I would like you to respond to five (5) of the six (6) prompts bel.docx

I would like you to respond to five (5) of the six (6) prompts
below. Each response will be worth ten (10) points. A
response should be written formally, do not use the second
person. A thorough response will include relevant information
from the text, class discussions, and related assignments. The
response should indicate which question is being answered at
the beginning of the response. Two paragraphs would be the
minimum expected per answer. Late submissions will not be
accepted.
Chapter 3-Describe the potential positive and negative impacts
that have occurred in early childhood special education with the
shift of emphasis from communicating to parents and providing
training in the areas that professionals deem important in the
children's life, to the current focus of professionals supporting
of what parents consider important to their child and their
families?
Chapter 4- The Smith’s (family A) want their child in Special
Education and are supportive of receiving services, The Jones’
(family B) do not understand the any reason why their child
would need individualized services. The children in both
families are academically below their same aged peers, have
significant language delays, and struggle to pay attention. Both
children are in your First grade classroom. Describe how you
would work with two different families to understand the results
of the following assessments: Screening, Eligibility, Program
Planning, and Progress Monitoring/Evaluation.
Chapter 5- Compare and contrast an Individualized Education
Plan (IEP) with an Individualized Family Service Plan (IFSP).
Chapter 7-What are some important factors to consider when
setting up your classroom? Give some examples to support these

factors. How will you design and set up your classroom in an
appropriate manner with a limited budget and resources?
Chapter 8-Describe three ways you would use task analysis in
your classroom? Discuss the benefits of all three.
Chapter 9 -Compare and Contrast Teacher-Mediated Strategies
with Peer-Mediated Strategies. Which strategy do you prefer?
Please explain
©2014 Cengage Learning.
All Rights Reserved.
Chapter 7
Designing Learning Environments for Young Children
with Special Needs
IntroductionClassroom ecology, which refers to the
environmental modifications and arrangements of features of
classroom environments that can have an impact on learning for
young children with delays or disabilities.Learning environment
consists of its physical attributes (e.g., space, room ar-
rangement, equipment), the human dimension (e.g., the
atmosphere and interactions among individuals), and the
curricular environment (e.g., content, routines, goals/outcomes).

Five Principles of Environmental Design
Be organized
Be capable of creating a caring community
Have clear goals that reflect particular instructional emphasis
Protect health and safety of children
Allow all students equal access to age appropriate materials
Organizing the Learning Environment
Organizing the Learning EnvironmentKey DimensionsAvailable
space and room arrangement, Age of the children, Population
density, Individual differences of the children,Aesthetics and
visual appeal,Accessibility, Safety and health, Materials and
equipment, Organization/scheduling, budget, and Child-adult
ratios.
Organizing the Learning EnvironmentSuggestions for producing
an aesthetically pleasing classroom Choose soft, neutral
colorsDisplay children’s artworkIncorporate natural objects and
materialsPay attention to storageAvoid clutter; rotate
materialsLabel shelves

Creating Activity Areas
Infants and Toddlers
Must be safe, secure, aesthetically pleasing, and stimulating
Must be designed to account for varying levels of stimulation
and challenge
Remember sensorimotor stage of intellectual development
Predictable routines such as eating, sleeping, and toileting; need
areas for changing, sleeping, and feeding
Preschoolers
Block area, gross motor center, literacy area, music area, and a
quiet area
Must be organized to encourage meaningful participation of
students who have wide range of abilities
Selection of materials should be age-appropriate and individual-
appropriate
Must include individual or private areas to create sense of
privacy and independence
Early Primary Grades
Arrange tables or flexible groupings of desks to enable children

to work alone or in small groups
Provide a safe environment and age-appropriate supervision as
children are gradually given more responsibility
Anticipate and prevent situations where children might be hurt,
while supporting children’s risk-taking behavior within safe
boundaries
Early Primary Grades, cont.
Foster a learning environment that encourages exploration,
initiative, positive peer interaction, and cognitive growth
Various types of spaces are provided for silent or shared
reading
Organize daily schedule to allow for alternating periods of
physical activity and quiet time
Give advance notice of transitions
Plan curriculum to include various learning experiences
Outdoor Learning EnvironmentsRecommendations for
Designing Outdoor Space A large, accessible, grassy area with
interactive and exploratory equipment, plus traditional swings
and slides75 square feet per childAreas under the play
equipment should be lined with (12 inches) bark, pea gravel,
sawdust, or sand to cushion any falls

Outdoor Learning Environments
Young Children with Special Needs
Outdoor environment should be modified to accommodate
accessibility and safety
U.S. Access Board guidelines for playgrounds:
Ground-level playground equipment
Elevated structures
Dramatic play equipment
Play tables
Water play, sand boxes, and garden areas
Designing the Learning Environment
Environmental Arrangement
Stimulus-control
Attractive letters, bright colors, pastel colors
Provides cues about classroom routines and rules
Reinforcement and Responsivity
Can serve as reinforcer for children’s behavior
Can be designed to allow flexible sequencing of activities
Premacking
Responsivity: Provides learner with predictable and immediate
outcomes

Self-correcting materials
Working with disabilities: Any battery-operated toy
Augmentative or Alternative Communication devices (AAC)
An Accessible Environment
Accessibility of educational contexts
Changes in communication methods
Adaptations in physical environment to foster learning, social
interactions, communication, and independence
Designing the Learning Environment (continued)
Examples:
Lowered desk tops and work tables of varying sizes and shapes
Adjustable shelves containing books, supplies, and learning
materials
Adequate pathways and turn around space for students using
walkers, wheelchairs, etc.
Altered restrooms
A Safe Environment
Physical environment
How do different children use their bodies or the space around
them for learning?
Visual environment

How can we enhance the visual environment for a child with
low or no vision?
Auditory environment
How can we capitalize on the auditory environment for auditory
learners?
Social environment
How can we adapt the social environment for children with
impulsive behavior, attention deficits, or behavior problems?
Individual children
Make use of diverse strengths of the various people on the
child’s team.
Respect each child’s strengths and needs.
Classroom Safety Suggestions:
Check environment, both inside, and outside for any hazards
Practice emergency procedures on a regular basis.
Classroom must contain fire extinguisher and staff must know
how to operate it
Teachers and staff to be trained in CPR and first aid
List of children’s names near exit routes
Classroom Safety Suggestions, cont.
Keep cleaning agents out of reach of children
Maintain up-to-date list of emergency phone numbers for each

child
Keep number for poison control handy
Post list of children’s allergies
Keep list of authorized adult for pick ups near door
Make all posed information readily available to substitute
teachers
A Healthy Environment
Cleanliness is the most important factor
Classrooms to be cleaned daily
Frequently used equipment to be sanitized frequently
Teach good hygiene habits to prevent spread of communicable
diseases
Selecting Learning Materials
Think from child’s view point
Ensure durability
Considerations for purchasing materials
General
Safety, cost and durability, target population, skill level,
aesthetically attractive, necessity of adult supervision,
reflective of children's individual differences

Selecting Learning Materials
Instructional
Is the item developmentally appropriate?
Does the item allow for versatility and flexibility of usage?
Is corrective feedback provided?
Is the item aligned with specific learning goals/objectives?
Does the item allow for individual an/or group work?
Chapter Summary
The environment is critical to the learning of young children.
Teachers serve as environmental engineers as they designed
both indoor and outdoor play areas for students to maximize
their learning opportunities.
Chapter Summary
It is important that both the instructional materials and the
environment support children with a variety of delays and
disabilities.

Chapter 4
Assessment of Young Children with Special Needs
What is Assessment?
Assessment is an integral component of early intervention (EI)
and early childhood special education (ECSE) services for
children birth through age eight with known or suspected
disabilities.
Assessment
“The process of gathering information for decision making”
(McLean, Wolery, and Bailey, 2004)
“A flexible, collaborative decision-making process in which
teams comprised of families and professionals repeatedly revise
their judgments and make decisions” (Bagnato and Neisworth,
1991)
Assessment
“A multi-level process, beginning with screening procedures
and continuing through diagnosis, planning of intervention, and
program monitoring and evaluation” (Richard and Schiefelbusch

1991)
Assessment Purposes
Assessment information is gathered to be used in making a
decision in one or more of the following areas:
Screening
Eligibility
Program planning
Progress monitoring and evaluation
“Assessment, planning, intervention, and evaluation are
overlapping activities”
McCormick (1997)
Linked Assessment Process
Screening: Is further assessment needed?
Eligibility: Is the child eligible for early childhood special
education services?
Program Planning: What are the child’s educational needs and
baseline skills?
Progress Monitoring: Is the child making progress over time?

General Assessment Considerations
Multidisciplinary Team: The involvement of two or more
professionals from different disciplines in EI/ECSE activities
Transdisciplinary Team: Type of model used in EI/ECSE
Composed of family members and professionals representing a
variety of disciplines
Addresses specific assessment questions
Assessment Instruments
Different types of tests implemented, depending on the purpose
of the assessment
Standardized tests administered during formal testing
Standardized testing instrument
The individual child’s performance or behavior that is exhibited
while putting specific skills into action
Interpreted in relation to the performance of a “norming” group
A group of peers of the same age group who have taken the
same test
Norm-Referenced Tests
Provide a score that is relative to other children in a particular
group
Advantages
Compare children to other children of the same age for

eligibility purposes, report reliability and validity information
Can usually be administered in a short period of time
Disadvantages
Administration of the tests usually take place in an unfamiliar
setting rather than the natural environment
Criterion-Referenced Assessments
Determine whether a child’s performance meets an established
criteria or a certain level of mastery within various
developmental domains
StrengthsThey offer a continuum of skills linked to the
curriculum
Limitations
Time-consuming to administer
May include items that are not appropriate or functional for
children
Curriculum-Based Assessments
Similar to criterion-referenced measures
Curriculum-referenced instruments are used to interpret a
child’s performance in relation to specific curriculum content
Reliability refers to the consistency or dependability of an
assessment instrument
Important for making generalizations about children’s learning
and development

Validity
Extent to which an assessment instrument measures what it was
designed to measure
Five types
Content validity: Refers to how well the test represents the
content it purports to measure
Instructional validity: The extent to which the information
gained from an assessment instrument would be useful in
planning intervention programs for young children with delays
or disabilities
Validity
Construct validity: Focuses on the degree to which a test
addresses the constructs on which it was based
Concurrent validity: Concerned with how well a test correlates
with other accepted measures of performance administered close
in time to the first
Predictive validity: Focuses on the extent to which a test relates
to some future measure of performance

Authentic Assessment
The process of observing, recording, collecting, and otherwise
documenting what children do and how they do it for the
purpose of making educational or intervention
decisionsObservational Assessment Play-based Assessment
Interviews
Considerations and Cautions in the Assessment of Young
Children
Developmental domains: The key areas typically addressed in
comprehensive assessments of young children
Most assessment instruments for young children seek to
measure development in one or more of the interrelated skill
domains:
Cognitive skills – Social skills
Motor skills – Adaptive skills
Communication skills
Problems with Traditional Assessment Practices
The problems associated with the use of intelligence tests for
young children
The limited number of appropriate instruments for young
children with delays or disabilities
The nature and characteristics of young children and families
The cultural bias and lack of cultural sensitivity in traditional
assessment procedures

Inappropriate Use of Intelligence Tests with Young Children
Intelligence test: Standardized measure of intellectual
functioning
There is an over-reliance on intelligence tests.
Professionals who are responsible for assessment may be
unfamiliar with more appropriate ways to determine a true
estimate of the abilities of young children (Mclean, Wolery, &
Bailey, 2004).
An extensive amount of time is required to conduct a thorough
assessment using authentic measures (e.g., observations, family
interviews) across multiple settings (e.g., home or school).
Limitations of Assessment Instruments for Young Children with
Disabilities
Assessment Problem
Relatively small number of assessment instruments available
that are appropriate for young children with disabilities
Most standardized tests are designed for children experiencing
typical development and will not reflect the abilities and needs
of children with disabilities.
Effective Assessment
Rely on sensitivity to the age of the child and the nature of the
child’s disability or delay.

Characteristics of Young Children and Their FamiliesThe nature
and characteristics of young children can be particularly
challenging during the assessment process.Assessment results
will be more accurate if testers allow time for children to
become familiar with them. In addition, familiar surroundings
may help children feel more at ease and yield a more accurate
portrayal of their abilities.
Cultural Issues
Culturally biased assessment: Measures only skills and abilities
valued by the dominant Western culture
Children from non-dominate or non-Western cultures are placed
at a unique disadvantage
Professionals must strive for accurate and appropriate
assessments of children from diverse backgrounds
Requires attention to the uniqueness of each child’s culture and
experience
Recommended Practices and

Standards for Assessment
The Utility of the Assessment
The Acceptability of the Assessment
The Authenticity of Assessments
Collaboration in the Assessment Process
Convergence of Assessment Information
Equity
Sensitivity of Assessment
Congruence
Guidelines for Assessing Children
Guidelines for Assessing Children
Screening Young ChildrenScreening is an assessment procedure
designed to determine, from within a large population of
children, those who need to be referred for further assessment in
one or more areas of developmentA screening procedure may
last anywhere from five to fifteen minutes

Screening Young ChildrenThe screening process begins
immediately following birth.One of the first screenings
experienced by infants and their families is the Apgar Scale
Infants are screened at one-minute and five- minute intervals
following their birth in the following areas: (a) heart rate, (b)
respiration, (c) reflex response, (d) muscle tone, and (e) color)
Screening Young ChildrenBlood and urine tests are additional
routine procedures used to detect metabolic disorders such as
phenylketonuria (PKU), referred to as a PKU screening.The
levels of sensitivity and specificity measure the screening tool’s
validity, which tells us the extent to which a test measures what
it says it measures.
Determining Eligibility for Services
Eligibility Criteria
For early primary-level children, the IDEA 1997 allowed for the
developmental delay eligibility category to be extended to age
nine, if states desire
Eligibility Procedures and Instruments
Recommended practice suggests that no major decision about
child’s eligibility should be made solely on the results of a

single test
Assessment for Program Planning in Early Childhood Special
EducationTo make an accurate appraisal of the child’s strengths
and needs, assessment for program planning purposes should
focus on the whole child within the context of the natural
environment (e.g., home, child care, preschool, or school
settings).
Assessment for Program Planning in Early Childhood Special
EducationProgram planning assessment is an ongoing process
that focuses on children’s skill levels, needs, backgrounds,
experiences, and interests, as well as the family’s preferences
and priorities.
Family Involvement in the Assessment Process“Top-down” or
“outcome- driven” model suggests using family-identified
outcomes for the child as the starting point of the assessment.

Family Involvement in the Assessment ProcessAssessment
information should be collected from families on an ongoing
basis, should be an integral part of the planning process, and
should be a collaborative effort; therefore, it is essential for
families to develop trust and be confident that the assessment
process will maintain privacy and confidentiality.
Naturalistic Assessment
Also referred to as ecological assessments
Increasingly being used to replace traditional assessment
practices for young children with delays or disabilities
The best place to determine if a child has a functional skill is in
the environment(s) where he or she uses that skill
A functional skill is a basic skill that is required on a frequent
basis in the natural environment
Progress Monitoring and Program Evaluation

Progress Monitoring and Program Evaluation
Monitoring Child Progress and Outcomes
Collecting individual, child-focused information can serve as a
valuable monitoring tool to provide input about child outcomes
and program effectiveness
Variety of methods should be used to ensure a collection of
reliable, valid, and useful progress monitoring data
(Branscombe, Castle, Dorsey, Surbeck. & Taylor, 2003; Wolery,
2004)
Anecdotal Recording
Anecdotal records may entail written notes on specific
behaviors, including events that preceded and followed each
behavior observed (e.g., skill development for a child in a
specific domain, what words a child used during certain
activities, and in what situations a child engaged in spontaneous
communication).
Portfolio AssessmentA portfolio is a systematic and organized
record of children’s work and behaviors that is collected at
regular intervals that can be used for qualitative comparisons of
their knowledge, skills, efforts, and progress over time.

Overall Program Effectiveness
Program evaluation has been defined as an objective, systematic
process for gathering information about a program, or set of
activities.
Early childhood special education programs must have well-
developed purposes and evaluation plans prior to the beginning
of services to increase the programs’ ability to document
outcomes.
Chapter SummaryAssessment of young children with delays or
disabilities is a comprehensive process with overlapping
components rather than a single procedure.Assessment must be
useful, acceptable, authentic, collaborative, convergent,
equitable, sensitive, and congruent.
Chapter 3
Family-Based Early Childhood Special Education Services
Historical and Legal PerspectivesThe history of family
involvement in the education of young children with disabilities

moved from trying to figure out how professionals can involve
parents and provide training to them in areas we think are
important to how can professionals provide support to parents in
areas that parents consider important to their child and
family.Table 3–1 provides a chronology of the family movement
in early intervention/education (p54).
The Changing American Family
The nuclear family refers to a family group consisting of a
father, a mother, and their children.
The conventional perspective of the nuclear family definitely
has changed over the years and will continue to change.
Some of the Trends that Impact the Status of Families in
American SocietyMore than half of all marriages end in
divorce.Every 18 seconds, a child is born to an unmarried
mother.One out of two children will live with a single parent at
some point during childhood.Almost 60% of all children in
poverty live in single- parent families.Sixty-one percent of
grandparents who report being responsible for their
grandchildren are in the labor force; 20% of grandparents
raising grandchildren are living in poverty.

The Changing American FamilyHybrid family - Family that
redefines itself and produces something new and different from
the origins that created it.An example of a hybrid family would
be one in which each parent has a different ethnic and religious
background.As a result of the changes that have occurred in
families, early childhood professionals often face many unique
challenges and opportunities related to family diversity in the
twenty-first century.
Family Reactions to a Child
with a Disability
Most professional in the field of special education understand
that families respond or react differently to having a child with
a disability.
Professionals must tailor their interactions and provide support
based on the individual and ever-changing needs of families.
Family Systems Theory
Family systems theory is that a family is an interactional system
with unique characteristics and needs.
Family systems theory was adapted to focus specifically on
families of young children with disabilities and is used widely
in the field of early childhood special education today.

Family Systems Conceptual Framework
Family Characteristics
Family size and form, geographic location, cultural background
are some of the variables that make each family unique
These variables contribute to each family’s interactional
patterns and adaptive strategies in dealing with a child’s
disability.
Family Interactions
Family interactions are composed of the relationships that occur
among and between the various family subsystems or
subgroups.
Family Interactions

Subsystems include the following:
Marital (husband-wife)
Parental (parent-child)
Sibling (child-child)
Extended family (nuclear family, friends, neighbors, larger
community including professionals)
(Turnbull et al, 2011)
Family Interactions
Cohesion is a type of emotional bonding that holds families
together (Olson et al., 1989; Turnbull et al., 2011)
Adaptability is the family’s ability to change its power
structure, role, relationships, and rules in response to crisis or
stressful events occurring over a lifetime (Olsen, Russel, &
Sprenkle, 1980; Turnbull et al, 2011).
Family Functions
Family functions refer to the eight interrelated activities that
are necessary to fulfill the individual and collective needs of the
family.

Family Functions
Areas of family functions:
affection socialization
self-esteem recreation
spiritual educational
economics
daily care
Family Life Cycle
Family life cycle refers to developmental changes that occur in
families over time.
Transitions (movement from one stage to another and the
accompanying adjustment period) can be stressful events for
families, but especially for families of young children with
disabilities.
Applications of Family
Systems Theory
Family empowerment was defined as a process through which
individuals increase their ability to influence those people and
organizations that affect their lives, as well as the lives of their
children and others they care about.

Systems Theory
Characteristics of empowered families:
The ability to access and control needed resources
The ability to make decisions and solve problems
The ability to interact effectively with others in the social
process to gain the resources they need
Systems Theory
Many teams have found eco-maps (a visual representation of the
family system) to be useful in promoting collaboration among
families and professionals.
Steps in developing an eco-map:
Identifying informal family supports
Identifying strengths and relationships
Identifying formal family supports

Family-Based PhilosophyThere is the recognition that families
are all differentFamilies should be partners with professionals
in planning, service provision, and decision makingFamilies are
viewed as the ultimate teachers and decision-makers for their
children
Table 3-3: Family-Centered Philosophy
Family-Based Philosophy
The history of the role of professionals in working with families
of young children with special needs is in the following order:
professional-centered,
family-allied,
family-focused,
family-centered,
family-based, and
family-directed.
Family-Professional Partnerships
The best type of relationship that can develop between families
and professionals is one in which families are viewed as full-
fledged partners.
“No matter how skilled professionals are, or how loving parents
are, each cannot achieve alone what the two parties, working
hand-in-hand, can accomplish together.”
(Peterson & Cooper, 1989)

Key Components of Family- Professional Collaboration
Cultural responsiveness
A complex concept involving the awareness, acknowledgement,
and acceptance of each family’s culture and cultural values
Effective communication
Conferences and meetings
Home visits
Ongoing support and information exchange
Chapter Summary
Professionals are continuing to make changes in policy and
practices in an attempt to move families to the center of the
service delivery system.
It is very important for early childhood special educators to
consider the concerns, priorities, and resources of families and
to view the family as a system with many interacting forces.
Chapter 9

Interventions and Instructional Strategies for Supporting Young
Children with Special Needs
Practices and Processes Appropriate for Young Children with
Special Needs
Evidence-based practices means a decision-making process that
integrates the best available research evidence with family and
professional wisdom and values
The Five-Step Learning Cycle is anchored in solving problems
through the integration of multiple perspectives of professionals
and families, as well as other sources of evidence
Special NeedsThe five steps of the cycle are: 1. Identify the
dilemma, 2. Use a practice focused question, 3. Gather
evidence, 4. Make an informed decision, and 5. Evaluate and
refine the decision.
Special NeedsThree evidence-based practices in early childhood
special education are:Embedded interventions Transition
practices Assistive technology interventions

Strategies for Including Children with Special Needs
Selected strategies organized into four categories:
Teacher-mediated strategies
Peer-mediated strategies
Routine-based strategies
Naturalistic (milieu) strategies
Teacher-Mediated Strategies
Teacher-mediated
The term has typically been used to describe teacher-directed
explicit interventions designed to promote social interaction by
the teaching of a specific skill or skill set.
Teacher-mediated, cont.
Includes techniques that an adult (e.g., teacher, parent, other
family members, related service professional) can implement
before or during activities that promote child engagement with
people, materials, or activities.

Environmental Arrangements
One of the least intrusive steps that a teacher can take to
promote engagement of children within their educational setting
Three strategies that fit within these guidelines: the
arrangement of physical space, the selection and use of
materials, and the use of structured activities
Promoting Acceptance
A strategy that can be viewed as creating and preparing the
social environment to be more accepting of a child with
disability
Promoting Acceptance, cont.
Effective strategies for increasing understanding and promoting
acceptance of children with diverse abilities include The use of
active and independent involvement in activities for children
with delays or disabilities, Access to cooperative activities,
stories, and Guided discussions that highlight similarities as
opposed to differences

The Provision of Prompts and PraisePrompts and praise are
strategies that teachers can employ to promote engagement
within the inclusive preschool setting.Praise can be defined as a
verbal reinforcement.Praise is an effective technique for
promoting child engagement among children who have special
needs.
Prompts may be defined as any assistance or help given by
another person (adult).
Common prompts include:
Direct and indirect verbal prompts
Model prompts
Partial or full physical prompts
Spatial prompts
Visual/pictorial prompts

Cued prompts
Accepting Different Levels and Types of Participation Partial
Participation - When a child uses only a portion of the
responseAdapted Participation - When a child may also use an
alternative means to participate
Monitoring Communicative Input
A strategy wherein the teacher enables children of diverse
abilities to participate in group activities
Videotaping a group activity is an excellent strategy for
examining the level of communication used when speaking to
children
Examples of monitoring communicative input:
Use of simple vocabulary and shorter sentence length
A variation in intonation and rate of speech
Contingent responses

Scaffolding
Peer-Mediated Strategies
Peer-mediated Strategies
A collection of procedures which involves the use of peers to
promote the learning and behavior of a child with disabilities
Providing structured opportunities for the children to interact
with one another (so as to use the skills taught)
Peer-Initiation Interventions An early childhood special
educator selects typically developing peers who are:Known to
be highly social, Attend school regularly, Have little or no
history of negative interactions, Have adequate attention spans
and the comprehension to participate in the training sessions,
and Have the willingness to participate in the special play
groups.
The following suggestions are for early childhood special
educators and other adults to use when implementing

naturalistic interventions or incidental strategies with typically
developing peers and children with delays or disabilities.
Observe to identify peer models.
Set up a novel activity.
Invite a peer to join an activity.
Help children to enter activities.
Position children to maximize interaction.
Cooperative Learning
Another strategy that can utilize peers to mediate learning and
child engagement
Goals of cooperative learning are to foster cooperative
interaction, to teach cooperative learning skills, and to promote
positive self-esteem
Four essential elements of cooperative learning:
Positive interdependence is promoted.
Communication is required.
Accountability is expected.
Group process is expected.

Routine-Based Strategies
Routine-Based Strategies Take advantage of already occurring
events such as play, predictable routine activities such as snack
time, diapering, circle time and transitions.
Play-Based Intervention (strategies)
Play provides an avenue for children to master their thoughts
and actions, and contributes to the child’s cognitive, physical,
and social/emotional development.
When setting up activities, it is important to provide a range of
difficulty in order to support active engagement.
Activity-Based Instruction
“A child directed, transactional approach where multiple
learning activities are embedded into authentic activities and
logically occurring antecedents and timely feedback are
provided to ensure functional and generative skills are acquired
and used by children” (Pretti-Fronteczak and Bricker, 2004)

Changing the Content of an Existing Activity
Research suggests that the modification of well-known
games/songs is effective in promoting affection activities
because children are paired with peers in pleasurable, non-
threatening activities, and there appears to be a desensitization
to peer interaction during the activity
Transition-Based Instruction
The adult presents an opportunity for participating within the
group while children are transitioning to other activities
Specific Naturalistic (Milieu) Strategies
Used to facilitate language skills, social interaction, and other
skills that take advantage of the natural environment to support
learning

Incidental Teaching
A naturalistic strategy that has been effective in promoting
communication skills in young children
The Model and Expansion Involves providing the child a
verbal and gestural model for the child and providing an
expansion (new information).
Mand-Model technique The mand-model technique involves
the adult observing the child’s focus of attention and asking a
non- yes/no question (a mand). The mand model is a directive
and therefore more intrusive technique that can successfully be
used in conjunction with and to augment child-initiated
activities.
Time-delay Time delay procedures systematically employ a
brief waiting period to teach the child to initiate an

interaction.Time delay can refer to three different strategies.
Waiting for a child to initiate a behaviorConstant time
delayProgressive time delay
Interrupted Routine Used to promote child engagement and for
teaching communication, social, cognitive, motor, and self-care
skills.Three ways of applying interrupted routine:Provision of
incomplete set of materials, Withholding or delaying the
provision of expected or High-interest items or events, and
making "silly" mistakes.
Chapter Summary
In working with children with special disabilities, creating a
variety of strategies while creating developmentally appropriate
activities is an effective means to target the children’s
individual goals and therefore ensure success of each child.

Chapter 8
Adapting Learning Environments for Young Children with
Special Needs
IntroductionComponents that are necessary to support the
individual needs of a child with special needs in an inclusive
learning environment Curriculum modifications and
adaptations; Embedded learning opportunities; andExplicit,
child-focused intervention or instructional strategies.
Young Children with Cognitive Delays or Disabilities
Educators and specialists should not assume that all children
with cognitive delays share the same challenges to those who
have learning difficulties.
Special Education programs should work towards maximizing
the potential of students to minimize the impact of their
developmental deficits.
Adapting the Home and Classroom Environment

Teachers and parents should start with the child’s interest in
mind.
Professionals often recommend embedding intervention or
instruction into typical classroom activities and routines.
Consistency in the routine provides the child with security and
promotes self-assuredness.
Adapting Materials and Equipment
Hands-on and multi-sensory activities should be planned.
Visual cues may be necessary to prompt children to follow the
classroom activities and exhibit appropriate behavior.
Have multiple ways of presenting these abstract concepts in
concrete ways.
Cognitive Delays
Adapting Intervention and Instruction
It is important to focus on the child’s strengths when planning
for instruction to reduce the level of frustration and promote
self-esteem.
Use of prompts and praise are often necessary to engage
children to communicate and socialize.

Cognitive Delays
Generalization – learning to use a skill outside of the context in
which it was initially acquired
Cognitive Delays
Task Analysis – an instructional strategy often used with
children with cognitive delays
Involves breaking down a skill or activity into smaller, more
manageable steps
Cognitive DelaysScaffolding – a teacher directed activity
wherein the teacher provides various forms of support to help a
child learn a new task
Cognitive Delays
Strategies to promote generalization:
Using a variety of adults when teaching a skill
Embedding skills into activities
Creating activities similar to the generalization setting

Young Children with Social and Emotional Delays or
DisabilitiesBehavior disorder is frequently used to describe a
wide variety of social and emotional challenges that include,
but are not limited to:
Conduct disorders (aggressiveness, disruptive or destructive
behaviors),
Difficulty with interpersonal relationships,
Depression, or
Anxiety disorders (over-anxiousness, withdrawal)
Social and Emotional
Development Delays
Sandall and Schwartz (2008) offer ways to structure the
environment for success:
Provide a balance between child-directed and adult-directed
activities.
Provide a variety of areas within the classroom that have
boundaries and are easily viewed.
Ensure materials are organized and in good working condition.
Offer activities that provide many ways for children to respond.

Development Delays
Are materials used for self-expression readily available?
Are learning materials safe and do they promote various social
interaction?
Are there enough materials?
Are the materials reinforcing to children?
Development Delays
Functional Behavior Analysis – a process of gathering
information and data about the particular behavior
Social and Emotional Development DelaysPositive Behavioral
Supports – a comprehensive approach focusing on facilitating
appropriate behaviors while reducing or preventing challenging
behaviors

Development Delays
Time out – a strategy that involves removing a child to a
location away from reinforcing conditions
See Table 8-2: Guidelines for using time-out successfully
Young Children with Autism Spectrum DisordersThe definition
of autism found in the Individuals with Disabilities Education
Improvement Act of 2004 states that autism is a developmental
disability significantly affecting:Verbal and nonverbal
communication and social interaction, Is generally evident
before age three, and Adversely affects a child’s educational
performance.
Young Children with Autism Spectrum DisordersAdapting
Home and Educational Environments Structure and
predictability are important adaptations when teaching new
skills to children with autism.Three additional temporal
adaptations identified to be successful for both home and
classroom environments are:(1) provide “break times;” (2)
match active and sitting activities; and (3) adjust the schedule if
needed

Materials and EquipmentConsider the functional level of the
childUsing visual supports such as pictures of real objects,
picture symbols, and written words incorporated into daily
routines and schedules have been found to be an excellent
strategy in assisting the child with ASDSocial
StoryPECSBoardmaker Software Family
Intervention and InstructionNaturalistic teaching strategies or
interventions Identifying the child’s most and least preferred
toys and activitiesMix high-preference choice activities with
low- preference activities to promote the introduction of new
desired skillsFive formats of teacher talk:Recasting, repeating,
expanding, questioning, prompting
Young Children with Communication and Language Delays or
Disabilities
Communication – The exchange of messages between a speaker
and a listener
Language – The use of symbols, syntax, or grammar when

communicating with one another
Speech – The oral-motor action used to communicate
Communication and Language Development Delays
According to the Federal definition in IDEA 2004, children
diagnosed with speech and language impairment refers to
children with a communication disorder such as stuttering,
impaired articulation, a language impairment or voice
impairment that adversely affects a child’s education
performance.
Potential causes of language delays:
Related to cognitive delays
Sensory impairments
Emotional problems
Autism or PDD
Motor impairments
Linguistic and cultural differences

Echolalic Speech – repeats what is said instead of generating an
original sentence
Adapting the Home and Classroom environment
General Guidelines:
Provide a language-rich home or classroom setting
Children’s nonverbal and verbal communication should be
responded to by teachers and caregivers
General Guidelines, cont.
Turn-taking games should be used to have “conversations” with
young children
Actions and objects in the child’s surroundings should be
labeled
Adapting Equipment and Materials
When choosing materials, consider the following:
Materials and activities should be based on the child’s interest.

Materials should be placed in a location where the child can see
them but is unable to access them.
Materials or equipment should be limited.
Materials should be used for “choice-making opportunities.”
Adapting Instruction
Strategies useful in promoting language development:
The child’s actions and sounds should be imitated
The language that a child uses should be expanded.
Vocalizations can be coupled with gestures, if necessary.
Strategies, cont.
Pauses (verbally and physically) can be used to provide an
opportunity to communicate.
Teachers should collaborate with related service personnel
(such as the SLP).

Young Children with Sensory Impairments: Vision
The Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act
defines visual impairment as impairment in vision that, even
with correction, adversely affects an individual’s educational
performance.
Young Children with Sensory Impairments: Vision
Several developmental and readiness areas that may require
additional attention includes sensory development, locomotion
(crawling, walking), fine motor skills, social development and
peer interaction, receptive and expressive communication, and
self-care skill development.
Sensory Impairments: Vision
A child with visual impairment should be encouraged to use
whatever vision he/she has.
Home and educational settings should have good lighting and
the child should be located in areas away from glares, shadows,
or flickering lights.

Orientation is defined as being aware of where you are, where
you are going, and which route you will use to get there.
Mobility is moving from one place to
another (Gargiulo, 2009).
Orientation and mobility training uses sensory awareness and
motor development to help a child move independently through
the environment.
See Environmental Adaptations on Table 8-4.
Categories:
Visual aids
Use of hands-on real life situations
Tactile methods
Use of Braille
Auditory strategies and aids

Guidelines for working with children with visual impairment:
Use consistent labels for objects.
Actively assist a child to explore the environment.
Work from behind the child, putting him through the movements
of what is expected of him while providing verbal feedback.
Listen and explain everyday environmental sounds and visual
information.
Guidelines (continued)
Teach self-care skills in the places and at the times where they
naturally occur.
Present objects before the instruction.
Young Children with Sensory Impairments: Hearing
Federal definition describes deafness as a condition that
adversely affects educational performance and is so severe that
the child is impaired in processing linguistic information or
communication through hearing, with or without amplification
(hearing aids).

Sensory Impairments: Hearing
In working with children with hearing impairment, attention
should be given to:
The light source in the home and classroom setting
Seating and positioning
Classroom noise and background noise
Assistive listening devices
Auditory trainer or FM system – helps manage acoustical
problems found in the classroom
Sound field system – system benefits students with minimal
hearing loss
Sensory Impairments: HearingCochlear implant – a tiny array of
electrodes implanted in the cochlea of the inner ear.
Attached to the tiny transmitter behind the ear

Sensory Impairments: Hearing Auditory-oral – an educational
approach that emphasizes the development of speech, speech
reading, and listening with appropriate amplification
Bilingual-bicultural – an approach that emphasizes the early use
of American Sign Language (ASL)
ASL is thought to be the natural language that permits children
who are deaf to advance through the normal stages of language
acquisition
Total communication focuses on using the individual child’s
preferred modes of communication.
Methods of teaching includes:
Oral – Finger spelling
Auditory – Writing
Speechreading – Gestures
Sign language

Young Children with Physical Delays or Disabilities & Health
ImpairmentsChildren with physical and/or health impairments
represent a diverse group; physical impairments include
Spina bifida, cerebral palsy, muscular dystrophy, and spinal
cord injury
Health impairments may include
Asthma, cystic fibrosis, leukemia, or diabetes
Physical Delays or Disabilities & Health Impairments
See Table 8-7 for Suggested Classroom Checklist of
Accommodations for Children with Physical or Health
Impairments
Specialized equipment for standing, sitting, and ambulation may
be necessary because of abnormal muscle tone:
Hypotonic – floppy muscles
Hypertonic – tight muscles

Children with physical and/or health impairment may exhibit
fatigue, limited stamina and vitality, or require limited physical
activity.
Teachers/specialist should consider creating a variety of
modifications and options for the child to be able to participate.
Chapter Summary
It is critical for early interventionists and early childhood
special educators to identify adaptations for children with a
variety of developmental delays.
Adapting appropriate materials and equipment and
implementing instructional strategies enables children to
maximize their potential in both home and school environments.
Chapter 5
Delivering Services to Young Children with Special Needs

Inclusive Learning EnvironmentsAcross the United States, there
is a growing recognition that it is essential to provide
intervention for children with special needs as early as possible
in the most normalized setting.
(Bruder, 2010a; Campbell, Sawyer, & Muhlenhaupt, 2009;
Hardman, Drew, & Egan, 2011)
Inclusive Learning Environments
Inclusion - The social and instructional integration of children
with disabilities into educational programs whose primary
purpose is to serve typically developing individuals.
Table 5-1 Benefits of Preschool Inclusion
Simply placing a young child with disabilities in a typical early
childhood program does not guarantee that the specific needs of
the child will be fulfilled.
Least Restrictive Environment (LRE)Young children with
special needs are to be educated in settings as close as possible
to a regular or general education environment.The goal of the
LRE principle is to prevent the unwarranted segregation of

students with disabilities from their typical classmates. An LRE
is not a particular place but rather a relative concept.
Figure 5-1: A Continuum of Service Delivery Options
Full Inclusion Full inclusion is a belief that all children with
disabilities should be served exclusively (with appropriate
supports) in general education classrooms
located in community-based programs or neighborhood schools
the same schools and classrooms they would otherwise attend if
they did not have a disability
Full Inclusion
“Place is not what makes special education ‘special’ or
effective. Effective teaching strategies and an individualized
approach are the more critical ingredients in special education
and neither of these is associated solely with one particular
environment” Zigmond (2003)
Service Delivery Models

Home-Based Programs
Advantages
Familiar setting
Minimal disruption of regular routine
Parent intervention
Disadvantages
Responsibility placed on caregiver
Cultural diversity among professionals
Limited social interaction
Service Delivery Models
Center-Based Programs
Advantages
Development of social skills
Parents considered central members of team
Exposure to experiences for smooth mainstream transition
Disadvantages
Cost of transportation
Extended periods of travel time
Maintenance expense
Professional Teaming
and Collaboration
Multidisciplinary
Interdisciplinary

Transdisciplinary
Cooperative TeachingOne Teach, One ObserveOne Teach, One
SupportStation Teaching Parallel TeachingAlternative
TeachingTeam Teaching
Delivering Individualized Services
Individualized Family Service Plan (IFSP)
Birth until their sixth birthday
Within 45 days of referral
Reviewed at least every six months
Family taken into account
Components for meaningful goals:
Functionality
Generality
Ease of integration
Measurability
Hierarchical relationship
Individualized Education Plan (IEP)Reviewed at least annually
Reevaluation occurs every three years
Age 3 to 21 years
Developed within thirty days following the evaluation
Should be developed before a placement recommendation
Participants: Parent/s or Legal Guardian, Teacher (General and
Special Educator), Individual who can interpret evaluation

results, District Representative
Elements of a meaningful IEP
Current performance
Goals
Special education and related services
Participation with typical students
Participation in state- and district-wide assessments
Dates and places
Transition services
Measuring progress
Age of majority
Section 504 Accommodation Plans
Who is eligible?
Student referred for Special Ed but does not qualify for IDEA
Individuals who are no longer eligible for services under IDEA
Students with history of substance abuse
Victims of abuse and neglect
Students with health needs such as diabetes or asthma
Student with a low IQ but who is not considered intellectually
disabled

Types of accommodations:
Preferential seating
Extended test time
Rest periods during the school day
Tape-recorded lessons
Modified attendance policies
Oral testing options
Peer note-taker
Outlines and study guides
Textbooks kept at home
TransitionThe process of moving from one type of placement to
another.Key elements of this process include planning,
coordination, cooperation, and follow up.Vertical transitions
occur across settings within the same time frame.A horizontal
transition refers to the provision of multiple services typically
offered by different providers and delivered at different
locations.
Transition
Three goals of transition planning process:

Ensure continuity of service
Minimize disruption of the family system
Promote individual’s functioning in the natural environment
Child involvement
Match between child abilities and requirements of new facility
Starting point
Transition
Family involvement
Attendance at meetings
Active role in decision making process
Professional involvement
All professionals need to work together on goals
Attempt to minimize difference between sending and receiving
environments
Transition
Steps for Planning Effective Transitions
Form a transition team
Schedule meetings
Identify possible receiving settings
Identify basic transition tasks
Agree on assignments
Establish timelines
Decide communication procedures

Transition
Steps for Planning Effective Transitions, cont.
Agree on pre-placement activities
Plan for follow-up activities
Place child
Provide consultation and therapy services
Follow-up and evaluate
Chapter Summary
Full inclusion has been a controversial subject in the field of
education for decades.
Although maximum integration is endorsed by many, placement
decisions should always take into consideration the
child’s best interest.
Chapter Summary
Delivery of services must be designed to meet the individual
needs of children and their families.
Early childhood educators should always be reminded that team
collaboration is key to successful early intervention.

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