Week 4 Presentation

Chapter 4 Overview: Big Questions
• How Does Development Happen in the Womb?
• How Do Infants and Children Develop?
• How Do Adolescents Develop?
• How Do Adults Develop?

Chapter 4 Overview: Study Units
• 4.1 Humans Develop Across Three Domains
• 4.2 Prenatal Development Includes Three Periods of Physical
Growth
• 4.3 Substances Affect Prenatal Development in All Three Domains
• 4.4 Infants and Children Change Physically
• 4.5 Infants and Children Change Socially and Emotionally
• 4.6 Infants and Children Change Cognitively
• 4.7 Language Develops in an Orderly Way
• 4.8 Adolescents Develop Physically
• 4.9 Adolescents Develop Socially and Emotionally
• 4.10 Adolescents Develop Cognitively
• 4.11 Bodies Change in Adulthood
• 4.12 Adults Develop Lifelong Social and Emotional Bonds
• 4.13 The Mental Abilities of Adults Begin to Decline

How Does Development Happen in the
Womb?
4.1 Humans Develop Across Three Domains
4.2 Prenatal Development Includes Three Periods of Physical Growth
4.3 Substances Affect Prenatal Development in All Three Domains

4.1 Humans Develop Across Three Domains (1)
Developmental psychology: The scientific study of
how humans change over the life span, from
conception until death.
• Developmental changes can be grouped into three
domains:
1. Physical
2. Socio-emotional
3. Cognitive

4.1 Humans Develop Across Three Domains (2)

4.2 Prenatal Development Includes Three Periods of Physical
Growth (1)
Germinal period
• The period in prenatal development from
conception to 2 weeks after conception, when the
zygote divides rapidly and implants in the uterine
wall
Embryonic period
• The period in prenatal development from 3 to 8
weeks after conception, when the brain, spine,
major organs, and bodily structures begin to form in
the embryo

Growth (2)
Fetal period
• The period in prenatal development from 9 weeks
after conception until birth, when the brain
continues developing, bodily structures are refined,
and the fetus grows in length and weight and
accumulates fat in preparation for birth

Growth (3)

Growth (4)

4.3 Substances Affect Prenatal Development in All Three
Domains (1)
Teratogens
• Environmental substances that can harm prenatal
development
o From the Greek word tera, which means
“monster”

Domains (2)
Drugs and alcohol are common teratogens
• The use of recreational drugs—such as opiates,
cocaine, or marijuana—during pregnancy can affect
the mother and the developing human.
• Women who drink alcohol when pregnant are
gambling with their baby’s development; alcohol
can cause a variety of defects.
o The most severe disorder is fetal alcohol
syndrome (FAS).

Domains (3)
This table will help you understand the various classes of teratogens and their effects on prenatal development.c
Legal Drugs Alcohol: fetal alcohol syndrome, facial malformations,
intellectual disabilities, learning difficulties
Nicotine: miscarriage, still birth, low birth weight,
intellectual disabilities, learning difficulties
Caffeine: miscarriage, low birth weight
Recreational Drugs Cocaine: low birth weight, breathing problems, seizures,
learning difficulties, irritability
Marijuana: irritability, nervousness, tremors
Infections German measles (rubella): blindness, deafness, heart defects,
brain damage
Syphilis: intellectual disabilities, deafness, meningitis
Zika: brain abnormalities, microcephaly (abnormally small
head)
Environmental Factors Radiation (X-rays): higher incidence of cancer, physical
deformities
Mercury: intellectual disabilities, blindness

Domains (4)

How Do Infants and Children Develop?
4.4 Infants and Children Change Physically
4.5 Infants and Children Change Socially and Emotionally
4.6 Infants and Children Change Cognitively
4.7 Language Develops in an Orderly Way

4.4 Infants and Children Change Physically (1)
As infants and children develop,
the brain changes in two critical
ways:
• First, myelinated axons form
synapses with other neurons.
• Second, over time and with
experience, the synaptic
connections are refined to
preserve the most important
and helpful connections.

Inborn reflexes
• Babies come into the world hardwired with basic
motor reflexes that aid survival.
o Rooting reflex
o Sucking reflex
o Grasping reflex

Motor skills
• Maturation: Physical development of the brain and
body that prepares an infant for voluntary
movement, such as rolling over, sitting, and walking.

Sensory development
• An infant obtains information
from the world by hearing,
seeing, smelling, tasting, and
perceiving touch. Some of
these sensory abilities are
more fully developed at birth
than others.
o Newborns prefer sweet tastes.
o Newborns can also hear well.
o Newborns have poor vision

4.5 Infants and Children Change Socially and Emotionally (1)
Early attachment
• All infants have a fundamental need to form strong
connections with caretakers.
o During the late 1950s, psychologists generally
believed that the care an infant needed was
based primarily on getting food from the
mother.
• Harlow monkey attachment experiment

Variations in attachment
• Separation anxiety occurs in all human cultures.
• Ainsworth created the strange-situation test.
o This test has revealed three attachment styles of
children:
• Secure attachment
• Avoidant attachment
• Ambivalent attachment

Secure attachment
• The attachment style for most infants, who are
confident enough to play in an unfamiliar
environment as long as the caregiver is present and
are readily comforted by the caregiver during times
of distress

Insecure attachment styles
• Avoidant attachment: The attachment style for
infants who are somewhat willing to explore an
unfamiliar environment but seem to have little
interest in the caregiver—they may not look at the
caregiver when the caregiver leaves or returns.
• Ambivalent attachment: The attachment style for
infants who are unwilling to explore an unfamiliar
environment but seem to have mixed feelings about
the caregiver—they may cry when the caregiver
leaves the room, but they cannot be consoled by the
caregiver upon his or her return.

4.6 Infants and Children Change Cognitively (1)
Developing theory of mind
• Theory of mind: The capacity to understand that
other people have minds and intentions.
o As infants and children acquire theory of mind,
they develop the ability to think in increasingly
sophisticated ways.

Piaget’s theory of cognitive development
• The developmental psychologist Jean Piaget
investigated how children’s thinking changes as
they develop.
• Piaget proposed that we change how we think as we
form new schemas, or ways of thinking about how
the world works.

Piaget’s theory of cognitive development
• Assimilation: The process we use to incorporate
new information into existing frameworks for
knowledge.
• Accommodation: The process we use to create new
frameworks for knowledge or drastically alter
existing ones to incorporate new information that
otherwise would not fit.

Sensorimotor stage: birth to 2 years
• The first stage in Piaget’s theory of cognitive
development; during this stage, infants acquire
information about the world through their senses and
motor skills.
o Object permanence
Preoperational stage: 2 to 7 years
• The second stage in Piaget’s theory of cognitive
development; during this stage, children think
symbolically about objects, but they reason based on
intuition and superficial appearances rather than logic.
o Centration
o Egocentrism

Concrete operational stage, 7 to 12 years
• The third stage in Piaget’s theory of cognitive
development; during this stage, children begin to think
about and understand logical operations, and they are
no longer fooled by appearances.
o Law of conservation
Formal operational stage, 12 to adulthood
• The final stage in Piaget’s theory of cognitive
development; during this stage, people can think
abstractly, and they can formulate and test hypotheses
through logic.

Other ways of thinking about cognitive development
• We now know that Piaget underestimated the ages
at which certain skills develop.
• Psychologists now think of cognitive development
in terms of trends rather than strict stages.

4.7 Language Develops in an Orderly Way (1)
From 0 to 60,000
• Language is a system in which
sounds and symbols are used
according to grammatical rules.
o Morphemes
o Phonemes
o Syntax

4.7 Language Develops in an Orderly Way (2)
Five stages of language development
• Babbling: Intentional vocalization, often by an
infant, with no specific meanings.
• Telegraphic speech: The tendency for toddlers to
speak using rudimentary sentences that are missing
words and grammatical markings but follow a
logical syntax and convey a wealth of meaning.
• Overregularization: The tendency for young
children to incorrectly use a regular syntax rule
where they should use an exception to the rule.

How Do Adolescents Develop?
4.8 Adolescents Develop Physically
4.9 Adolescents Develop Socially and Emotionally
4.10 Adolescents Develop Cognitively

4.8 Adolescents Develop Physically (1)
• Puberty: The physical changes
in the body that are a part of
sexual development.
• Secondary sex
characteristics: Physical
changes during puberty that are
not directly related to
reproduction but that indicate
the difference between the
sexes.
• Primary sex characteristics:
Physical development during
puberty that results in sexually
mature reproductive organs and
genitals.

4.8 Adolescents Develop Physically (2)
Brain changes during adolescence
• Synaptic connections are refined and gray matter
increases.
• The frontal cortex of the brain is not fully developed
until the early 20s.
• An adolescent’s limbic system—the motivational
and emotional center of the brain—tends to be
more active than the frontal cortex.

4.9 Adolescents Develop Socially and Emotionally (1)
As adolescents develop a sense
of identity, of who they are, they
are influenced by many factors,
including
• The culture in which they are
raised
• Their beliefs about personal
characteristics such as race,
ethnicity, gender, and sexual
orientation

Developing a unique identity
• Erikson’s eight stages of psychosocial development
• According to Erikson’s theory, adolescents face
perhaps the most fundamental challenge: how to
develop an adult identity.
o Identity versus role confusion: The fifth stage
of Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development,
in which adolescents face the challenge of
figuring out who they are.

Culture and ethnicity
• Culture shapes much of who
we are as we develop a full
sense of identity during
adolescence.
• Culture also determines
whether each person’s
identity will be accepted or
rejected.

Parents and peers
• As adolescents develop their own identities, they
come into more conflict with their parents.
• Peers play a crucial role in identity development.

4.10 Adolescents Develop Cognitively (1)
Moral reasoning and moral emotions
• When is it acceptable to take an action that may
harm others or that may break implicit or explicit
social contracts?
• Moral emotions, such as embarrassment and shame,
are considered self-conscious emotions.

4.10 Adolescents Develop Cognitively (2)
Kohlberg’s three levels of moral reasoning
• Preconventional level: Earliest level of moral
development; at this level, self-interest and event
outcomes determine what is moral.
• Conventional level: Middle level of moral
development; at this level, societal laws and the
approval of others determine what is moral.
• Postconventional level: Highest level of moral
development; at this level, decisions about morality
depend on abstract principles and the value of all
life.

How Do Adults Develop?
4.11 Bodies Change in Adulthood
4.12 Adults Develop Lifelong Social and Emotional Bonds
4.13 The Mental Abilities of Adults Begin to Decline

4.11 Bodies Change in Adulthood (1)
Early to middle adulthood
• Between the ages of 20 and
40, we actually experience a
steady decline in muscle
mass, bone density, eyesight,
and hearing.

4.11 Bodies Change in Adulthood (2)
Transition to old age
• By 2030, more than one in
five Americans will be over
age 65, and these older
people will be ethnically
diverse, well educated, and
physically fit.
o The body and mind start
deteriorating more rapidly
at about age 50.

4.12 Adults Develop Lifelong Social and Emotional Bonds (1)
Psychosocial challenges
• Erikson’s theory in later life
o Intimacy versus isolation (sixth stage): Young
adults face the challenge of forming committed
long-term friendships and romances.
o Generativity versus stagnation (seventh stage):
Middle-aged adults face the challenge of leaving
behind a positive legacy and caring for future
generations.
o Integrity versus despair (eighth stage): Older
adults face the challenge of feeling satisfied that
they have lived a good life and developed wisdom.

Marriage
• Around the world, the vast majority of people marry
at some point in their lives or form some type of
permanent bond with a relationship partner.
o The benefits of marriage are more significant for
men than for women.
o At any given time, the vast majority of married
people report satisfaction with their marriages.

Having children
• The birth of a first child is a profound event for most
couples.
o Children can strain a marriage by putting demands
on time and money.
o Couples with children, especially those with
adolescent children, report less marital satisfaction
than those who are childless.

Finding meaning in later life
• Older adults may perceive their time to be limited
and adjust their priorities to emphasize emotionally
meaningful events, experiences, and goals.
• Older adults generally want to savor their final
years by putting their time and effort into
meaningful and rewarding experiences like
reflecting on their lives and sharing memories.

4.13 The Mental Abilities of Adults Begin to Decline (1)
• A senior moment: The inability to remember
something we knew a moment before.
• We may not notice cognitive decline until later
adulthood, although it begins much earlier.

Intelligence, learning, and memory
• Verbal and mathematical decline does not tend to
happen until people are in their 60s and 70s;
healthy and mentally active people experience less
decline (Schaie, 1990).
• Older adults take longer to learn new information,
but once they learn it, they use that information just
as efficiently.
• Older people tend to have difficulty with memory
tasks that require juggling multiple pieces of
information at the same time.

Dementia: Severe impairment in intellectual capacity
and personality, often due to damage to the brain.
• Dementia has many causes, including alcohol intake
and HIV, but for older adults the major cause is
Alzheimer’s disease.
• Approximately 5 percent of people will develop
Alzheimer’s disease by age 70–75, and 6.5 percent
will develop the disease after age 85.
• The initial symptoms of Alzheimer’s are typically
minor memory impairments, but the disease
eventually progresses to more serious difficulties,
such as forgetting daily routines.

Well-being in older adults
• Except for dementia, older
adults have fewer mental
health problems, including
depression, than younger
adults (Jorm, 2000).
• Despite the physical, social,
and emotional challenges of
aging, most older adults are
healthy and happy.

Week 4 Presentation

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Week 4 Presentation