 2002).
Each house included pre-cut lumber, nails, shingles, windows, doors, hardware and
paint accompanied by detailed instructions. The affordability and ease of construction
made home ownership a possibility for working class families.
In 1914, architect Le Corbusier proposed the Dom-ino House, which utilized a
new type of skeletal-framework construction of reinforced concrete that formed the
floor slabs, supports, and stairs and eliminated the need for load-bearing walls (Arieff
& Burkhart, 2002; and Staib et al, 2008). Later, in 1023, Le Corbusier highlighted the
issue of mass-production. He said, “A new epoch has begun... we should create the
mass-produced spirit. The spirit of living in mass-construction homes, the spirit of
conceiving mass-produced homes.” His statement brought the automobile industry
into the construction industry thus created the successful mass-production housing
(Vale, 1995; Larson, 2000; Friedman, 2002; and Lawrence, 2003).

23
2.2 HOUSING DEVELOPMENT
European countries embraced prefabrication as an effective method of building the
new housing needed following the devastation of World War I. Later, the
rationalization and standardization become decisive concepts within the field of
architecture for housing. European countries such as Britain, France, and Germany
developed prefabricated systems of concrete and steel.
Builders and architects were interested in the promise of mass-produced homes
and experimented with various concepts, technologies and materials. Kieran and
Timberlake (2004) said, the number of modernists of the twentieth century made
many attempts to adopt mass production techniques in residential building as shown in
Figure 2.1 below.
However, none of these endeavours ever achieved success or popularity and
soon were abandoned. It happened due to restrictive nature of the agendas that
underlay each successive effort (Kieran and Timberlake, 2004). The Modernists
believed that the architecture and design could and should be used as an instrument of
‘social engineering’ to colour the attitudes of the specific technology of mass-
production (Abel, 2004). However, Le Corbusier was only interested in the image of
a machine-made architecture (Figure 2.2), rather than actually getting down to
mastering the new method of production. This argument was based on Corbusier
statement in 1923,
“Citrohan (not to say Citroen). That is to say, a house like a motor-car,
conceived and carried out like an omnibus or a ship’s cabin. The actual
needs of the dwelling can be formulated and demand their solution. We
must fight against the old-world house, which made a bad use of space.
We must look upon the house as a machine for living in or as a tool.”
(Corbusier, 1923: 240 translated by Frederick Etchells, 1989)

24
i) Le Corbusier (1910) ii) Buckminster Fuller (1930)
iii) Frank Lloyd Wright (1940)
iv) Walter Gropius (1960) v) Operation Breakthrough (1970)
Figure 2.1:
A Century of Failures
Sources: Vale (1995), and Kieran and Timberlake (2004)

25
Figure 2.2:
Citroen Car (France) in 1923.
Source: Frederick Etchells (1989).
Mies Van Der Rohe responded to the Le Corbusier’s statements and claimed
that the economic reasons demanded the rationalization of kitchen and bathroom as
standardized rooms and living area with movable walls. The prefabricated house with
moderate cost was not only the major architectural problem, but also the most difficult
for architects to design it (Lawrence, 2003). Thus Walter Gropius introduced the
industrialization of housing with the goal to create “a new architecture for a new age.”
Working with Adolf Meyer in 1923, Gropius developed Baukasten, or “building
blocks,” a system of standard, industrially produced building elements that could
function as a variable kit of parts, interlocking to form a variety of configurations
(Bergdoll et al, 2008).
The first housing estate using large-panel was constructed at Berlin-
Friedrichsfelde in 1926 using the occident process of construction system. The panels
which had been patented in Netherlands were manufactured on site due to their
immense size then were erected by cranes. In the same year, the “System Stadrat
Ernst May” of building panels was developed in Germany.

26
However, in Germany, the predominant method used in the constructing the
small apartment houses at Frankfurt was the so-called Plattenbauweise. It is a system
of large concrete panel, which made it possible to the point that even the surfaces of
these panels were smooth-finished in the factory. Only the joints remained to be
covered on site with cement caulking. The panels are 200mm thick, without steel
reinforcing, except for two hooks used for lifting them with cranes. Their insulation
coefficient is equal to that of a 450mm-thick brick wall.
2.3 THE MODERN MOVEMENT
The destruction of the Second World War was followed by the optimism and high
expectations for the future. Consequently, the factory produced house and the modern
movement were invented as an idea for development.
According to Glendinning and Muthesius (2000), the initial stimulus to
innovation of 1940s Modern Movement brings light, space and greenery to the
industrial cities. Therefore, a great number of new housing units had been built within
a short period after World War II in 1945. This included the development of the new
systems of prefabricated houses in the UK (Sebestyén, 1998) and Sweden
(Glendinning and Muthesius, 2000).
Le Corbusier developed a number of mass-produced housing schemes and
perhaps his most ambitious attempt, Unité d’Habitation at Marseilles, France was
originally conceived as a large structural frame in which prefabricated apartment units
would slot into. According to Glendinning and Muthesius (2000), Frampton (2001)
and Friedman (2002), Le Corbusier proposed the idea in 1946. The apparent
homogeneity of the idea is contradicted by its endless variation of housing types
fitting together behind the regularity of the façade and structural frame (Steele, 2006).

27
The Unitē d’Habitation was based on civil engineering scale favoured by the
engineer François de Pierrefeu (Glendinning & Muthesius, 2000). Le Corbusier
treated it in such a way as to transcend the normative dimensions of a typical medium-
rise residential building. Sponsored by the French state, he embarked this work in two
different modes of fabrication that could be brought together – concrete frame and
sequence of prefabricated components to be hauled into position and assembled dry
within the frame or like stacking bottles in a rack, as shown in Figure 2.3. The
building was to be constructed in phases, inspired by the process of assembly lines.
However, construction delays, budget and poor workmanship required the apartment
units to be framed out and constructed on site (Arieff & Burkhart, 2002).
Figure 2.3:
The Concept of Dry Construction by Le Corbusier in 1946
Source: Kieran and Timberlake (2004)

28
The logic of prefabricated housings had been fully formulated by the end of the
1940s in the UK (Glendinning and Muthesius, 1994), France (Sebestyén, 1998) and
the US (Abel, 2004). In the UK, The Lawn (10 storey) designed by Frederick Gibberd
was built in 1949. At the same time, Camus System that remains the first large-scale
reinforced concrete large-panel was constructed in France. While in the US, the
experimental prefabricated Eames House and Studio in Santa Monica, California in
1949 by Charles and Ray Eames, had influenced architects in their subsequent
approach to industrialize building which are made of stock factory components.
In the US, the continuing housing crisis following World War II led to the
passage of a government guaranteed financing program in 1944 and the Housing Act
of 1949, nearly doubled housing starts and encouraged many companies to enter the
housing market with varying degrees of success. William Levitt, inspired by Ford,
pioneered mass-produced construction techniques to meet the overwhelming demand.
This success was due to the overall size of the operation; the more houses that were
built, the lower the overall cost. Levitt also brought the factory to the site, where
workers would complete specific tasks and move to the next house, much like Ford’s
automotive assembly line. Levitt began developing Levittown, Pennsylvania, in 1945,
and by 1948 was building at a rate of 150 houses per week (Arieff & Burkhart, 2002).
2.4 THE INDUSTRIALIZED CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY
Towards the era of advanced industrialized construction industry, its development has
been classified into three generation of industrialization, as shown below:
 First generation was based on the individual design and manufacture,
 Second generation was developed for mass production, and
 Third generation was aimed at applying advanced industrial systems.

29
2.4.1 Individual Design and Manufacture (1950s-1960s)
Prefabricated, mobile and manufactured housing companies proliferated during the
1950s, and their goals focused on financing rather than design. As the housing market
stabilized, buyers were less desperate and demanded more freedom of choice and
better quality; and prefab homebuilders suffered as a result.
Throughout the world, designers continued to experiment with industrialized
architecture. Australian architect Harry Seidler designed a prototype industrialized
production house that was constructed and displayed during the Royal Australian
Institute of Architects Convention in 1954 (Arieff & Burkhart, 2002). The system of
prefabricated sections, columns, and open web beams could be assembled by four
workers in one day. Seidler developed a system of panels, prefabricated bathrooms,
and one-piece packaged kitchen and laundry units that would be used to construct
virtually any interior layout within the house.
In the early 1950s, frames and infilling became the most universally accepted
principle of high-rise residential buildings’ construction in the UK. However, the
actual use of pre-casting elements has been widely adopted in the western construction
industry as early as 1960s. Glendinning and Muthesius (1994) said, the engineers and
architects started adopting the box frame method (consisting of large precast concrete
panel wall and slab) for construction of high-rise housings in the 1950s, as shown in
Figure 2.4 as follows.

30
Figure 2.4:
Large Precast Concrete Panel Wall and Slab at Rosebery Avenue, London.
Source: Glendinning and Muthesius (1994)
The designation “large-panel system” refers to multi-story structures composed
of large wall and floor concrete panels connected in the vertical and horizontal
directions so that the wall panels enclose appropriate spaces for the rooms within a
building. These panels form a box-like structure (see Figure 2.5). Both vertical and
horizontal panels resist gravity load. Wall panels are usually one story high.
Horizontal floor and roof panels span either as one-way or two-way slabs. When
properly joined together, these horizontal elements act as diaphragms that transfer the
lateral loads to the walls.

31
Figure 2.5:
A large-panel concrete building under construction.
Source: http://knol.google.com/k/precast-concrete-construction# (2011*
Depending on the wall layout, there are three basic configurations of large-
panel buildings:
 Cross-wall system: The main walls that resist gravity and lateral loads are
placed in the short direction of the building.
 Longitudinal-wall system: The walls resisting gravity and lateral loads are
placed in the longitudinal direction.
 Two-way system: The walls are placed in both directions.

32
Thickness of wall panels ranges from 120mm for interior walls to 300mm for
exterior walls. Floor panel thickness is 60mm. Wall panel length is equal to the room
length, typically on the order of 2.7m to 3.6m. In some cases, there are no exterior
wall panels and the façade walls are made of lightweight concrete. A typical interior
wall panel is shown in Figure 2.6 as follows.
Figure 2.6:
Precast interior wall panel with steel dowels and grooves
Several system of large precast concrete panel was developed such as Camus,
Coignet, Pascal Balency and Costamagna from France and Larsen-Nielsen from
Denmark (Glendinning and Muthesius, 1994). Such systems were introduced to
speed-up construction, for instance Camus (France), which were adopted in 1959 (see
Figure 2.7).

33
Figure 2.7:
Maison Alfort, France: Large Panel Building Constructed Used System Camus
Source: Sebestyén (1998)
Although these systems did produce dwellings in large numbers, the inherent
restrictions of most systems required too many compromises (Sebestyén, 1998). The
dwellings proved to be no cheaper than the customary technologies and their
flexibility in use was limited. On the other hand, technical defects such as driving rain
penetration (among many) of the exterior wall were soon eliminated. Thus the open-

34
drained vertical joint was developed as a solution while the horizontal joint is sill to
prevent the penetration of driving rain (Sebestyén, 1998). A gasket or baffles which
function as air seal for control of wind and odours were used in the joint (Warszawski,
1990; and Warszawski, 1999). The open-drained joint is shown in Figure 2.8 as
follows.
Figure 2.8:
Open-Drained Joint for Precast Concrete Panel.
Sources: Sebestyén (1998) and Warszawski (1999)

35
The vertical wall panel connections are accomplished by means of groove
joints, which consist of a continuous void between the panels with lapping horizontal
steel and vertical tie-bars. Horizontal joint reinforcement consists of dowels projected
from the panels and the hairpin hooks site-welded to the dowels; the welded length of
the lapped bars depends on the bar diameter and the steel grade. Vertical tie-bars are
designed for tension forces developed at the panel intersections.
Lateral stability of a large-panel building system is provided by the columns
tied to the wall panels. Boundary elements are used instead of columns as “stiffening”
elements at the exterior, as shown in Figure 2.9. The unity of wall panels is achieved
by means of splice bars welded to the transverse reinforcement of adjacent panels in
the vertical joints. Longitudinal dowel bars placed in vertical and horizontal joints
provide an increase in bearing area for the transfer of tension across the connections.
Wall-to-floor connection is similar to that shown in Figure 2.10 as follows.
Figure 2.9:
Typical building plan showing the locations of boundary members

36
Figure 2.10:
Plan of a large-panel building showing vertical connection details
‘Modulor’ system was introduced in 1960s and advocated MC as inter-
changeability of parts (Glendinning & Muthesius, 2000; and Abel, 2004). As an
intermediate stage toward Open Building System (Warszawski, 1999), MC consists of
modular parts at different hierarchical levels that can be joined together according to
the connection rules to form a functional whole (Sarja, 1998).

37
The concept of MC concept was applied in a Bison Wall Frame System in
1962 in UK. Figure 2.11 shows a Bison Wall Frame System of which only 21 parts
were needed for one two-bedroom flat in high block.
Figure 2.11:
Bison Wall-Frame System (1962), UK
Sources: Glendinning and Muthesius (2000)

38
Following the influence of MC, the prototype of Modular Service System was
produced with its own innovative series of industrialized building projects in
collaboration with relevant industries and production engineers at Ulm in Germany
(Abel, 2004). These prefabricated units (Figure 2.12) are designed in 1963 to be fitted
together in various combinations according to the layout of apartment or house.
Figure 2.12:
Prototype of Modular Service System
Source: Abel (2004)
According to Staib (2008), in 1959-63, in collaboration with an engineering
school in Ulm, the fully precast concrete building using large panel was developed in
Germany by Gunter Behnisch using “System Bahnisch”, as shown in Table 2.1 as
follows:

39
Table 2.1:
Schedule of Precast Concrete Elements of System Bahnisch in 1965
Source: Staib (2008)

40
2.4.2 Mass-Production in the Late 1960s to 1970s
During the 1960s to 1970s periods, the construction industry began to industrialize by
introducing mechanization, prefabrication and system building. Architects developed
new concepts to confront new housing challenges during this era. A number of
attempts were carried out from 1962 using repetitive cellular structure of Large
Prefabricated Panel Construction in a variety of sizes using box-frame structure to
reduce cost (Figures 2.13 to 2.15). However, this programme had disastrous
experience management and was demolished in the 1980s (Glendinning and
Muthesius, 2000).
Figure 2.13:
Repetitive cellular structure of Large Prefabricated Panel Construction

41
Figure 2.14:
The Principle and Grouping of Large Prefabricated Panel Construction

42
Figure 2.15:
The Dwelling Types and Components of Large Prefabricated Panel Construction

43
Virtually all parts of the new prefabricated high-rise residential buildings were
produced in specially built factories, which were situated at a greater or lesser distance
away from the site (Glendinning and Muthesius, 1994). The first major foreign-
designed prefabrication construction methods introduced in Great Britain were Camus
(France) and Larsen Nielson (Denmark). A variation of wall-frame was evolved in
1964-1965 by Concrete (Scotland) Ltd and the Building Research Station’s East
Kilbride, incorporating a number of improvements on the English prototypes such as
Bison Block as shown in Figure 2.9(ii) above.
A pilot project in Malaysia which adopted prefabrication as a technique
utilizing the large panel of Danish Larsen-Neilson System was undertaken for
Pekeliling Flats in Kuala Lumpur in 1966 (Kamarul, 2009). This system extended the
idea of a closed system to high-rise residential buildings with varying apartment types
from one room (42 m2
) to six rooms (130 m2
). The company eventually emphasized
only a few standard models, which looked cheaper than the conventional alternatives
while others were identified as more expensive and less flexible. In addition, Sarja
(1998) claimed that some of the details such as insulation joints and connections could
not be utilized in other countries.
In order to promote industrialization, a large-scale programme in the US
entitled ‘Operation Breakthrough’ was introduced in the 1970s. Hutching (1996) said
that various new techniques were adopted, including steel-framed modules and precast
load-bearing panelized wall in residential building as a modular construction. British
architecture firm Archigram Group created unorthodox concepts, including “capsule”
apartments and “Plug-In Cities,” that influenced contemporaries in Japan, Europe, and
the US (Arieff & Burkhart, 2002).

44
Figure 2.16:
Archigram’s Plug-in-City
Source: Parsley (2009)
The notable project of Habitat Montreal was presented by Moshie Sadie at
the 1967 World Expo in Montreal. The project consisted of 158 houses constructed
from 354 modular units. Eighteen different types were created from the single
concrete unit measuring 17.5 by 38.5 by 10.5 feet. The standard-sized living units
were craned into place, stacking one house on top of another so that the roof of one
formed the terrace of the other. The construction process was far more complicated
and dangerous than Sadie’s design had suggested. Poured concrete was too heavy,
and the use of customized production tools and formwork nearly doubled the
projected cost of the completed structure (Arieff & Burkhart, 2002).

45
i) Habitat Montreal completion ii) Habitat construction
Figure 2.17:
Habitat Modular Housing
Japan became a fulcrum for innovative prefabrication during the 1960s,
most notably from the work of architect Kisho Krakow, who had his own brand of
prefab known as “capsule architecture”. Kurokawa’s Nakagin Capsule Tower
(completed in 1972) is the most emblematic built work of the Japanese Metabolist
movement and remains as the first capsule architecture built for actual use (Arieff &
Burkhart, 2002). Like other Metabolist proposals, the Capsule Tower is nothing more
than a superstructure with prefabricated units that were “plugged-in.” The structure
was conceived as an “infinitely alterable infrastructure” that would enable the building
to have the adaptability and flexibility which are novel to the conventional tall
building (Bergdoll et al, 2008). The tower was initially designed as hotel offering
affordable accommodations for single businessmen.

46
The Capsule Tower (Figure 2.18) is compact, leaving little room for
customization of any sort. Furniture, lighting and appliances were predetermined.
The building is a seminal work in that it is not only emblematic of Japanese
Metabolism but also reinvents the apartment and hotel building typologies. Hyper-
dense and prefurnished, Kurokawa’s capsules maximized flexibility of the building to
accommodate a variety of uses over the past thirty-five years. This flexibility applied
to factory-manufactured components pointed the way toward a shift in prefab’s
practical applications, i.e. Kurokawa factored in the individual’s needs within a
standardized framework (Arieff & Burkhart, 2002).
Figure 2.18:
Nakagin Capsule Tower

47
Israeli architect Zvi Hecker’s 720-unit Ramot Housing Complex (Figure
2.19) was erected in five phases from 1974 through 1985 in Jerusalem. The housing
complex was influenced by the capsule concept of stacking components, but
dispensed rectilinear forms altogether. The system consisted of hundreds of
dodecahedrons sitting one on top of the other, resembling a honeycomb. Each face of
the dodecahedron was cast from a single pentagon-shaped slab of precast concrete that
was lifted into place by a crane. A concrete skeletal frame formed voids that
functioned as vertical and horizontal circulation between units. Hecker had drawn
influence from the work of the Metabolists, particularly Kisho Kurokawa and Arata
Isazaki, despite the fundamental difference that the Ramot Housing Complex was not
designed as a structure in which units could be plugged in, removed, and
interchanged, but instead emphasized permanence and solidity (Bergdoll et al, 2008).
Inspired by the technological advances and challenged by social and
economic realities, architects continued to push the boundaries of prefabrication. Few
changes were made with regard to the design and manufacture of prefabricated
housing in the latter part of the twentieth century (Arieff & Burkhart, 2002).
i) Ramot Complex ii) Ramot construction iii) Ramot construction
Figure 2.19:
Ramot Housing Complex at Jerusalem

48
Precast construction and associated prefabrication works were adopted by
Singapore in 1980s. The first project with 15,000 precast units was completed in
approximately four years, which was 15 months ahead of the original targeted
schedule. By the year 1987, more than 55,000 housing units in high-rise concrete
construction had been completed using various pre-cast concrete and respective
prefabrication technique. Today, more than 90% of Singapore’s population has been
accommodated in such high-rise buildings (Lee, 2005).
In 2001, precast construction was adopted full scale in The Orchards at Taikoo
Valley by Swire Properties Limited – the first ever private residential development in
Hong Kong with the use of precast construction technique, such as precast wall
panels, precast balconies, lost form construction, etc.
2.4.3 Advanced Industrial Systems (1980s until Now)
After the 1980s, the construction industry has introduced several new building
systems such as Computer-Integrated Construction, Modular Coordination (MC), and
Automated Building System.
Computer-Integrated Construction
The preliminary models for the Computer-Integrated Construction that was developed
in 1984 started the period of the Advanced Industrial Systems. The system was
introduced to increase and optimise the design freedom and production process,
industrialized and mechanized manufacture of components, compatibility of technical
systems, and easy assembly and installation of structural components.

49
According to Abel (2004), one of the first so-called ‘intelligent buildings’ that
was completed in the 1980s, the Hong Kong and Shanghai Bank (Figure 2.20) by
Norman Foster was fitted out with a fully computerized Building Management
System.
Figure 2.20:
The Exterior and Interior View of the Hong Kong and Shanghai Bank
Source: Foster and Partners (2001)
CIBSE (2004) claimed that the Building Management System (BMS) design
emphasizes the ability to communicate with user, compatibility with other
network/system, and adaptability to future modification/expansion. Foster and
Partners (2001) mentioned, the requirement to build in excess of a million square feet
of building in a short timescale suggested a high degree of prefabrication including
factory-finished modules.

50
Modular Building Systems
Modular construction systems are closed systems in which the elements are
prefabricated by the manufacturers independent of a particular building. For a
modular building system, a particular number of elements are pre-determined which,
can be organized into complete entities by combining them in a number of different
ways, as shown in Figure 2.21 as follows.
Type A Type B Type C Type D Type E Type F
1-3
inhabitants
(70m2
)
4
inhabitants
(90m2
)
5
inhabitants
(110m2
)
Figure 2.21:
Combination options in a modular building system
Source: Staib et al (2008)
The organization and assembly of these elements must be carried out according
to geometric and constructional rules. According to Glendinning and Muthesius
(2000) and Abel (2004), the modular system has proponents of an open systems
approach advocated MC and interchangeability of parts throughout the construction
industry of Europe in the 1960s. Sarja (1998) defined MC as a concept for
coordinating dimension and space for which buildings and components are
dimensionalized and positioned in basic units or modules. MC consists of modular

51
parts at different hierarchical levels that can be joined together according to the
connection rules to form a functional whole. Warszawski (1999) claimed that MC is
an intermediate stage toward an eventual evolvement of open system. It reduced the
variability of the dimensions and allow for easy adaptation of prefabricated
components to any layout and their interchangeability within the building.
According to CIDB (2005), MC has been introduced in Malaysia in 1986 but
has not been widely implemented in the construction industry. The main factors
limiting the uses of MC in Malaysian construction industry is the lack of knowledge
on MC concept which requires precision dimensioning and proper planning. The
characteristics of MC are as follows:
 The basic module is small in terms of size in order to provide design
flexibility, yet large enough to promote simplification in the components’
variation in sizes
 Industry friendly features that not only cater for manufacturing but also the
transportation and assembly requirements
 Ergonomically designed to promote efficiency
 Internationally accepted to support international market
MC may be applied to the design, manufacture and assembly of building, its
components and installations. It also affects the work of positioning and
dimensioning during construction. According to CIDB (2005), the concept of MC is
based on:
 the used of modules (basic modules and multi-modules)
 a reference system to define coordinating spaces and zones for building
elements and for the components which form them
 rules for locating building elements within the reference system

52
 rules for sizing building components in order to determine their work sizes
 rules for defining preferred sizes for building components and coordinating
dimensions for building
In Malaysia, MC is widely adopted in the mid 1990s in teachers’ quarters as shown in
Figure 2.22 as follows.
Figure 2.22:
Teachers’ Quarters for Ministry of Education in Malaysia

53
Automated Building System
In the construction industry, there are many benefits from eliminating site work.
Several overseas projects experimented with automated construction technologies.
Hasegawa (2000) reviewed the research in automation of construction in Japan.
In 1990, a system involving a roof frame containing production plant and
control room was introduced (Hasegawa, 2000). The frame was positioned above the
working floor, and when the floor was completed, the entire frame would be pushed
up by another floor to work on the next floor. Hasegawa reported that about ten
leading contractors had been introduced to this method.
It became apparent that information technology would play an indispensable,
integrative role in construction, much like the changes that occurred in the
manufacturing sector. Computer Integrated Construction (CIC) was thought of as a
strategy for linking existing resources, technologies, processes and organisations to
optimise the whole business. However, contractors have long realised (Miyatake et
al., 1993) that CIC, at best, could only automate a system, but could not make an
inefficient system efficient.
Miyatake et al (1993) and Sebestyēn (1998) claimed that the Shimizu
Manufacturing System by Advanced Robotic Technology (SMART) of Japan was the
kind of CIC and considered the world’s first all-weather automatic system for high-
rise building. It was aimed to integrate design, construction and manufacturing. The
SMART system initially consisted of lifting cranes and overhead gantry cranes
installed on an operating platform above the working floor. Parts were automatically
transported to the required location and automatic welding machines were used to join
the members together. When a floor was completed, the whole operating platform
would be raised and work on the next floor could start immediately.

54
Shimizu (1997) reported the development of an improved SMART system that
was used in the construction of a 30-storey RC Yokohama Building near Tokyo.
Their system consisted of a truss at the top, a system of hoist cranes and welding
robots. Figures 2.23 to 2.25 illustrate this system.
Figure 2.23:
System for Automation High-Rise Building Construction, Shimizu, Japan.
Source: Sebestyén (1998)

55
i) Canopy or Hat Assembly
The delivery system is
installed under the canopy
ii) Excavation Work
The canopy preserves the
excavation site from weather
changes
iii) Skeleton, Equipment and
Finishing Work:
Low Stories
The construction processes
are carried out in a stable
pace
iv) Skeleton, Equipment
and Finishing Work:
High Stories
The construction processes are
carried out in a stable pace
v) Canopy Disassembly
The canopy is disassembled on
the top of the building, the
external frame is lowered
synchronously and safely
disassembled on the ground
vi) Construction Completion
A high-quality building is
completed
Figure 2.24:
An Example of Robotized Construction – Big Canopy
Source: Chew (1999)

56
Figure 2.25:
Shimizu Manufacturing System by Advanced Robotic Technology (SMART)
Source: Shimizu (1997)
The concepts of ‘super construction factory’ automation into the building site
for steel structures were implemented in Japan. According to Chew (1999), building
components and materials were delivered to the floor under construction through
elevator and are lifted to the exact location of the floor by cranes. Robots then carried
out welding and fastening. Upon completion of one floor, the factory is jacked up
through an internal climbing system to commence work on the next floor. However,

57
Toole (2001) asserted that this kind of factory requires substantial one-time and
ongoing investment. This ‘Super Construction Factory’ known as Obayashi is
illustrated in Figure 2.26 as follows.
Figure 2.26:
An Example of Robotized Construction – Construction Factory
Source: Chew (1999)
Obayashi further developed the system into the "Big Canopy" system, which
consisted of self climbing cranes and overhead gantry cranes to facilitate assembly of
prefabricated components (Obayashi, 2005). The whole system could be supported
with information technology to link the supply chain of prefabricated components.
Heavy prefabricated modules could also be lifted with this system, as shown in Figure
2.27 as follows.

58
Figure 2.27:
An Example of Robotized Construction – Big Canopy
Source: Chew (1999)

59
Another Japanese contractor, Kajima, applied an Automatic Up-Rising
Construction by Advanced Technique (AMURAD) system (Sekiguchi, 1997) in the
construction of the company's nine-storey condominium in Nagoya and an eleven-
storey Yokogawa Construction New Headquarters building in Tokyo. It involved
construction of the top floor first, then pushing up the completed floor by jacks to
make room for construction of the next floor below. The completed floors were
pushed up successively until the completion of the lowest floor. The Figure 2.28
below shows the construction sequence using the AMURAD system.
Figure 2.28:
Construction Sequence Using
Automatic Up-Rising Construction by Advanced Technique (AMURAD) System
Source: Kajima (2005)
In the AMURAD system, each of the building components contained bar code
information for controlling the logistics. Construction planning and management,
such as labor, time, material, equipment, were controlled from the central database.
The system was called a building factory because building components were carried
by remote controlled handling machines to the required place at the required time.
The contractor stated that the system reduced construction time by up to 30% and
reduced the number of workers and generation of waste by 50%.

60
Penta-Ocean (1997) reported that their development of a Future Automated
Construction Efficient System (FACES) system consisting of self-lifting frames,
automatic conveying machines and automatic welding machines are all controlled via
a network in the control room at the top of the frame. The system has been used in a
20-storey residential building. One-third of the columns have hydraulic equipment
that could simultaneously move up the lifting frame. The conveyor system was
controlled by computer. The self-lifting frame formed the working platform and rose
with the progress of the construction. When the top storey was completed, the
equipment would be dismantled.
2.5 OPEN BUILDING SYSTEM
Building with open systems offers the possibility of using products from different
manufacturers. Compared with closed systems, the open system is not allotted to a
single building, but based upon the combination of various prefabricated building
parts. When designing with an open building system, the architect determines the
function of the building components and selects potential manufacturer. Thus, a
Dutch Architect, Neil John Habraken founded the Foundation for Architects’
Research or Stiftung Architekten Research (SAR) which led to the development of
Open Building System. He proposed a radical new approach in the design and
production of frame structures and built-in fixtures by dividing house into two parts:
support and infill.
Support (base building) is the communal parts of the building containing the
structure, services, etc. and infill (fit-out) as the private portion of the building that is
tailored to the needs of the occupants, and is flexible enough to cater to changes over
time (Friedman, 2002; and Staib et al, 2008). The layouts were to be open-plan, with

61
only kitchen and bathroom locations being fixed; the remaining areas could be
individually designed by the users. This approach brings the idea of the contemporary
proposals for the Japanese Metabolists and Operation Breakthrough.
Open Building System was popular in the Netherlands, Japan, and Finland, but
its adoption has been hindered by major changes in the design and construction that
often resulted in an increase in the construction cost. From the beginning of the
1960s, countless rigid systems were developed for the applications of renovation using
prefabricated Open Building System such as ENTRA and MOBIT. Consequently, in
the early 1970s, the Finnish BES system for housing used a basic design unit and a
multi-module of 12M (Warszawski, 1999). It employed slabs, walls, bathroom,
staircase and several components of standard dimension, as shown in Figure 2.29 as
follows.

62
Figure 2.29:
The Finnish BES System Components from Finland.
Source: Warszawski (1999)

63
Open Building System is defined as a free interchangeability of components of
different products and technologies (Warszawski, 1999; and Friedman, 2002) that split
the building into key elements such as structure, services, cladding and fit-out (Gann
et al., 1999; and Kendall & Teicher, 2000). In order to minimize assembly
difficulties, the elements should be standardized, dimensionally coordinated and rules
of classification decided upon (Staib et al, 2008). These could lead to new forms of
organizing the production process using prefabricated elements.
In the building industry, standardized modular dimensions are used in the
manufacture of construction elements to ensure the different manufacturer employ the
same dimensions. However, in the political terms, the need to develop prefabricated
building methods was recognized in the form of industrial building, for instance, the
Otto Steidle’s experimental housing in Germany in 1970-72 (Staib, 2008) and France
in 1975 through George Maurios (Kendall & Teicher, 2000). Both systems allow
flexibility and variation which encourages residents to fit-out, use and alter their
housing as shown in Figure 2.30 as follows.
Figure 2.30:
Housing experiment Genter Straβe in Munich, Germany

64
Rectangular concrete columns with supporting brackets, and floor slabs with
down-stand beams provide the primary structure, while the prefabricated and
moveable partition and façade elements could be positioned differently within the
structure, as shown in Figure 2.31 as follows.
Figure 2.31:
Construction system shell for housing
Genter Straβe in Munich, Germany
However these systems vanished as quickly as they had appeared (Staib, 2008).
Mostly, it is due to their inadequate flexibility in terms of the users’ changing
demands, and architecture should be a product of place, materials and function. Thus,
the development of Open Building for residential Infill Systems is ongoing with
increasing funding from the industry and government in Finland and Japan.

65
2.5.1 Matura Infill System
The Matura Infill System is a patented system comprising of a base floor tile (called
Matrix Tile), a track that integrates into the top of the floor tile to form a bottom track
for partitions (called Base Profile), and design software that supports production,
prefabrication, and installation. Although the application of this infill system is
primarily intended for multi-family buildings, the individual technologies that make
up the system illustrate possibilities for single-family applications. The word “infill”
represents systems, components, and fixtures within the building such as HVAC,
electric, plumbing, and cabinets. Integrated infill systems typically include the
distribution components for these systems (e.g., pipes, wires), as well as components
that allow for routing these distribution components in a manner that minimizes
entanglements with the building structure.
Matura’s Matrix Tile component is applied to the sub-floor of a building. This
specially designed tile provides pathways to horizontally distribute plumbing lines,
electrical and communications wiring, and ductwork. The tile also accommodates
zero-slope gray water drain lines as well as dedicated water supply lines in pre-formed
grooves in the tile. On top of the Matrix Tile, the Base Profile component integrates
into the tiles and serves as the base for interior partitions. In addition to joining wall
partitions to the floor tiles, the Base Profile also includes a wiring chase for baseboard
wiring runs and receptacles. Together, the Matrix Tile and Base Profile (as shown in
Figure 2.32) incorporate 23 different sub-systems.

66
Base
Profile
Matrix
Tile
Figure 2.32
Matura Lower System of Matura Infill System in the Netherlands and Germany
Sources: Kendall and Teicher (2000) and Friedman (2002)
Beyond the specific building components, major elements of infill systems like
Matura are design and production methodologies intended to provide flexibility and
installation efficiency. The Matura system includes software that supports the design
of the infill system, prefabrication of components, and installation/assembly. The

67
Matura software and components are based on a 10 x 20 centimeter grid system that
accounts for the positioning of each component and its relationship to other elements.
The software (MaturaCads) allows a designer to test various product configurations,
and generate output for cost, production, container packing, and on-site assembly.
Once a design is established, many components of the system are prefabricated to
reduce on-site installation time, while other components may simply be pre-cut in a
factory setting. At the time of installation, the infill components are shipped to the
site in containers, with parts loaded according to the sequence of installation on the
site. A separate container containing all of the required tools for the installation team
is also sent to the site.
The Matura Infill System, which was originally introduced to the market by
Infill Systems BV in 1993, is certified and code approved in Germany and the
Netherlands.
2.5.2 ERA Infill System
A variation on the Matura system is the ERA Infill System, developed by ERA, a
general contracting firm in the Netherlands. The ERA system is similar to the Matura
system in that it uses a series of panels laid on top of the subfloor to accommodate
horizontal utility runs like electric lines, zero-slope gray water drain lines, and water
supply lines. However, the ERA system utilizes common building products instead of
patented components. The floor system created in the ERA infill uses polystyrene
sheets and gypsum anhydrite sheeting, with utility lines run in a double layer of the
polystyrene sheets.

68
2.5.3 Interlevel
Another infill system that relies upon the floor system to distribute mechanical lines is
Interlevel, developed by Prowon BV of the Netherlands. The Interlevel system uses a
raised floor comprising of high density, cementitious, wood fiberboard panels. The
panels, which are designed to provide access to the underfloor area, are laid upon a
wooden frame on adjustable legs that creates an underfloor cavity of 4 to 6 inches in
height. Water supply lines, electrical conduit, and HVAC ducting are distributed in
the underfloor area beneath the high-density panels. The Interlevel system has
achieved approval for fire and acoustical ratings under the Dutch building codes.
While Interlevel was originally developed for commercial buildings market, it has also
been applied to many small businesses and residential projects.
2.5.4 Owens Corning Basement Finish System
Another variation of pre-packaged components to finish an existing basement is the
Owens Corning basement finish system. This system is marketed as an alternative
method for basement finishing designed to prevent typical problems such as
susceptibility to moisture damage and dusty construction process. Key characteristics
of the system include:
 Wall panels with a rigid fiber glass core (R-11, 95 noise reduction coefficient)
instead of traditionally installed gypsum. The panels are easily removed for
access to foundation walls and utilities, and are designed to be vapor
permeable to let the wall dry toward the inside.
 A dent-resistant, pre-finished surface on the wall panels and prefabricated
channels to hold panels in place.
 A bottom track to the wall system that offers space to rout low voltage wiring.

69
The Owens Corning basement finish system can be installed relatively quickly
(an average of two weeks) and cleanly, so the household is not disrupted while
construction is taking place. The removable panels promote the principle of organized
systems by allowing the wiring and foundation to be easily accessed whenever
necessary (Basement Finishing System, 2011).
2.5.5 Other Infill System Examples
With the exception of the Owens Corning system, the organizing mechanism products
described above were generally intended for multi-family and/or commercial building
applications, although many aspects of these systems could also hold potential
benefits for rationalized utilities in single-family houses. When considering the
application of infill systems to single-family dwellings in the US, among the major
implications to consider is the shift in design, fabrication, and installation practices
that accompany an integrated infill approach. Compared to typical site-built
construction approaches, changes would be required in scheduling, subcontractor
responsibilities, material selection, installation methods, code approval, and customer
education.
Kendall (2000) provides numerous project case studies involving infill systems
such as the Matura, ERA, and Interlevel as well as short reviews of several systems.
A few further examples of infill systems drawn from this resource are summarized in
the Table 2.2 below, including highlights of those features that support organized and
accessible systems. It should be noted that some of these efforts were research-based
or experimental initiatives, and that some of the specific products or projects may no
longer be underway.

70
Table 2.2:
Other Infill System
Infill
System
Organization
/ Location
Key Features
Espirit Espirit
Consortium /
Netherlands
 Raised floor systems in bathrooms
 Specially designed traps for showers, tubs
 Quick connects for bathroom fixtures (supply and drain lines),
water supply lines, and heating pipes
 Low-slope drain lines
 Surface-mounted and partition chase distribution of power and
data communications
 Integrated pipes in the back of kitchen cabinets
 Demountable wall partition system
Haseko Haseko
/ Japan
 Haseko negotiates material prices for infill directly with suppliers,
and subcontractors use these prices and control only labor prices
 Dropped ceilings used to conceal water supply lines
 Toilets are a) rear-discharge units tied directly to a vertical stack,
or b) discharge into a waste pipe which runs along a wall
 Kitchen drain lines extend behind the cabinets to a vertical stack
Panekyo
Total Interior
System
(PATIS)
Panekyo
/ Japan
 Seven types of raised floor systems
 Partition systems, ceilings, bath and kitchen cabinets designed for
the infill of multi-family units
Mansion
Industry
System
(MIS) Infill
Mid- and
High-Rise
Multi-family
Housing
Project
/ Japan
 Each of 250 condos has a fixed bathroom and kitchen, with the
rest of the dwelling open to customized design
 Quick connect wiring systems installed under a raised access floor
system
 Clip-on wall panels which mount to metal stud frames
 Plumbing lines and interior finish work installed by the same
contractor
 Quick connects on water supply and drain lines
KSI
Infill
Housing
and
Urban
Development
Corporation /
Japan
 Infill system developed for both new and retrofit applications
 Following plumbing installation, a raised floor system on
adjustable pedestals is installed (see image below)
 Kitchen fresh air intake is located directly under the raised floor
 Dedicated “home run” hot and cold water supply lines
 Low-slope gray water drainage lines collect to a central header
and then to a vertical drain stack
 Wires are routed under the raised floor, inside partitions, and in
raceways in the floor at room perimeters
 Flat wiring is installed on the ceiling
Finnish
Infill
Development
Efforts
Finland  Demountable partition systems with integrated electric lines
 Transformable cabinetry systems to serve disabled users
 Raised access floor systems utilizing materials like expanded
polystyrene, light aggregate concrete, and board systems

71
2.6 THE APPLICATION OF MALAYSIAN STANDARD FOR IBS-HOUSING
The construction of the Malay traditional house mainly relies on its strength of a
standard jointing system made rigid by the use of timber wedges (Zulkifli, 2000; Wan
Hashimah, 2005; Sazali, 2008). According to Rodd (2003) timber that is relatively
light-weight has always been at what might be regarded as the cutting edge of the
building technology of the era. However, Kamaluddin (2009) claimed that concrete is
the material of choice for residential buildings in Malaysia nowadays. Concrete can
provide a dwelling with a solid and durable construction that will prove resistant to
impact damage and be easy to maintain provided all the normal standards and
regulations adhered to BS 8110. On the other hand, Gibb & Isack (2001) said,
employing standard to meet clients’ needs and producing customized individual
buildings are important to ensure success. Therefore the Standard in Building Design
is not limited to architectural design but also covered the concrete structural design.
In addition, the standard and building design should fulfilling criteria as stated
in the contract. Thus the standards have been developed by the Department of
Standards Malaysia and SIRIM to replace the BS Code of Practice in any building
design activities. These standards have been refined by several bodies such as
Institute of Architects (PAM), Institute of Engineers (IEM), Master Builders
Association (MBA), universities and related government agencies in order to sustain
the Malaysian construction industry. The normal standards that have been used in
concrete design are BS 8110 (Structural use of concrete – Code of practice for design
and construction) and BS 6073 (Precast concrete masonry units – Specification for
precast concrete masonry units) for the design of reinforcement concrete and
partitions. Table 2.3 shows the related Malaysian Standards to BS 8110 for the
residential building in Malaysia:

72
Table 2.3:
Malaysian Standards in the Built Environment
Source: Julaihi et al (2006)
Type of MS Title Year
1 MS 282:
Part 1 to 9:
1975
Code Of Practice For Building Operations Code, Part 1: Demolition, Part
2: Excavation Work, Part 3: Welding And Cutting, Part 4: Piling, Part 5:
Handling And Storing Materials, Part 6: Blasting, Part 7: Scaffolds, Part
8: Ladders, and Part 9: Temporary Floors, Stairs, Railings And Toe
Boards
1975
2 MS 1241:
1991
Specification For Fibreglass Water Tanks Effective Capacity Of Less
Than 2000 Litre
1991
3 MS 523:
Part 1: 1993
Specification For Concrete, Including Ready-Mixed Concrete
Part 1 : Guide To Specifying Concrete (First Revision)
1993
5 MS 523:
Part 2: 1993
Specification For Concrete, Including Ready Mixed Concrete
Part 2: Guide To Specifying Concrete (First Revision)
1993
4 MS 523:
Part 3: 1993
Specification For Concrete, Including Ready-Mixed Concrete
Part 3: Procedures To Be Used In Producing & Transporting Concrete
(1st
Revision)
1993
6 MS 523:
Part 4: 1993
Specification For Concrete, Including Ready Mixed Concrete
Part 4: Procedures To Be Used In Sampling Of Concrete (First Revision)
1993
7 MS 30:
Part 3: 1995
Methods Of Testing Aggregates:
Part 3: Methods For Sampling
1995
8 MS 30:
Part 11:
1995
Methods Of Testing Aggregates: Part 11: Methods Of The
Determination Of Resistance To Degradation Of Coarse Aggregate By
Abrasion And Impact In Los Angeles Machine (First Revision)
1995
9 MS 30:
Part 13:
1995
Part 13: Methods Of The Determination Of Water Soluble Chloride Salt 1995
10 MS 30:
Part 16:
1995
Part 16: Methods For Testing & Classifying Drying Shrinkage Of
Aggregates In Concrete
1995
11 MS 160:
1995
Specification For Bitumen-based Coatings For Cold Application,
Suitable For Use In Contact With Potable Water
1995
12 MS 30:
Part 4: 1995
Part 4: Methods Of Determination Of Particle Size Distribution
1995
13 MS 30:
Part 5: 1995
Part 5: Methods For Determination Of Particle Shape
1995
14 MS 27:
1996
Specification For Precast Concrete Masonry Units
1996
15 MS 1471:
Part 8: 1999
Vocabulary On Fire Protection:
Part 8: 1999 Terms Specific To Fire Fighting Rescue Services &
Handling Hazardous
1999
16 MS 146:
2000
Specification For Hot Rolled Steel Bars For The Reinforcement Of
Concrete (Second Revision)
2000
17 MS 144:
2001
Specification For Cold Reduced Mild Steel Wire For The Reinforcement
of Concrete (Second Revision)
2001
18 MS 1064:
Part 1: 2001
Guide To Modular Coordination In Buildings:
Part 1: General Principles (First Revision)
2001
19 MS 1064:
Part 5: 2001
Guide To Modular Coordination In Building:
Part 5: Coordinating Sizes And Preferred Sizes For Window Sets
2001
20 MS 1064:
Part 8: 2001
Guide To Modular Coordination In Buildings:
Part 8: Coordinating Sizes For Masonry Bricks And Blocks
2001

73
SIRIM Berhad is a government-owned company under the Ministry of Finance
appointed by the Department of Standard Malaysia to develop a Malaysian Standard
(MS) while CIDB is a body responsible for certification of construction materials
(Azlinor & Rozanah, 2008). In the context of Malaysian construction industry, the
recognition of materials to be quality materials is dependent on whether they are
certified by SIRIM Berhad. SIRIM is responsible for developing standards for critical
products, systems and services. The approval of a standard such as MS is governed
by the Standards Malaysia Act, 1996.
The construction sector in Malaysia contributed 4.0% of GDP and recorded a
productivity growth of 1.5% to RM20,204.00 in 2008 (Productivity Report, 2008). In
order to be more competitive, developers are encouraged to use Quality Assessment
System in Construction (QLASSIC) to assess and measure the workmanship quality
of any construction work against an approved standard. The Construction Industry
Standard (CIS 7:2006) specifies the workmanship quality and assessment procedures
for building construction work. The system was initiated by the Government to
enhance quality control of construction work. In order to ensure the success of CIMP
and IBS Roadmap 2010-2015, a total of RM19.13 million has been provided to the
IBS researchers since 2007 to development of IBS-related Malaysian Standards (MS)
and Construction Industry Standards (CIS) as well as design systemisation exercises
(Hassan & Ismail, 2008).
When the relationship of standard and IBS is mentioned, Gibb (1999) defined
an IBS as a work that can be carried out on or offsite that would involve the standard
coordination. However’ Chung (2007) outlined an IBS as mass production of
building components either in a factory or on site according to specifications with
standard shapes and dimensions and which are then transported to the construction site

74
to be re-arranged with certain standards to form a building. Therefore Mohd Rofdzi &
Egbu (2010) suggested the execution of Modular Coordination (MC) through
legislation to gain success in IBS. The implementation of MC into Uniform Building
by Law (UBBL), planning standards and building specifications needs to be executed
in order to promote IBS construction in the points of adaptability towards Open
Building System.
2.6.1 MS 1064 (Guide to Modular Coordination in Building) 2001
The programme for change to the metric system since 1972 faced much difficulty due
to the complexity and fragmented nature of the building industry itself. A coherent
system of coordinating dimensions in the building process is crucially needed to
facilitate the communication at all levels from the designers to the manufacturers in
the building trade. The MS 1064 (First Revision) was revised from MS1064:1988 and
introduced in 2001 consisted of the following standards:
 Part 1:2001 (General Principles)
 Part 2:2001 (Storey Heights and Room Heights)
 Part 3:2003 (Coordinating Sizes and Preferred Sizes for Stairs and its Openings)
 Part 4:2001 (Coordinating Sizes and Preferred Sizes for Doorsets)
 Part 5:2001 (Coordinating Sizes and Preferred Sizes for Windowsets)
 Part 6:2001 (Coordinating Sizes and Preferred Sizes for Rigid Flat Sheets)
 Part 7:2001 (Coordinating Sizes and Preferred Sizes for Tiles)
 Part 8:2001 (Coordinating Sizes and Preferred Sizes for Masonry and Blocks)
 Part 9:2001 (Coordinating Sizes and Preferred Sizes for Cabinets)
 Part 10:2001 (Coordinating Sizes and Preferred Sizes for Reinforced Concrete
Components)

75
The introduction of MC in building will constitute a positive step to streamline
the industry towards proper metrication in building planning, design, construction,
assembly and manufacturing of building materials and components (Department of
Standards Malaysia, 2001).
The definition given in ISO 1803 has been used in MS 1064 such as
dimension, size, coordination, modules, reference system, tolerance, and graphic
convention. The standardized value of the basic module is 1M = 100 mm. For the
horizontal coordinating dimension, the standardized values of multimodules are 3M,
6M, 12M, 30M and 60M. The 12M series can be extended further to use larger
increments such as 24M when technical and economical advantages are evident.
However, the 15M, 30M and 60M series correspond to the series in a system of
preferred number which contain the factor five. These series can also be extended to
the use of larger increments in the series of the multimodule 60M such as 120M or
larger. The preferred multimodular sizes for horizontal dimensions are primarily
intended for sizing of components, group of components and spaces. For the vertical
coordinating dimensions, the three positions of the modular floor plane are defined as
reference plane in building design. Vertical modular dimensions should be taken from
the modular floor plane.
The fundamental principles for design of joints are based on the geometrical,
structural and environmental properties of joints. A joint design shall include the clear
specification of the position of the joint profiles of the components in relation to the
common joint reference plane and the joint clearance based on the specified positions
of the joined components. Joints also shall be designed for all the dynamic and static
condition as well as to provide a performance such as the assembly by the
components.

76
2.6.2 Construction Innovation versus MS 1064
The occurrence of innovation within the construction industry is often characterised
by the widespread adoption of new practices as a result of advances in technological
and business processes. According to Edum-Fotwe et al (2004) the introduction of
standards such as MS 1064 could assist in achieving consistency for the widespread
deployment of innovation. The rationale for the standard is the achievement of
simpliﬁcation in design, which in turn should lead to cutting down of unnecessary
variety to bring about improved productivity and better client and end-user
satisfaction. On the one hand, it addresses the production of standard types of whole
buildings as in the case of standard houses. On the other hand it refers to
standardisation in the technology of construction. This latter reference includes
coordinating dimensions such as those suggested in MS 1064.
2.6.3 Adaptability versus MS 1064
The adaptability of buildings is inextricably linked with the coordinating and preferred
size of the component for residential buildings. The adaptable house must distinguish
between two different decision-making levels i.e. support and infill to ensure that
buildings can be optimally modified to meet changing (future) use.
Essiz & Koman (2006) found that design demands (artistic and technical)
increase with each further step towards industrialization. According to Zulkefle
(2010), the combination of building standards together with functional and aesthetic
designs could utilize the full advantage of IBS without creating lifeless buildings and
environment. Erman (2002) claimed that aesthetic considerations became an
inseparable part of building components without putting its primary function aside.
On the other hand, the MS 1064 Part 10 as the standard of reinforcement concrete

77
components for MC played an important role for architectural design by utilizing
precast concrete. In addition, the feasibility of joints and connections can be
improved with the Concept VII of Joints and Tolerance in Modular Design Guide
(CIDB, 2009). Therefore, the concept of adaptability for home design could be
realized (Zulkefle 2010).
A basic interpretation of adaptability is the refitting of a physical environment
as the result of a new circumstance. Friedman (2002) defined adaptability for homes
as “providing occupants with forms and means that facilitate a fit between their space
needs and the constraints of their homes either before or after occupancy”. However,
according to Zulkefle (2010) homes in Malaysia have followed another path. It has
always been conceived as something necessarily static and safe. What happened to
the “machine à habiter” that Le Corbusier proposed at the beginning of the 20th
century? According to Jacqueline (2009), the problems arose from ‘social
engineering’ resulting in ill-matched homes and users. Therefore, the organized and
accessible standard such as MS 1064 as a design guideline to MC is crucial in
promoting IBS as well as adaptability towards Open Building System in Malaysia.
Thus, the MS 1064 should be reconfigured in a relatively straightforward manner in
the designing stage as occupant living requirements change over time.
2.7 THE NEW PARADIGM: MASS-CUSTOMIZATION
At the beginning of the century, industrialized economies were based on mass
production. However, advances in information and technology is making it possible
to ‘mass-customize,’ or to quickly respond to consumers with customized products at
mass production costs.

78
The key to cost effective customization is modularization and configuration
(Crayton, 2001). Modularization is a key strategy to achieving mass customization:
products are broken down into modular components that can be recombined to satisfy
customer needs. The configuration systems present choices to consumers and
determine what components work together.
At the core of mass customization is a change in the relationship between
production and consumption. The communication between producer and consumer
changes from a one-way, autocratic relationship to a two-way, interactive dialogue.
Consumers become co-designers of the product-solutions for their individual wants
and desires. The task of design will also change. Customization will have to be
designed into products. The task shifts from designing invariable products to
designing product platforms and architectures as well as the sets of design rules that
define a range of product solutions (Steele, 2006).
Mass customization is rapidly replacing mass production. Mass production
depends on quantity to be successful. Henry Ford’s “one size fits all” model no longer
makes for a successful product or service. The fundamental problem with a mass-
produced architecture was/is its lack of mass appeal. Companies in the commercial
products industry – such as Dell Computer, Nike, the fashion and automotive
industries – have organized their companies to accommodate customer desires for
choice. Their products have been broken down into smaller parts or components,
allowing quick assembly tailored to the customer’s needs and fast shipping. Mass
customization is about cultural production: rather than decide among options produced
by industry, the customer determines what the options will be by participating in the
flow of the design process from the very start (Kieran & Timberlake, 2004).

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