NEW DIRECTIONS FOR STUDENT SERVICES, no. 132, Winter 2010 © Wi.docx

NEW DIRECTIONS FOR STUDENT SERVICES, no. 132,
Winter 2010 © Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
Published online in Wiley Online Library
(wileyonlinelibrary.com) • DOI: 10.1002/ss.374
Adopting the practice of systematically and strategically
gathering data to inform the development and
implementation of a strategic plan will ensure its
achievement. This chapter presents a combination of
techniques for student affairs professionals to conduct
data-driven planning.
4
Data-Driven Planning: Using Assessment
in Strategic Planning
Marilee J. Bresciani
Data-driven planning or evidence-based decision making
represents noth-
ing new in its concept. For years, business leaders have claimed
they have
implemented planning informed by data that have been
strategically and
systematically gathered (Banta, Jones, and Black, 2009;
Bresciani, 2006;
Maki, 2004; Schuh and Associates, 2009; Suskie, 2009; Upcraft
and Schuh,
1996). Therefore, it is safe to assume that the concepts that are
included in
data-driven planning have been around for years. Within higher

education
and student affairs, there may be less evidence of the actual
practice of sys-
tematically and strategically gathering data to inform planning.
Data-driven planning is often referred to in higher education as
out-
comes-based program review. The Western Association of
Schools and Col-
leges (WASC) defi nes outcomes-based program review as a
cyclical process
for evaluating and continuously strengthening the quality and
currency of
programs. The evaluation is conducted through a combination of
self-eval-
uation and peer evaluation by reviewers external to the program
or depart-
ment and, usually, external to the organization (Jenefsky and
others, 2009).
The results of this process inform strategic planning.
For purposes of this chapter, data-driven planning is defi ned as
a sys-
tematic process that gathers programmatic outcomes-based
assessment
data (for example, data derived from outcomes-based program
review) and
merges those data with trend, forecast, and capacity data, as
well as institu-
tional goals and vision. The results of this process are then used
to plan
resources, policies, and program design to achieve or refi ne the
intended
39

40 STRATEGIC PLANNING IN STUDENT AFFAIRS
NEW DIRECTIONS FOR STUDENT SERVICES • DOI:
10.1002/ss
institutional vision and goals. For student affairs professionals,
this means
that strategic planning cannot be done in isolation of university
data, such
as an understanding of market demand for majors, the pool of
prospective
students, and the institutional learning outcomes and core
values.
Informed by these data, student affairs professionals must align
each por-
tion of their divisional strategic planning with the overall
values of the
university.
For the profession of student affairs, this means that results
derived
from outcomes-based assessment processes inform action
planning and
budgeting. This also means that as the student affairs division
staff mem-
bers gather more data on how well they are meeting institutional
priorities,
they can also use the same process to demonstrate achievement
of their
own divisional priorities and goals. Departments within the
division can
use this process to demonstrate how they are meeting division
priorities as
well. This chapter provides an overview of the components of

and steps to
establishing such a process.
Steps for Data-Driven Planning in Student Affairs
When organizations embark on strategic planning, key steps
must be put
into place. Data-driven planning does not replace those steps;
rather, it is
intended to contribute to the refi nement of those steps by
purposefully
integrating planning, assessment, and budgeting processes. For
example,
when an organization decides through strategic planning that it
will
become the fi rst-choice regional provider of quality education
for fi rst-gen-
eration students, it begins to design goals that will help it
realize that
vision. The strategic plan represents the ideal of what the
institutional lead-
ership desires to achieve.
Once the strategic plan is put into place, indicators of success
are artic-
ulated, and programs are often asked to illustrate how they are
achieving
the goals and indicators represented by the strategic plan
(Drucker, 2000;
Fullan and Scott, 2009; McClellan, 2009). The challenge here is
that key
steps, discussed in this chapter, are occasionally left out in
implementation.
And the result is that organizational members may become
frustrated that
the organization’s vision or strategic plan is not being fully

realized. In
order to address this initial challenge, it may become important
for institu-
tional and divisional leadership to follow some basic steps for
data-driven
planning. The intent of sharing these suggested steps is to
provide institu-
tional and divisional leadership with a framework to consider as
they adapt
each step, cognizant of their own institutional culture. In many
cases, insti-
tutions and student affairs divisions already have many of these
pieces of
data-driven planning in place; they have just not yet pulled
them together
into a systematic, integrated process.
In order to aid readers with determining how they can pull their
pro-
cesses together to formulate data-driven planning, the proposed
steps that
DATA-DRIVEN PLANNING 41
10.1002/ss
follow are intended to be used as guidelines as opposed to
procedures that
must be followed in the exact order indicated. The steps are not
designed
as a linear process. You may fi nd, if you follow the steps in
numerical order,
that when you get to, say, step 4, you may need to go back and

refi ne steps
2 and 3 because you realized that you were collecting data that
will not
really inform your strategic plan. Or you may choose to engage
in step 1
and then step 4 in that order to fi gure out how to best approach
steps 2 and
3. Thus, the steps are to be used as guidelines in any order that
makes sense
for your division or institution. As usual, institutional and
divisional lead-
ers will need to adapt these steps in accordance with their own
culture,
dynamics, and resources in order to improve their data-driven
planning
processes (Banta and others, 2009; Bresciani, 2006; Maki, 2004;
Schuh and
Associates, 2009; Suskie, 2009).
Step One: Establish a Strategic Plan. Many chapters in this book
discuss the importance of having a strategic plan and illustrate
various
ways to accomplish it. The important piece of information to
note here is
that there must be an institutionally and divisionally agreed-on
strategic
plan from which to work (Bresciani, Gardner, and Hickmott,
2009;
Bresciani, 2006; Schuh and Associates, 2009). Many
professionals become
frustrated when there is no agreed-on direction for their
organization, and
thus, the following steps become even more challenging to
implement
(Drucker, 2000; Fullan and Scott, 2009; McClellan, 2009). In an
institution

that is not engaged in strategic planning and therefore lacks
institutional
values and goals with which to align, this process then starts at
the division
level.
Step Two: Gather Forecast and Trend Data Sometimes the best
strategic plans and the most inspiring visions and goals can go
unrealized
because the planning to create those strategic goals has been
done without
considering what the forecast or trend data are illustrating.
Forecast and
trend data simply attempt to calculate or predict some future
event or
condition. A detailed study or analysis usually informs this type
of
conversation (Schuh and Associates, 2009).
The types of data used in forecasting and determining trends are
typi-
cally institutionally reported. They are often collected and
stored by agen-
cies outside the institution—for example, extracts from the
College Board
data sets or other types of national data sets, such as those
gleaned from the
Common Data Set, the National Clearinghouse, or the Integrated
Post Sec-
ondary Education Data System. Trend data can also be gleaned
from admis-
sions applications, the National Survey of Student Engagement,
the
Community College Survey of Student Engagement, the
Cooperative Insti-
tutional Research Program, the College Student Experiences

Questionnaire,
or Your First College Year surveys. Years of gathering these
types of data
can illustrate certain trends that can be used in informing
whether your
strategic initiatives are feasible. (An example is provided later
in this
section.)
10.1002/ss
These types of data are often collected or stored at the
institutional
level. The institutional research offi ce is a good place to start
when looking
to access and use data that will help in forecasting and
identifying trends.
If the institutional research offi ce is too busy to assist right
away, and it
often is, consider contacting the Association for Institutional
Research,
which has a wealth of resources to assist institutional
administrators with
this type of institutional data gathering.
In gathering and using data for forecasting or determining
trends, the
idea is not to become consumed by data but rather to use the
data to deter-
mine if your strategic goals can be achieved. Perhaps your
university vision

is to become the fi rst-choice regional provider of quality
education for fi rst-
generation students. Using this example, your strategic plan has
informed
a design to implement interventions that will aid fi rst-
generation students
in their success, but your current plan has no goals to change its
outreach
processes and plans. In accessing admissions applications data
and College
Board data, you may discover that the number of fi rst-
generation students
applying and being accepted by your institution is declining.
This would
indicate that your vision and your corresponding strategic plan
would not
be realized unless you also have some initiatives to change
outreach to and
recruitment of fi rst-generation students.
Before adjusting your strategic plan to focus on a change in
outreach
and recruitment, you access data from the College Board to
identify how
many regional students are graduating from high school, taking
college
placement tests, and being identifi ed as fi rst generation. If you
see that the
number is high, you can then determine that efforts to develop
outreach
and recruitment plans may be worthwhile. However, if you
discover that
the fi rst-generation students graduating from high school are
low in num-
bers and appear to have been decreasing, you may want to
reexamine your

institutional vision altogether. Institutional and student affairs
divisional
leadership could also choose to design different types of
interventions that
work collaboratively with local high schools to increase the
number of col-
lege-bound fi rst-generation students.
Step Three: Conduct a Capacity Review. Trend data as well as
additional types of data, such as fi nancial records, fi nancial
forecasting, and
capital assets, can also be useful in determining the institution’s
capacity to
meet the strategic plan. Borrowing from the Western
Association of Schools
and Colleges (2008), a capacity review determines whether an
institution
has the resources to fulfi ll its strategic mission. In other words,
can the
institution function “with clear purposes, high levels of
institutional
integrity, fi scal stability, and organizational structures and
processes to
fulfi ll its purposes?” (p. 30).
Identifying meaningful data that indicate whether an institution
or
division has key institutional resources, structures, and
processes in place
to fulfi ll its institutional or divisional mission and strategic
plan is impor-
tant in determining whether changes need to be made in
strategic

10.1002/ss
priorities. Consultation with the institutional research offi ce
may enable
you to identify, access, and use the most appropriate data to
inform your
planning.
In order to understand how to use these types of data, we return
to
our example. Consider that your trend data forecast an increase
in fi rst-
generation graduates intending to take college entrance exams
from your
regional high schools, so you know you will have plenty of
students apply-
ing to your college. However, the data from the College Board
also indicate
that these students will need more fi nancial aid in order to
attend college in
the future. Your forecast data show steadily increasing tuition,
and your
capacity study reveals less available institutional and state grant
aid. How
do you factor this very real scenario into your strategic
planning? What
other types of data may you need to collect to make an informed
decision?
The idea behind conducting short but informative capacity
reviews is
that if you are able to identify immediate limitations in the
ability to pro-

vide the resources needed for realizing the strategic plan, then
you may be
able to immediately adjust your strategic plan to better refl ect
your capac-
ity. Or you may choose to adjust the strategic plan to build
capacity. The
building of capacity to achieve the strategic plan may well
become a large
portion of that plan.
Step Four: Articulate Indicators of Success. Leaders who are
operationalizing their strategic plans may clearly articulate the
goals
derived from the plan, yet not have clearly identified the
indicators of
success that directly relate to the goals derived from the
strategic plan.
Rather than just selecting indicators of success that are easy to
measure,
consider starting by spending time describing what a successful
strategic
plan looks like when it is implemented (Banta and others, 2009;
Bresciani
and others, 2009; Bresciani, 2006; Maki, 2004; Schuh and
Associates, 2009;
Suskie, 2009).
Indicators of success “are quantifi able measurements, agreed to
before-
hand, that refl ect the critical success factors of an organization.
They help
an organization defi ne and measure progress toward
organizational goals”
(Reh, 2009, paras. 1, 2). Such indicators are typically gathered
and dissemi-
nated at the institutional level, but what types of data should an

institution
collect in order to be able to provide such indicators of success?
Returning to our example, what would it look like when your
institu-
tion is the fi rst-choice regional provider of quality education
for fi rst-gen-
eration students? The initial inclination of planners is to jump
to
performance indicators that articulate expectations for numbers
of admits,
persistence, graduation, and career placement rates. These
indicators are
easy to measure and certainly would make sense to report in
relationship
to achievement of this vision. But what else do we know about
first-
generation learners? Would we also want to be able to
determine how well
the environment welcomes fi rst-generation learners and their
families and
10.1002/ss
guardians? How integrated are the services and interventions
designed to
support these learners (Kuh and Associates, 2005)?
The idea of this step is to indicate purposefully which indicators
will
be institutionally identifi ed to determine success of the

strategic plan (for
example, persistence rates, placement rates) and which will be
gleaned
from more specifi c programmatic outcomes-based assessment
results (for
example, evidence of the effectiveness of various and specifi c
student sup-
port programs).
Step Five: Prioritize Action Plans to Meet the Strategic
Goals. Assuming that your organizational strategic plan has
articulated
goals or objectives, consider prioritizing them if possible.
(Chapter One
details steps for goal setting and action planning.) This will
assist with
prioritizing the action plans that operationalize the strategic
plan, which in
turn helps prioritize the resources that will enable the strategic
plan to
come to fruition. When institutional leadership prioritizes the
strategic
plan goals, faculty and staff are more likely to feel empowered
in
prioritizing their investment of their own time in their action
plans in order
to meet the strategic plan (Banta and others, 2009; Bresciani
and others,
2009; Bresciani, 2006; Jenefsky and others, 2009; Schuh and
Associates,
2009; Suskie, 2009).
In order to prioritize decisions that align with organizational
goals,
values, and strategic initiatives, criteria must be considered that
will assist

in the alignment of proposed action plans to the organizational
goals, val-
ues, and strategic initiatives. Although this chapter cannot
anticipate the
types of criteria that may best represent various organizational
structures,
the following questions, adapted from Fred McFarlane (personal
commu-
nication, February, 12, 2007), former department chair of
administration,
rehabilitation, and postsecondary education at San Diego State
University,
may assist institutions in formulating their own criteria:
• How well does the proposed action plan fi t with our
organizational
goals, values, and strategic initiatives?
• Within that fi t, how will the action plan benefi t current
students
(for example, residential students, commuters, fi rst
generation)?
• How will the proposed action plan affect future students (for
example, recruitment, new student populations, and their
progression from undergraduate to graduate degrees)?
• How will the proposed action plan increase the impact of the
department in relationship to the goals and sustaining objectives
of
the department and the division?
• How will we know whether the proposed action plan will be
effective in increasing the impact of the department on the
students?

• Does the proposed plan meet the criteria in that it is consistent
with
our values and beliefs (for example, access, equity, and student
success), fi nancially viable (for example, does it cover the
costs, and
10.1002/ss
can it be leveraged for continued development; note that one-
shot
efforts take a great deal of time and often diffuse resources and
energy), consistent with our professional development, and
consistent with our passion and commitment to student learning
and development?
Posing such questions begins to develop criteria for prioritizing
cur-
rent outcomes as well as the great ideas for improvements that
result from
engaging in outcome-based assessment (see step 7).
S t e p S i x : A l i g n D i v i s i o n R e s o u rc e s w i t h I
n s t i t u t i o n a l
Priorities. This step may appear a bit similar to previous steps,
but
nevertheless it is important to consider. The prioritization of the
division
resources toward strategic initiatives infl uences the availability
of resources
to improve more refi ned levels of action plans. And the
decisions to refi ne

the actions plans are informed by results of outcomes-based
assessment
(see step 7). If your institution is bound by a governance
structure that
gives you very little room to allocate resources in accordance
with your
strategic plan, then this step will be very quick for the
institution to
complete, because you are constrained by an inability to
prioritize the
resources on your own. If the institutional governance allows
more
fl exibility in the allocation of resources, then the idea is to
make available
certain resources for the improvement and refi nement of
strategic priorities
that can be allocated based on the results of outcomes-based
assessment or
on the proposals of innovative action plans to improve strategic
indicators
and initiatives.
Step Seven: Implement Outcomes-Based Assessment Program
Review. Implementing outcomes-based assessment plans for the
action
plans to achieve the strategic plan will help in gathering
meaningful data
about how well you are achieving your strategic plan. If
assessment is done
well, the results will yield specifi c information on what needs
to be improved
in order to refi ne the strategic indicators articulated in step 4
(Banta and
others, 2009; Bresciani, 2006; Bresciani and others, 2009;
Jenefsky and
others, 2009; Maki, 2004; Schuh and Associates, 2009; Suskie,

2009).
The following sections set out typical components of an
assessment
plan and report.
Program Name. The program name helps indicate the scope of
the
assessment project. Are you planning on assessing a series of
workshops
within the leadership development center, or on evaluating the
entire lead-
ership development center? Often it is diffi cult to determine
the scope of
an assessment plan (Schuh and Associates, 2009). When in
doubt, organize
the plan around programs that have autonomous outcomes
(Bresciani and
others, 2004; Bresciani and others, 2009).
Program Mission or Purpose. List the program mission or
purpose
statement. It may also be helpful to provide a one- or two-
sentence
10.1002/ss
explanation of how this program mission or purpose aligns with
the depart-
ment, college, division, or university’s mission within which it
is organized.

Setting this out will help explain how the program aligns with
institutional
values and priorities.
Program Goals. Goals are broad, general statements of what the
pro-
gram wants students to be able to do and to know or what the
program will
do to ensure what students will be able to do and to know.
Goals are not
directly measurable. Rather, they are evaluated directly or
indirectly by
measuring specifi c outcomes derived from the goals (Bresciani
and others,
2004; Bresciani and others, 2009). The further alignment of
each goal to
department, college or division, or university goals or strategic
initiatives
generated from the strategic plan assists with the
communication of priori-
ties and allows programs to show how they are operating within
stated
priorities. In addition, the alignment of each goal with
professional accredi-
tation standards, if applicable, allows you to determine how this
program
intends to meet higher-level organization goals and strategic
planning
initiatives.
Outcomes. Outcomes are more detailed and specifi c statements
derived
from the goals. They specifi cally are about what you want the
end result of
your efforts to be. In other words, what do you expect the
student to know

and do as a result of, for example, a one-hour workshop, one-
hour indi-
vidual meeting, Web site instructions, or series of workshops?
Outcomes
do not describe what you are going to do to the student, but
rather how
you want the student to demonstrate what he or she knows or
can do
(Bresciani and others, 2004; Bresciani and others, 2009).
In addition, you want to be able to align each outcome with a
program
goal. This alignment allows you to link your outcomes to
department, col-
lege or division, or university goals and strategic initiatives, as
well as pro-
fessional accreditation standards. Such alignment allows you to
determine
how this program intends to meet higher-level organization
goals and stra-
tegic planning initiatives.
Planning for Delivery of Outcomes. This is where action
planning
comes into the process. Here is where you describe or simply
draw a dia-
gram that explains how you plan for the student to learn what
you expect
the student to learn in order for the outcome to be met. Do you
plan for the
students to learn what you expect them to in a workshop, one-
on-one con-
sultation, or a Web site? Simply indicate all the ways in which
you provide
students the opportunity to achieve the learning outcome.
Identifying

where outcomes are being taught or delivered also provides
reviewers with
opportunities to identify where that outcome may be evaluated.
Evaluation Methods and Tools. Often the evaluation method or
tool
section of the assessment plan can be intimidating to
practitioners. This
section is not intended to include detailed research
methodology. It is
intended to simply describe the tools and methods (for example,
observa-
tion with a criteria checklist, survey with specifi c questions
identifi ed,
10.1002/ss
essay with a rubric, role-playing with a criteria checklist) you
will use to
evaluate the outcomes of participants in specifi c programs. In
this section,
you identify the sample or population you will be evaluating,
identify an
evaluation method or tool for each outcome, and include the
criteria that
will be used with the tool to determine whether the outcome has
been
met—for example:
• If the tool to measure an outcome is a survey, which questions
in the

survey are measuring the outcome?
• If the tool is a test, which questions measure the outcome?
• If the tool is an observation, what are the criteria that you
apply to
the observation in order to identify whether the outcome has
been
met?
Add limitations of the evaluation method or tool if necessary.
Limita-
tions are reminders to you and the reviewer that while the
evaluation pro-
cess may not have gone extremely well, you recognize the
limitations and
have documented them to be considered in decision making or
for
improvements to be made the next time. In addition, select other
institu-
tional, system or national data (for example, enrollment
numbers, faculty-
to-student ratios, retention rates, graduation rates, utilization
statistics,
satisfaction ratings, National Survey of Student Engagement
scores) that
will be used to help you interpret how and whether the outcome
has been
met.
Implementation of Assessment Process. This is the planning
section for
the implementation of the assessment process. Not everything
has to be
evaluated every year. You can simply evaluate two or three
outcomes each

year, which will create a multiyear assessment plan, of which
the fi nal year
of the assessment plan feeds into the comprehensive program
review pro-
cess. Identify who is responsible for doing each step in the
evaluation pro-
cess. Outline the time line for implementation, including the
years in
which each outcome will be evaluated (so as not to indicate that
everything
must be evaluated every year). Also include which year you will
be review-
ing all prior outcomes data results (for example, comprehensive
program
review year) for a holistic program review discussion.
In addition, identify other programs that are assisting with the
evalua-
tion and when they are assisting. Include time lines for external
reviewers
(including professional accreditation reviews, if applicable) and
for com-
munication across departments or colleges. Identify who will be
participat-
ing in interpreting the data and making recommendations, along
with a
time line for implementing the decisions and recommendations.
Finally, be
sure to outline how lines of communication will fl ow. Who will
see the
results, when will they see the results, and who will be involved
in deter-
mining whether the results are acceptable?

10.1002/ss
Results. Summarize the results for each outcome as well as the
process
to verify, validate, or authenticate the results. This may include
how results
were discussed with students, alumni, other program faculty and
adminis-
trators, or external reviewers. Link the results generated from
the out-
comes-based assessment results to any other program, college,
or institu-
tional performance indicators.
Refl ection, Interpretation, Decisions, and Recommendations.
This section
summarizes the decisions and recommendations made for each
outcome
and illustrates how you determined if the results were
satisfactory. It
therefore requires describing the process used to inform how the
level of
acceptable performance was determined and why it was
determined as
such.
Illustrate how decisions and recommendations may be
contributing to
the improvement of higher-level goals and strategic initiatives.
Identify the
groups that participate in the refl ection, interpretation, and
discussion of
the evidence that led to the recommendations and decisions. It

may then be
helpful to summarize the suggestions for improving the
assessment pro-
cess, tools, criteria, and outcomes. Finally, be sure to identify
when each
outcome will be evaluated again (if the outcome is to be
retained and who
is responsible).
Documentation of Higher-Level Feedback. This section is
designed to
document how results are used and how the results are
disseminated
throughout the institution. The intent is to document
conversations and
collaborations that are being implemented in order to
systematically and
institutionally improve student learning and development.
Include the
routing of the recommendations or decisions (for example, who
needs to
see the recommendations or be involved in the decision making)
if
resources, policy changes, or other information was required
outside the
scope of the program. For example, if you are the program
coordinator and
the decisions you and your students recommend require the
approval of the
department director, then you need to indicate that the approval
of the
decision must fl ow through the departmental director.
Appendixes. Include any appendixes that may help illustrate the
man-
ner in which you evaluate your program. For example, you may

want to
include the curriculum alignment or outcome and delivery map
or the
tools and criteria to evaluate each outcome. You may also
choose to include
any external review of the plan, results, or decisions and what
was con-
cluded from that external review. Include any budget plans and
resource
reallocation or allocation documents as well (Bresciani, 2010).
Step Eight: Allocate and Reallocate Resources to Help Realize
the
Goals. Jenefsky and others (2009) discuss in detail how
outcomes-based
program review provides an effective way for institutional
leadership to use
systematically collected data to inform specifi c decisions for
improving
strategic plan initiatives. Thus, the fi ndings and
recommendations from
step 7 can be used as evidence to inform decision-making
processes at
10.1002/ss
various levels in the institution (for example, from the program
level
through the university level).
In order to frame this discussion, remember that some

suggestions to
improve strategic initiatives can occur with very little resource
reallocation
(for example, resequencing process steps, refi nements in the
criteria for
student evaluation, or reorganization of workshop material).
Other fi nd-
ings may point to a need for a larger reallocation of resources,
ranging from
staff development for assessment to hiring more staff or faculty
members to
fi ll unmet needs.
Step Nine: Make It All Systematic. The fi nal step in this
process is
to make the entire data-driven planning process systematic. This
requires
institutional leadership to schedule periodic holistic reviews of
their
processes in order to ensure that they are working together to
inform data-
driven planning. There are several things to consider when
creating a
systematic, sustainable, and data-driven planning process. The
fi rst is to
build collaborations across departments, colleges and divisions,
and
hierarchical structures so that information can fl ow in an
environment of
trust. Second, review position descriptions and personnel review
processes
to ensure that faculty and staff are constantly reminded of the
importance
of engaging in data-driven planning, given professional
development
opportunities to learn how to do this well, and rewarded for

using data to
inform decisions. Third, maintain the integrity of the data by
being
forthright with how data will be used for planning purposes,
resource
reallocations, and professional development opportunities.
Fourth,
consistently use data and provide systematic processes for
communicating
how the data are used for informing decisions and planning.
This will
motivate faculty and staff engagement in the process. Finally,
identify
strategies to keep morale high when someone’s program is not
selected as
an institutional priority.
Conclusion
Ensuring these steps are followed will more than likely lead
your institu-
tion to establishing an effective data-driven planning process.
The gather-
ing and analysis of data also has the potential to strengthen the
implementation of a well-documented plan. The ongoing cycle
of evalua-
tion and assessment will ensure the plan’s effectiveness.
References
Banta, T., Jones, E., & Black, K. Designing Effective
Assessment: Principles and Profi les of
Good Practice. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2009.
Bresciani, M. J. Outcomes-Based Academic and Co-Curricular
Program Review: A Compila-

tion of Institutional Good Practices. Sterling, Va.: Stylus
Publishing, 2006.
Bresciani, M. J. “Assessment and Evaluation.” In J. Schuh, S.
Jones, and S. Harper (eds.),
Student Services: A Handbook for the Profession. San
Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2010.
10.1002/ss
Bresciani, M. J., Gardner, M. M., and Hickmott, J.
Demonstrating Student Success in Stu-
dent Affairs. Sterling, Va.: Stylus Publishing, 2009.
Bresciani, M. J., Zelna, C. L., & Anderson, J. A. Assessing
Student Learning and Develop-
ment: A Handbook for Practitioners. Washington, D.C.:
National Association of Stu-
dent Personnel Administrators, 2004.
Drucker, P. “Managing Knowledge Means Managing Oneself.”
Leader to Leader, 2000,
16, 8–10.
Fullan, M., and Scott, G. Turnaround Leadership for Higher
Education. San Francisco:
Jossey-Bass, 2009.
Jenefsky, C., and others. WASC Resource Guide for Outcomes-
Based Program Review. Oak-
land, Calif.: Western Association of Schools and Colleges,

2009.
Kuh, G. D., and Associates. Student Success in College:
Creating Conditions That Matter.
San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2005.
Maki, P. L. Assessing for Learning: Building a Sustainable
Commitment Across the Institu-
tion. Sterling, Va.: Stylus Publishing, 2004.
McClellan, E. “Promoting Outcomes Assessment in Political
Science Departments: The
Role of Strategic Planning.” Paper presented at the annual
meeting of the APSA
Teaching and Learning Conference Online, Baltimore, 2009.
Retrieved May 26, 2009,
from http://www.allacademic.com/meta/p11617_index.html.
Reh, F. J. ”Key Performance Indicators: How an Organization
Defi nes and Measures
Progress Toward Its Goals.” 2009. Retrieved July 24, 2009,
from http://management
.about.com/cs/generalmanagement/a/keyperfi ndic.htm.
Schuh, J. H., and Associates. Assessment Methods for Student
Affairs. San Francisco:
Jossey-Bass, 2009.
Suskie, L. Assessing Student Learning: A Common Sense
Guide. (2nd ed.) San Francisco:
Jossey-Bass, 2009.
Upcraft, M. L., and Schuh. J. H. Assessment in Student Affairs:
A Guide for Practitioners.
San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1996.

Western Association of Schools and Colleges. “Handbook of
Accreditation.” 2008.
Retrieved July 24, 2009, from
http://www.wascsenior.org/findit/files/forms/
Handbook_of_Accreditation_2008_with_hyperlinks.pdf.
MARILEE J. BRESCIANI is a professor of postsecondary
education and codirector
of the Center for Educational Leadership, Innovation, and
Policy at San Diego
State University.
Copyright of New Directions for Student Services is the
property of John Wiley & Sons, Inc. and its content
may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a
listserv without the copyright holder's express
written permission. However, users may print, download, or
email articles for individual use.
Running head: SELF-MARKETING PLAN
SELF-MARKETING PLAN
Self-Marketing Plan
Moaid Hawsawi
J00886183
7/31/19
Executive summary

My marketing strengths and skills are ready and I am prepared
to work in the American tech sector. My weaknesses are that I
need to furnish my programming skills to fit in the busiest and
most proactive tech companies in America. My competitive
strengths and skills are based on my standards for producing
quality work, products, and services. Pointing my weaknesses in
competitions, I would say that I am a step behind the industry
move to generalize the working populace. Summarizing my
industrial strength, I will mention my competence in the
exceedingly demanding nature of the industries to effect
occupational replacements in the software engineering sector.
My weakness in the same is evident in the declining number of
software recruits in recent years following software reuse.
Introduction
My name is James Wesley, popularly known as the Code Guru,
currently pursuing Bachelor of Technology in Computer Science
at Harvard. I was born and raised in New York, though I
currently reside in Memphis. I am a frequent tourist to the
Yellow Stone and the Asian and African Countries. I have
participated in several coding contests and hackathon sessions
in Newborn and Washington DC. I confidently consider myself
ready to take the development in the cooperate industry to a
new level after my university graduation.
SWOT ANALYSIS
MyselfStrengths
Skills
Brief item description
General skills
Research and design
Development skills
Debugging skills
Team management skills
Participated in several hackathons
·

·
·
·
·
Completed several projects for small scale organization
·
·
·
·
·
Traveled around the world
·
·
·
·
·
Weaknesses
Skills
General skills
Research and design
Development skills
Debugging skills
Slow in Development
·
·
·
·
·

Last-minute rush
·
·
·
·
·
Late project deliveries
·
·
·
·
·
Opportunities
Skills
General skills
Research and design
Development skills
Debugging skills
Special skills
·
·
·
·
·
Hardworking and sharp minded
·
·
·
·
·
Business minded
·
·

·
·
·
Product marketing
·
·
·
·
·
Demand for new employees
·
·
·
·
·
Threats
Skills
General skills
Research and design
Development skills
Debugging skills
Certification is compulsory
·
·
·
·
·
Out of school experience is required
·

·
·
·
·
Specific skill set not acquired in school
·
·
·
·
·
Competitors Strengths
Activity description
Skills
General skills
Research and design
Development skills
Debugging skills
Industrial experience
·
·
·
·
·
Better problem solving skills
·
·
·
·

·
Access to better education
·
·
·
·
·
Weaknesses
Skills
General skills
Research and design
Development skills
Debugging skills
Part of the major populations
·
·
·
·
·
Criminal records
·
·
·
·
·
Ethical controversies
·
·
·
·
·
Opportunities

Skills
General skills
Research and design
Development skills
Debugging skills
Already certified
·
·
·
·
·
Already resident near the place of work
·
·
·
·
·
Years of industrial experience
·
·
·
·
·
Threat
Skills
General skills
Research and design
Development skills

Debugging skills
Interns who need lesser pay
·
·
·
·
·
Social injustices linking to criminal records
·
·
·
·
·
Poor interaction and marketing skills
·
·
·
·
·
IndustryStrengths
Skills
General skills
Research and design
Development skills
Debugging skills
Government Subsidy and protection
·
·
·

·
·
Provides better learning curve
·
·
·
·
·
Many years of experience
·
·
·
·
·
Customer base
·
·
·
·
·
Weaknesses
Skills
General skills
Research and design
Development skills
Debugging skills
The high cost of labor
·
·
·
·
·
Varied user needs

·
·
·
·
·
High workload
·
·
·
·
·
Ethical and security concerns
·
·
·
·
·
Opportunity
Skills
General skills
Research and design
Development skills
Debugging skills
The high return of investment
·
·
·
·
·
New investment opportunities
·
·

·
·
·
Global market
·
·
·
·
·
·
·
·
·
·
Threat
Skills
General skills
Research and design
Development skills
Debugging skills
Business permits and government regulations
·
·
·
·
·
Competition from European, Russian and Chinese Companies
·
·
·
·
·

Economic inflation and deflation
·
·
·
·
·
Insecurity and a political standoff
·
·
·
·
·
Matrix quantification of SWOTs
Myself
Strengths
M
I
R
Opportunities
M
I
R
S 1
4
4
16
O 1
4
4
16
S 2
4
4
16
O 2

4
4
16
S 3
4
4
16
O 3
4
4
16
O 4
4
4
16
O 5
4
4
16
Total
48
Total
80

Weaknesses
Threats
M
I
R
W 1
-3
3
-9
T 1
-3
3
-9
W 2
-3
3
-9
T 2
-3
3
-9
W 3
-3
3
-9
T 3

-3
3
-9
W 4
-3
3
-9
Total
-36
Total
-27
Industry
Strengths
M
I
R
Opportunities
M
I
R
S 1

4
4
16
O 1
4
4
16
S 2
4
4
16
O 2
4
4
16
S 3
4
4
16
O 3
4
4
16
S4
4
4
16
O 4
4
4
16

Total
64
Total
64
Weaknesses
Threats
M
I
R
W 1
-3
3
-9
T 1
-3
3
-9
W 2

-3
3
-9
T 2
-3
3
-9
W 3
-3
3
-9
T 3
-3
3
-9
W 4
-3
3
-9
T 4
-3
3
-9
Total
-36
Total
-36

Competitors
Strengths
M
I
R
Opportunities
M
I
R
S 1
4
4
16
O 1
4
4
16
S 2
4
4
16
O 2
4
4
16
S 3
4
4
16
O 3
4
4
16

Total
48
Total
48
Weaknesses
Threats

M
I
R
W 1
-3
3
-9
T 1
-3
3
-9
W 2
-3
3
-9
T 2
-3
3
-9
W 3
-3
3
-9
T 3
-3
3
-9
Total

-36
Total
-27
It the above information is represented on a quadratic graph,
with the as the x-axis and as the y-axis, competitors would
feature in the third forth quadratCritical issues
Working on weaknesses
Slow in Development
This is a major problem that I face in my daily development
processes. We will work it out by sticking to set time schedulers
Last-minute rush
I will set time schedules that I will follow to the later
Late project deliveries
I will work hard to deliver all projects in time
Part of the major populations
I will employ the knowledge I have gathered from the
populations to gather their skills and working tactics
Criminal records
I will work and live within the set laws and regulations
Ethical controversies
I adhere to all ethical considerations, both set by the society,
the
company and laws of the land.

The high cost of labor
I will ask for affordable pay, not too low to fail to cater to my
personal needs and not too high to
Varied user needs
I will always study the user to needs to make sure I understand
all of them before embarking on the actual development
High workload
I will assign my workloads the required tome so as to ensure all
tasks are attended to.
Ethical and security concerns
Due to the varied cultures around the world, all ethical
considerations will be respected and adhered to the latter.
Working out threats
Certification is compulsory
I will apply as an intern before graduation and later apply for
the professional position later
Out of school experience is required
I will engage with thee experienced developers to acquire the
needed skills
Specific skill set not acquired in school
I will work hard to learn the industrial competencies not taught
in school
Interns who need lesser pay
I will work as an intern immediately after graduation
Social injustices linking to criminal records
I will respect the rules of the land and keep myself out of
trouble

Poor interaction and marketing skills
I have always worked hard, interacting with different
communities, and I will keep on doing the same to market
company products
Business permits and government regulations
I will encourage my bosses to apply for the required business
permits from the relevant authorities.
Competition from European, Russian and Chinese Companies
I will deliver quality products and services at an affordable
price to compete against the global threats
PRELIMINARY ANALYSIS STEPS
Here I am going to share how I analyze. First I will think about
myself because I am the product to be sold to a company for a
better salary and perks. Then about the competition, the other
people who are going to compete for the same job. Then the
industry, the industry in which the company you are applying is
operating. When you are examining the industry, consider the
entire industry as a single company and compare it with other
industries like other companies.
I hope you all know that strengths and weaknesses are internal,
that is they are under the control of you. Opportunities and
threats are external, that is, you will not be able to control
them.
In the second step, tabulate the strength, weakness, opportunity
and threats for the company you are analyzing,here You are the
company. First mark everything as general then separate them
into different categories. Everybody will have different set of
items.

COMPANY
(Here it is YOU)
STRENGTH
#
Item
General
Marketing
Management
Process
R&D
WEAKNESS
#
Item
General

Marketing
Management
Process
R&D
OPPORTUNITY
#
Item
General
Marketing
Management
Process
R&D

THREAT
#
Item
General
Marketing
Management
Process
R&D

COMPETITION
(Others competing with you)
STRENGTH
#
Item
General
Marketing
Management
Process
R&D

WEAKNESS
#
Item
General
Marketing
Management
Process
R&D

OPPORTUNITY
#
Item
General
Marketing
Management
Process
R&D
THREAT
#

Item
General
Marketing
Management
Process
R&D
INDUSTRY
(The industry in which the company you are applying is in)
STRENGTH
#
Item
General

Marketing
Management
Process
R&D
WEAKNESS
#
Item
General
Marketing
Management
Process
R&D

OPPORTUNITY
#
Item
General
Marketing
Management
Process
R&D

Do not get frightened! Once the tables are made and classified
into different categories, it becomes much easier to follow the
next step, quantifying SWOT matrix.
Quantifying SWOT Matrix
Strengths
M
I
R
Opportunities
M
I
R
Strength 1
3
3
9
Opportunity 1
1
3
3
Strength 2
1
2
2
Opportunity 2
3
2

6
Total (Add Rs only)
11
Total (Add Rs only)
9
Weaknesses
Threats
Weakness 1
-2
2
-4
Threat 1
-3
3
-9
Weakness 2
-3
3

-9
Threat 2
-2
1
-2
Total (Add Rs only)
-13
Total (Add Rs only)
-11
The first step is to quantify the magnitude of each element
within the matrix. Magnitude (M) refers to how strongly each
element affects the firm. A simple method is to use a scale of 1
(low magnitude), 2 (medium magnitude), or 3 (high magnitude)
for each strength and opportunity and -1 (low magnitude), -2
(medium magnitude), or- 3 (high magnitude) for each weakness
and threat. The second step is to rate the importance (I) of each
element to the firm using a scale of 1 (weak importance), 2
(average importance), or 3(major importance) for all elements
in the matrix. That is how much importance your customers
would assign to each element. The final step is to multiply the
magnitude (M) ratings by the importance (I) ratings to create a
total rating (R) for each element (R = M * I). Remember that
the magnitude and important ratings should be heavily
influenced by customer perceptions, not just the perceptions of
the manager. Those elements with the highest total rating
(positive or negative) should have the greatest influence in
developing strategy.
(Ref: O.C. Ferrell and Michael D. Hartline, (2008), Marketing
Strategy, 4th Ed, South Western Cengage Learning)

Steps to Quantifying SWOT Matrix
Step I
First perform the quantification for You.
STRENGTHS
M
I
R
OPPORTUNITIES
M
I
R
Strength 1
3
3
9
Opportunity 1
3
2
6
Strength 2
2
2
4
Opportunity 2
2
2
4
Strength 3
3
3
9
Opportunity 3
1
2
2
Total (Add Rs only)

22
Total (Add Rs only)
12
WEAKNESSES
THREATS
Weakness 1
-2
3
-6
Threat 1
-3
3
-9
Weakness 2
-3
3
-9
Threat 2

-1
1
-1
Weakness 3
-1
3
-3
Threat 3
-2
3
-6
Total (Add Rs only)
-18
Total (Add Rs only)
-16
Magnitude: Positive for strength and opportunity. Negative for
weakness and threat. Importance: Positive for all.
Rating “R”: Positive for strength and opportunity. Negative for
weakness and threat.
Once you have completed the “Quantifying SWOT Matrix” then
add the “R” column for strength, weakness, opportunity and
threat.
For the above matrix:
Strength = 22; Weakness = -18; Opportunity = 12; Threat = -16.
Now add strength and weakness: +22+(-18) = +4. This is your
co-ordinate for X axis. Your X axis represents Weakness on the
left and Strength on the right.
Then add opportunity and threat: +12+(-16) = -4. This is your
co-ordinate for Y axis. Your Y axis represents Opportunity on
top and Threat at the bottom.

OPPORTUNITY
THREAT
In this case, as you are having a Plus (in strength and weakness)
and a Minus (in opportunity and threats), you are in the IV
Quadrant. To move to the first quadrant, the quadrant where
every manager wants her/his company to be, you have to
minimize the external threats.
Step II
Then perform the quantification for the competitors.
Strengths
M
I
R
Opportunities
M
I
R
Strength 1
2
3
6
Opportunity 1
3
2
6
Strength 2
2
2
4
Opportunity 2
2
2
4
Strength 3

1
1
1
Opportunity 3
1
2
2
Total (Add Rs only)
11
Total (Add Rs only)
12
Weaknesses
Threats
Weakness 1
-3
3
-9
Threat 1

-3
3
-9
Weakness 2
-3
3
-9
Threat 2
-1
1
-1
Weakness 3
-1
3
-3
Threat 3
-2
3
-6
Total (Add Rs only)
-21
Total (Add Rs only)
-16
threat.

Important thing to note: Opportunity and threat are going to be
the same for the firm and the competition; because both of them
function in the same external environment.
Now add strength and weakness: +11+(-21) = -10. This is your
co-ordinate for X axis.
co-ordinate for Y axis.
In this case, as your competition is having a Minus and a Minus.
Therefore, your competition is in the III Quadrant.
Steps after Quantifying SWOT Matrix
Step III
Then perform the quantification for the industry in which the
company you are applying is in.
STRENGTHS
M
I
R
OPPORTUNITIES
M
I
R
Strength 1
3
3
9
Opportunity 1
3
2
6
Strength 2
2

2
4
Opportunity 2
2
2
4
Strength 3
3
3
9
Opportunity 3
1
2
2
Strength 4
2
3
6
Total (Add Rs only)
28
Total (Add Rs only)
12

WEAKNESSES
THREATS
Weakness 1
-2
3
-6
Threat 1
-3
3
-9
Weakness 2
-3
3
-9
Threat 2
-1
1
-1
Weakness 3
-1
3
-3
Threat 3
-2
3
-6
Weakness 4
-2

1
-2
Total (Add Rs only)
-20
Total (Add Rs only)
-16
threat.
Now add strength and weakness: +28+(-20) = +8. This is your
co-ordinate for X axis. Your X axis represents Weakness on the
left and Strength on the right.
co-ordinate for Y axis. Your Y axis represents Opportunity on
top and Threat at the bottom.
OPPORTUNITY
THREAT
In this case, as your industry has a Plus (in strength and
weakness) and a Minus (in opportunity and threats), it is in the
IV Quadrant. To move to the first quadrant, the quadrant where

every industry wants to be, your industry must minimize the
external threats.
Note here, your firm, your competition and your industry, all
have the same external environment. Whereas the internal
strength and weaknesses vary.
Start with your position:
OPPORTUNITY
Show your competition and industry:
OPPORTUNITY
THREAT
YOU HAVE TO FOLLOE THESE STEPS VERBATICALLY TO
COMPLETE YOUR MARKETING PLAN.
1. If your competitor has a strength, which you do not have,
then their strength becomes a threat and it weakens your firm.
Therefore, add that competitor’s strength as another weakness
in your final matrix.
2. If your competitor has a weakness, which you do not have,
then their weakness becomes an opportunity and it and
strengthens your firm. Therefore, add that competitor’s
weakness as another strength in your final matrix.
3. If your industry has a strength, which you do not have, then
their strength becomes a threat and it weakens your firm.
Therefore, add that industry’s strength as another weakness in
your final matrix.
4. If your industry has a weakness, which you do not have, then
their weakness becomes an opportunity and it and strengthens
your firm. Therefore, add that industry’s weakness as another
strength in your final matrix.
In summary, once you have made the matrices, carefully

compare strengths of your firm with the competition and the
industry. Then compare the weaknesses. Remember, their
strengths will become your threat and their weaknesses will
become your opportunity.
Once we have done this, we are ready look at our CRITICAL
ISSUES. Your critical issue CI is going to be your internal
weakness plus external threats. CI = W +T. You must take the
weakness and threat from the final integrated firm’s matrix.
Now tell me how you are going to eliminate your weaknesses.
Take one by one and explain the weakness and how to eliminate
it.
Then tell me how you are going to deal with the threats. Threats
are external. Be careful in dealing with the threats. You may not
be able to eliminate them; but, how you are going reduce the
effects of those threats. Take one by one and explain the threats
and how to deal with them.
Summarize the last two parts (weakness and threat) as YOUR
recommendations.
Stop here. Your are done.
This is quadrant II. X axis minus and Y axis plus
This is quadrant I. X axis plus and Y axis plus.

This is quadrant III. X axis minus and Y axis minus. Your
competition is here.
This is quadrant VI. X axis plus and Y axis minus
This quadrant II. X axis minus and Y axis plus
This quadrant I. X axis plus and Y axis plus.
This quadrant III. X axis minus and Y axis minus

This quadrant VI. X axis plus and Y axis minus. Your Industry
is here

This quadrant VI. X axis plus and Y axis minus. You are here
This is quadrant II. X axis minus and Y axis plus
This is quadrant I. X axis plus and Y axis plus.
This is quadrant III. X axis minus and Y axis minus. Your
competition is here.
This is quadrant VI. X axis plus and Y axis minus

This quadrant VI. X axis plus and Y axis minus. Your Industry
is here

This quadrant VI. X axis plus and Y axis minus. You are here
Name: MKT 351 Summer II 2019

1
Marketing Plan
1. Executive Summary:
a. To summarize my strength, I will say that I am fully prepared
for corporate America. To
summarize my weakness, I will say that I need to ascertain more
skills. To summarize
the strength of my competition, I will say that higher standards
are their greatest
strength. To summarize the weakness of my competition, I will
say that the industry is
moreso looking to diversify its occupational populace. To
summarize the strength of my
industry, I will have to point out the exceedingly high demand
for occupational
placement. To summarize the weakness of my industry, I will
say that the economic
standing in the US is detrimental to the success of the industry
as well as the
progression of its other weaknesses and threats.
2. Introduction:
a. Hello. I am __________. However, I commonly go by the
alias of “XXXX”. I am currently

a Junior attending Jackson State University. I am a double
major in Finance and
Accounting, vying to attain my Bachelor’s degree. I hail from
Horn Lake, MS, but I
currently live in Memphis, TN. I am a military veteran, who has
traveled abroad several
times, and I have traveled all over the US. I consider myself
fully prepared to engage in
corporate America upon graduation.
2
3. SWOT Analysis:
MYSELF
STRENGTH
# Item General Marketing Management Process R&D
Completed multiple
internships
X X X X X
Study abroad
experience

X X X X X
Military veteran X X X X X
WEAKNESS
Tendency to
procrastinate
X X X X X
Hesitant to voice
opinion
X X X X X
May overexert
myself
X X X X X
OPPORTUNITY
Minority Population X X X X X
GPA Requirement X X X X X
Corporate America
experience
X X X X X

THREAT
Particular skills X X X X X
Bi-Lingual X X X X X
Certification
requirement
X X X X X
3
COMPETITION
STRENGTH
Better Education X X X X X
Family Status X
Higher Standards X X X X X
WEAKNESS

Non-Minority
Population
X X X X X
Social Diversity X X X X X
Internal
Competition
X X X X X
OPPORTUNITY
Prejudice X X X X X
Place of Residence X X X X X
College Attendance X
THREAT
Minority Population X X X X X
Diversity X X X X X
Place of Origin X X X X X
INDUSTRY
STRENGTH

Learning Curve X X X X X
Stability X X X X X
Government
Support
X X X X X
Name: MKT 351 Summer II2019
4
WEAKNESS
Occupational
Demand
X X X X X
Salary Demand X X X X X
Workload Demand X X X X X
OPPORTUNITY
Increased Business
Creation

X X X X X
Increased
Partnerships
X X X X X
Turnover Rate X X X X X
THREAT
Place of Business X
Turnover Rate X X X X X
Economic Standing X X X X X
SWOT Matrix Quantification: MYSELF
STRENGTHS M I R OPPORTUNITIES M I R
Strength 1 3 3 9 Opportunity 1 3 3 9
Total (Add Rs
only)
27 Total (Add Rs
only)

24
WEAKNESSES M I R THREATS M I R
Weakness 1 -2 2 -4 Threats 1 -3 2 -6
Total (Add Rs
only)
-12 Total (Add Rs
only)
-13
Strength + Weakness = 27 + (-12) = 15
Opportunity +Threat = 24 + (-13) = 11
5
OPPORTUNITY
THREAT
SWOT Matrix Quantification: COMPETITION

Total (Add Rs
only)
12 Total (Add Rs
only)
18
Total (Add Rs
only)
-24 Total (Add Rs
only)
-27
Strength + Weakness = 12 + (-24) = -12
Opportunity +Threat = 18 + (-27) = -9
II.
I. I am

here
III. VI.
6
OPPORTUNITY
THREAT
SWOT Matrix Quantification: INDUSTRY
Total (Add Rs
only)
27 Total (Add Rs
only)
27

Total (Add Rs
only)
-24 Total (Add Rs
only)
-22
II. I.
III. They
are
here
VI.
7
OPPORTUNITY
THREAT
Results:

Final SWOT Matrix Quantification: MYSELF
Total (Add Rs
only)
75 Total (Add Rs
only)
73

II.
I. It is
here
III. VI.
8
Total (Add Rs
only)
-51 Total (Add Rs

only)
-58
OPPORTUNITY
THREAT
II.
I. I am
here
III. VI.
9
Results:
4. Critical Issues:
a. CI = W + T = (-51) + (-58) = -109
5. Eliminating Weaknesses:
a. Tendency to procrastinate: I am prone to procrastinate and
end up stressed with

overflows of work to complete in a short time. To fix this, I will
implement a schedule to
help complete the workload, and I will be disciplined enough to
adhere to it.
b. Hesitant to voice opinion: In group conversations/debates, I
am hesitant to voice my
own opinion on the matter that is being discussed. To fix this, I
will start to voice my
concerns and advice on subjects more openly.
c. May overexert myself: I sometimes find myself taking on
more work than I can handle. I
like to help people at the risk of hurting myself. To fix this, I
will work to prioritize and
recognize my work threshold.
d. Better Education: There are many who come from high
schools and colleges that are
more prestigious and provide better education than my own. To
curtail this, I will work
to study and retain the knowledge given to me so that I will be
able to articulate it
better than my peers will.
e. Family Status: There are many who have come from
families/households ingrained in a

successful mindset. To overcome this, I will use the knowledge
and drive that I have
received from successful people to develop myself into a person
who exhibits success
despite my lower family status.
10
f. Higher Standards: In coincidence with the weakness of
Family Status, there are those
who are raised with higher standards than myself, based on birth
and where they come
from. To best this, I will keep elevating my own standards far
beyond the expectations
of those around me.
g. Learning Curve: Although this is a strength for the Industry,
the learning curve provided
by the industry is a guarantee for me that I will have the best
and most innovative, up-to-
date knowledge and training available.
h. Stability: Although this is a strength for the Industry, the
stability of the industry

illustrates the consistency to keep a job. Therein, I there is a
very slim chance that I will
ever have to fret job loss.
i. Government Support: Although this is a strength for the
Industry, the government
supports the industry, for my occupation, because it plays a
substantial part in the US
economy. Therein, that means that the industry will be retained
and continue to grow
well past my lifetime.
6. Eliminating Threats:
a. Particular skills: Many occupations require specific skills
that are unlearned to me. To
curtail this, I will pick up as many skills as I can in the required
field and additional fields
to better increase my standing.
b. Bi-Lingual: Many of my competitors are competent in more
than one language. To
overcome this, I will become proficient in more than two other
languages

11
c. Certification requirement: Many occupational professions
require you to have a
certification of qualification in order to obtain the job.
However, there are some cases
where one is still able to get the position without having a
certification, and the entity
will help you attain the certification later. Other than that, I will
simply have to apply for
a position that I qualify for without the certification.
d. Prejudice: It is quite known that many hold prejudice against
people of other origin than
themselves. This can be quite detrimental to my occupational
search. Unfortunately,
there is nothing that I can do to curtail this except to make sure
that my qualifications
and skills set are far above the average applicants.
e. Place of Residence: A place of residence can greatly affect
your occupational chances.
For instance, if you live in a big city, the chances for getting a
good occupation are
dramatically increased as compared to a rural city. To prevail
over this, I will be sure to

attain a job and move to a large, upcoming city after graduation.
f. College Attendance: While searching for internships, I noted
that many internships
were created specifically with the qualification that you had to
be attending a certain
university to be considered for the position. Therein, there is
nothing that I can do to
upend this except to apply to another that I meet the criteria for.
g. Increased Business Creation: Although this is an opportunity
for the Industry, increased
business creation adds to the demand for occupational
placement, which is a plus for
myself.
h. Increased Partnerships: Although this is an opportunity for
the Industry, this also adds
to the demand for occupational placement, therein giving myself
another upturn.
12
i. Turnover Rate: Although this is an opportunity for the
Industry, the increased turnover

rate drastically increased the demand for occupational
placement, granting myself yet
another gain.
Marketing Plan
A formal, written marketing plan is essential; in that it provides
an unambiguous reference point for activities throughout the
planning period. However, perhaps the most important benefit
of these plans is the planning process itself. This typically
offers a unique opportunity, a forum, for information-rich and
productively focused discussions between the various managers
involved. The plan, together with the associated discussions,
then provides an agreed context for their subsequent
management activities, even for those not described in the plan
itself. Additionally, marketing plans are included in business
plans, offering data showing investors how the company will
grow and most importantly, how they will get a return on
investment.
Follow The Marketing Plan Handbook. The following is a
typical template for a marketing plan.
1. Situation analysis
a. Analysis of the internal environment.
b. Analysis of the Customer environment.
c. Analysis of the external environment.
2. SWOT analysis and matrix
a. Strengths
b. Weaknesses
c. Opportunities

d. Threats
e. Analysis of SWOT matrix
f. Developing competitive advantage
g. Developing Strategic focus.
3. Marketing goals and objectives
a. Marketing goals
b. Marketing objectives
4. Marketing strategy:
a. Primary (and Secondary) target market
b. Marketing mix strategy
i. Product
strategy
ii. Pricing strategy
iii. Distribution/sup
ply chain strategy
iv. Promotion
(Integrated Marketing Communication) strategy
5. Marketing implementation:
a. Structural issues
b. Tactical issues
6. Evaluation and control:
a. Formal controls
b. Informal controls
c. Implementation schedule and timeline
d. Marketing audits
7. Executive summary: (You will write this at the end but put
this in the very beginning)
a. Synopsis
b. Major aspects of the marketing plan
Marketing Plan Worksheets
These worksheets developed by Drs. Ferrell and Hartline will
assist you in writing a formal marketing plan. Worksheets are a

useful planning tool because they help to ensure that important
information is not omitted from the marketing plan. Answering
the questions on these worksheets will enable you to:
1. Organize and structure the data and information you collect
during the situation analysis.
2. Use this information to better understand a firm's strengths
and weaknesses, and to recognize the opportunities and threats
that exist in the marketing environment.
3. Develop goals and objectives that capitalize on strengths.
4. Develop a marketing strategy that creates competitive
advantages.
5. Outline a plan for implementing the marketing strategy.
Marketing Plan Handbook will provide you the templates to
develop your marketing plan. Remember that there is no one
best way to organize a marketing plan. This outline is to serve
you as a starting point and to be flexible enough to
accommodate the unique characteristics of your situation.
As you complete the worksheets, it might be useful to refer
back to the text of the chapters where you have learned your
marketing strategy. In completing the situation analysis
section, be sure to be as comprehensive as possible. The
viability of your SWOT analysis depends on how well you have
identified all of the relevant environmental issues. Likewise, as
you complete the SWOT analysis, you should be honest about
the firm's characteristics. Do not depend on strength that the
firm really does not possess. Honesty is also important for your
listing of weaknesses.
I. Executive Summary
The executive summary is a synopsis of the overall
marketing plan. It should provide an overview of the entire plan
including goals/objectives, strategy elements, implementation

issues, and expected outcomes. The executive summary is easier
to write if you do it last, after you have written the entire
marketing plan.
II. Situation Analysis
A. The Internal Environment
Review of marketing goals and objectives
Identify the firm's current marketing goals and
objectives.
Explain how these goals and objectives are
being achieved.
Explain how these goals and objectives are
consistent or inconsistent with the firm’s mission, recent trends
in the external environment, and recent trends in the customer
environment.
Review of current marketing strategy and performance
Describe the firm's current marketing strategy
with respect to products, pricing, distribution, and promotion.
Which elements of the strategy are working well? Which
elements are not?
Describe the firm's current performance (sales
volume, market share, profitability, awareness, brand
preference) compared to other firms in the industry. Is the
performance of the industry as a whole improving or declining?
Why?
If the firm's performance is declining, what is
the most likely cause (e.g., environmental changes, flawed

strategy, poor implementation)?
Review of current and anticipated organizational
resources
Describe the current state of the firm's
organizational resources (e.g., financial, capital, human,
experience, relationships with key suppliers or customers). How
are the levels of these resources likely to change in the future?
If resource levels are expected to change, how
can the firm leverage additional resources to meet customer
needs better than competitors?
If additional resources are not available, how
can the firm compensate for future resource constraints (lack of
resources)?
Review of current and anticipated cultural and
structural issues
In terms of marketing strategy development and
implementation, describe the positive and negative aspects of
the current and anticipated culture of the firm. Examples could
include:
The firm's overall customer orientation (or
lack thereof)
The firm's emphasis on short-term versus
long-term planning
Willingness of the firm's culture to
embrace change
Internal politics and power struggles
The overall position and importance of the
marketing function
Changes in key executive positions
General employee satisfaction and morale

Explain whether the firm’s structure is
supportive of the current marketing strategy.
B. The Customer Environment
Who are the firm's current and potential customers?
Describe the important identifying
characteristics of the firm's current and potential customers with
respect to demographics, geographic location, psychographic
profiles, values/lifestyles, and product usage characteristics
(heavy vs. light users).
Identify the important players in the purchase
process for the firm's products. These might include purchasers
(actual act of purchase), users (actual product user), purchase
influencers (influence the decision, make recommendations),
and the bearer of financial responsibility (who pays the bill?).
What do customers do with the firm's products?
How are the firm’s products connected to
customer needs? What are the basic benefits provided by the
firm’s products?
How the firm’s products are purchased
(quantities and combinations)? Is the product purchased as a
part of a solution or alongside complementary products?
How are the firm’s products consumed or used?
Are there special consumption situations that influence purchase
behavior?
Are there issues related to disposition of the
firm’s products, such as waste (garbage) or recycling, which

must be addressed by the firm?
Where do customers purchase the firm's products?
Identify the merchants (intermediaries) where
the firm's products are purchased (e.g., store-based retailers,
ecommerce, catalog retailers, vending, wholesale outlets, direct
from the firm).
Identify any trends in purchase patterns across
these outlets (e.g., how ecommerce has changed the way the
firm's products are purchased?).
When do customers purchase the firm's products?
How does purchase behavior vary based on
different promotional events (communication and price changes)
or customer services (hours of operation, delivery)?
How does purchase behavior vary based on
uncontrollable influences such as seasonal demand patterns,
time-based demand patterns, physical/social surroundings, or
competitive activities?
Why (and how) do customers select the firm's
products?
Describe the advantages of the firm's products
relative to competing products. How well do the firm’s products
fulfill customers' needs relative to competing products?
Describe how issues such as brand loyalty,
value, commoditization, and relational exchange processes
affect customers' purchase behaviors.
Why do potential customers not purchase the firm's

products?
Identify the needs, preferences, and
requirements of non-customers that are not being met by the
firm's products.
What are the features, benefits, and advantages
of competing products that cause non-customers to choose them
over the firm's products?
Explain how the firm’s pricing, distribution,
and/or promotion are out of sync with non-customers. Outside
of the product, what causes non-customers to look elsewhere?
Describe the potential for converting non-
customers into customers.
C. The External Environment
Competition
Identify the firm's major competitors (brand,
product, generic, and total budget).
Identify the characteristics of the firm's major
competitors with respect to size, growth, profitability, target
markets, products, and marketing capabilities (production,
distribution, promotion, pricing).
What other major strengths and weaknesses do
these competitors possess?
List any potential future competitors not
identified above.
Economic Growth and Stability

Identify the general economic conditions of the
country, region, state, or local area where the firm’s target
customers are located. How are these economic conditions
related to customers’ ability to purchase the firm’s products?
Describe the economics of the industry within
which the firm operates. These issues might include the cost of
raw materials, patents, merger/acquisition trends, sales trends,
supply/demand issues, marketing challenges, and industry
growth/decline.
Political Trends
Identify any political activities affecting the
firm or the industry with respect to changes in elected officials
(domestic or foreign), potential regulations favored by elected
officials, industry (lobbying) groups or political action
committees, and consumer advocacy groups.
What are the current and potential critical
political or policy issues at the national, regional, or local level
that may affect the firm’s marketing activities?
Legal and Regulatory Issues
Identify any changes in international, federal,
state, or local laws and regulations affecting the firm’s or
industry’s marketing activities with respect to recent court
decisions, recent rulings of federal, state, or local government
entities, recent decisions by regulatory and self-regulatory
agencies, and changes in global trade agreements or trade law.
Technological Advancements
How have recent technological advances

affected the firm's customers with respect to
needs/wants/preferences, access to information, the timing and
location of purchase decisions, the ability to compare competing
product offerings, or the ability to conduct transactions more
effectively and efficiently?
Have customers embraced or rejected these
technological advances? How is this issue related to customers’
concerns over privacy and security?
How have recent technological advances
affected the firm or the industry with respect to manufacturing,
process efficiency, distribution, supply chain effectiveness,
promotion, cost-reduction, or customer relationship
management?
What future technologies offer important
opportunities for the firm? Identify any future technologies that
may threaten the firm's viability or its marketing efforts.
Sociocultural Trends
With respect to the firm’s target customers,
identify changes in society's demographics, values, and
lifestyles that affect the firm or the industry.
Explain how these changes are affecting (or may affect) the
firm’s products (features, benefits, branding), pricing (value),
distribution and supply chain (convenience, efficiency),
promotion (message content, delivery, feedback), and people
(human resource issues).
Identify the ethical and social responsibility issues that the firm
or industry faces. How do these issues affect the firm’s
customers? How are these issues expected to change in the
future?

III. SWOT Analysis
A. Strengths
Strength 1:
_____________________________________________________
____
Strength 2:
_____________________________________________________
____
(Repeat as needed to develop a complete list of
strengths)
How do these strengths enable the firm to meet
customers' needs?
How do these strengths differentiate the firm
from its competitors?
B. Weaknesses
Weakness 1:
_____________________________________________________
___
Weakness 2:
_____________________________________________________
___
weaknesses)
How do these weaknesses prevent the firm from
meeting customers' needs?
How do these weaknesses negatively
differentiate the firm from its competitors?
C. Opportunities (external situations independent of the

firm—not strategic options)
Opportunity 1:
_____________________________________________________
__
Opportunity 2:
_____________________________________________________
__
opportunities)
How are these opportunities related to serving
customers' needs?
What is the time horizon of each opportunity?
D. Threats (external situations independent of the firm)
Threat 1:
_____________________________________________________
______
Threat 2:
_____________________________________________________
______
threats)
How are these threats related to serving
customers' needs?
What is the time horizon of each threat?
E. The SWOT Matrix
BRING IN HERE YOUR INTEGRATED FINAL MATRIX
FROM YOUR CASE ANALYSIS
Strengths:

•
•
•
•
Opportunities:
•
•
•
•
Weaknesses:
•
•
•
•
Threats:
•
•
•
•
F. Developing Competitive Advantages
Describe ways that the firm can match its strengths to its
opportunities to create capabilities in serving customers' needs.
Are these capabilities and competitive advantages grounded in
the basic principles of operational excellence, product
leadership, and/or customer intimacy? If so, how are these
capabilities and advantages made apparent to customers?
Can the firm convert its weaknesses into strengths or its threats
into opportunities? If not, how can the firm minimize or avoid

its weaknesses and threats?
Does the firm possess any major liabilities (unconverted
weaknesses that match unconverted threats) or limitations
(unconverted weaknesses or threats that match opportunities)?
If so, are these liabilities and limitations apparent to customers?
Can the firm do anything about its liabilities or limitations,
especially those that impact the firm's ability to serve
customers' needs?
G. Developing a Strategic Focus
What is the overall strategic focus of the marketing plan? Does
the strategic focus follow any particular direction, such as
aggressiveness, diversification, turnaround, defensiveness, or
niche marketing?
Describe the firm’s strategic focus in terms of a strategy canvas.
How does the firm’s
Strategic thrust provides sufficient focus and divergence from
other firms in the industry?
IV. Marketing Goals and Objectives
A. Marketing Goal A:
__________________________________________________
(Should be broad, motivational, and somewhat vague)
Objective A1:
_____________________________________________________
_
(Must contain a specific and measurable outcome, a
time frame for completion, and identify
The person/unit responsible for achieving the
objective)

Objective A2:
_____________________________________________________
_
(Must contain a specific and measurable outcome, a
The person or the unit responsible for achieving the
objective)
B. Marketing Goal B:
__________________________________________________
(should be broad, motivational, and somewhat vague)
Objective B1:
_____________________________________________________
_
(must contain a specific and measurable outcome, a
the person/unit responsible for achieving the
objective)
Objective B2:
_____________________________________________________
_
(must contain a specific and measurable outcome, a
the person/unit responsible for achieving the
objective)
(Repeat as needed to develop a complete list of goals
and objectives)
V. Marketing Strategy
A. Primary (and Secondary) Target Market
Primary target market

Identifying characteristics (demographics,
geography, values, psychographics):
Basic needs, wants, preferences, or
requirements:
Buying habits and preferences:
Consumption/disposition characteristics:
Secondary target market (optional)
Identifying characteristics (demographics,
geography, values, psychographics):
Basic needs, wants, preferences, or
requirements:
Buying habits and preferences:
Consumption/disposition characteristics:
B. Product Strategy
Brand name, packaging, and logo design:
Major features and benefits:
Differentiation/positioning strategy:
Supplemental products (including customer
service strategy):
Connection to value (core, supplemental,
experiential/symbolic attributes):
C. Pricing Strategy
Overall pricing strategy and pricing objectives:
Price comparison to competition:
Connection to differentiation/positioning
strategy:
Connection to value (monetary costs):
Profit margin and breakeven:
Specific pricing tactics (discounts, incentives,
financing, etc.):

D. Distribution/Supply Chain Strategy
Overall supply chain strategy (including
distribution intensity):
Channels and intermediaries to be used:
Connection to differentiation/positioning
strategy:
Connection to value (nonmonetary costs):
Strategies to ensure channel support (slotting
fees, guarantees, etc.):
Tactics designed to increase time, place, and
possession utility:
E. Integrated Marketing Communication (Promotion) Strategy
Overall IMC strategy, IMC objectives, and
budget:
Consumer promotion elements
Advertising strategy:
Public relations/publicity strategy:
Personal selling strategy:
Consumer sales promotion (pull) strategy:
Trade (channel) promotion elements
Advertising strategy:
Public relations/publicity strategy:
Personal selling strategy;
Trade sales promotion (push) strategy:
VI. Marketing Implementation
A. Structural Issues
Describe the overall approach to implementing the
marketing strategy.
Describe any changes to the firm's structure needed to

implement the marketing strategy
(e.g., add/delete positions, change lines of authority,
change reporting relationships).
Describe any necessary internal marketing activities in the
following areas: employee training, employee buy-in and
motivation to implement the marketing strategy, overcoming
resistance to change, internal communication and promotion of
the marketing strategy, and coordination with other functional
areas.
B. Tactical Marketing Activities (be very specific—this
lays out the details of the
marketing strategy and how it will be executed)
Specific Tactical Activities
Person/Department
Responsible
Required
Budget
Completion
Date
Product Activities
1.
2.
3.
Pricing Activities
1.
2.
3.

Distribution/Supply Chain Activities
1.
2.
3.
IMC (Promotion) Activities
1.
2.
3.
VII. Evaluation and Control
A. Formal Controls
Describe the types of input controls that must be in
place before the marketing plan can be implemented. Examples
include financial resources, capital expenditures, additional
research and development, and additional human resources.
Describe the types of process controls that will be needed
during the execution of the marketing plan. Examples include
management training, management commitment to the plan and
to employees, revised employee evaluation/compensation
systems, enhanced employee authority, and internal
communication activities.
Describe the types of output controls that will be used to
measure marketing performance and compare it to stated
marketing objectives during and after the execution of the
marketing plan.

Overall performance standards (these will vary based on the
goals and objectives of the marketing plan). Examples include
dollar sales, sales volume, market share, share of customer,
profitability, customer satisfaction, customer retention, or other
customer-related metrics.
Product performance standards (these are optional and will vary
based on the product strategy). Examples include product
specifications, core product quality, supplemental product
quality, experiential quality, new product innovation, branding,
and positioning.
Price performance standards (these are optional and will vary
based on the pricing strategy). Examples include revenue
targets, supply/demand balance, price elasticity, yield
management, or metrics based on specific price adjustments.
Distribution performance standards (these are optional and will
vary based on the distribution strategy). Examples include
distribution effectiveness/efficiency, supply chain integration,
value (time, place, and possession utility), relationship
maintenance (collaboration, conflict), outsourcing, or direct
distribution performance.
IMC (promotion) performance standards (these are optional and
will vary based on the IMC strategy). Examples include
communication objectives; brand awareness, recognition, or
recall; campaign reach, frequency, and impressions; purchase
intentions; and public relations, sales, and sales promotion
effectiveness.
B. Informal Controls
Describe issues related to employee self-control that
can influence the implementation of the marketing strategy.

Examples include employee satisfaction, employee commitment
(to the firm and the marketing plan), and employee confidence
in their skills. If any of these controls are lacking, how can they
be enhanced to support the implementation of the marketing
plan?
Describe issues related to employee social control
that can influence the implementation of the marketing strategy.
Examples include shared organizational values, workgroup
relationships, and social or behavioral norms. If any of these
controls are lacking, how can they be enhanced to support the
implementation of the marketing plan?
Describe issues related to cultural control that can
influence the implementation of the marketing strategy.
Examples include organizational culture and organizational
rituals. If any of these controls are lacking, how can they be
enhanced to support the implementation of the marketing plan?
C. Implementation Schedule and Timeline
Month
________
________
________
ActivitiesWeek
1
2
3
4
1
2
3
4
1

D. Marketing Audits
Explain how marketing activities will be monitored. What are
the specific profit- and time-based measures that will be used to
monitor marketing activities?
Describe the marketing audit to be performed, including the
person(s) responsible for conducting the audit.
If it is determined that the marketing strategy does not meet
expectations, what corrective actions might be taken to improve
performance (overall or within any element of the marketing
program)?
If the marketing plan, as currently designed, shows little
likelihood of meeting the marketing objectives, which elements
of the plan should be reconsidered and revised?
References:
OC Ferrell and Michael Hartline (2013), “Marketing Strategy,
Text and cases, (6th Ed), ISBN-10: 1285073045 | ISBN-
13: 9781285073040

Marian Burk Wood (2012), “Marketing Plan Handbook,” (5th
Ed),
ISBN 13: 9780133078350 (978-0-13-307835-0),
ISBN: 0133078353 (0-13-307835-3)
Involving Teachers in Data-Driven
Decision Making: Using Computer
Data Systems to Support Teacher
Inquiry and Reflection
Jeffrey C. Wayman
Center for Social Organization of Schools
Johns Hopkins University
Accountability mandates such as No Child Left Behind (NCLB)
have drawn atten-
tion to the practical use of student data for school improvement.
Nevertheless,
schools may struggle with these mandates because student data
are often stored in
forms that are difficult to access, manipulate, and interpret.
Such access barriers ad-
ditionally preclude the use of data at the classroom level to
inform and impact in-
struction. Fortunately, there are newly available computer
technologies that allow ef-
ficient organization and access to student data. In addition to
allowing easier
accountability reporting, these tools allow user-friendly data

access at all educational
levels, meaning that teachers can use these tools to engage in
the informed reflection
necessary to improve classroom practice. In this article, I
discuss teacher use of these
systems, providing insight into the function of these tools and
discussing conditions
that make these tools of the most service to teachers.
The use of data to inform educational decisions has recently
drawn increased at-
tention, spurred largely by accountability requirements set forth
at the state and
federal levels. A familiar example is the 2002 No Child Left
Behind (NCLB) legis-
lation, which mandates a significant increase in the gathering,
aggregation, and up-
ward reporting of student-level data. NCLB policy carries an
implicit assumption
that the availability of data will inform and initiate changes in
teaching practice,
but mechanisms for helping educators turn accountability data
into actionable in-
JOURNAL OF EDUCATION FOR STUDENTS PLACED AT
RISK, 10(3), 295–308
Copyright © 2005, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
Requests for reprints should be sent to Jeff Wayman, Center for
Social Organization of Schools,
Johns Hopkins University, 3003 N. Charles Street, Suite 200,
Baltimore, MD 21218. E-mail:
[email protected]

formation are lacking in NCLB. Thus, although the NCLB
legislation has provided
much-needed stimulus for the gathering and presentation of
student data at the
school and district levels, it remains necessary to move beyond
reporting mandates
to provide teachers with the access and support needed to use
these data in improv-
ing instruction.
State educational agencies, school districts, and other
educational entities have
collected and stored large amounts of student data for years.
Despite this abun-
dance, the employment of data to inform and improve
educational practice has
been the exception rather than the rule. In previous work, my
colleagues and I have
argued that one major barrier to the use of student data has been
technical
(Wayman, Stringfield, & Yakimowski, 2004): Although schools
have been “data
rich” for years, they were also “information poor” because the
vast amounts of
available data they had were often stored in ways that were
inaccessible to most
practitioners. Recently emerging technology is changing these
circumstances.
Computer tools have arrived on the market that provide fast,
efficient organization
and delivery of data. They also offer user-friendly interfaces
that allow data analy-
sis and presentation by all users, regardless of technological
experience.
The new availability of these data systems not only helps

expedite NCLB re-
porting at the school and district levels, but these systems also
offer an additional,
important feature. With classroom access to these tools, school
systems have the
opportunity to allow every teacher to have access to previously
unattainable data
describing their students. These data can be turned into
information to improve
classroom practice. Accompanied by the proper preparation and
support, these
tools provide schools with the efficient access necessary to
reach beyond the basic
requirements of NCLB and engage all educators in the rich
application of student
data to everyday classroom practice.
The data access provided by this technology is a necessary
condition for in-
formed inquiry into educational practice, but such access is not
sufficient on its
own. The mere presence of data does not automatically imply
that usable informa-
tion is available; educators need support to use these data to the
fullest extent. Be-
cause the availability of these systems is relatively new, a large
knowledge base de-
scribing best practices in applying these systems in the service
of education does
not yet exist. In this article, I provide a piece to this puzzle by
describing conditions
that best support the use of one form of these tools—data-
warehousing and presen-
tation systems.
SCHOOL DATA USE

The use of data to inform school practice may seem new
because of the increased
attention brought about by NCLB, but this concept has received
varied attention in
school research literature for more than 30 years. Many studies
of positive outlier,
296 WAYMAN
“effective” schools demonstrating unusual gains in academic
measures have
shown that the thoughtful use of student data positively
correlates with a range of
measures of student achievement (e.g., Edmonds, 1979;
Stringfield, 1994; Teddlie
& Reynolds, 2000; Weber, 1971). Research on school
improvement and school ef-
fectiveness has suggested that data use is central to the school
improvement pro-
cess (Chrispeels, 1992; Earl & Katz, 2002), and there are case
studies available de-
scribing ways in which data has supported educational decisions
(e.g., Feldman &
Tung, 2001; Lachat, 2002; Pardini, 2000; Protheroe, 2001,
Symonds, 2003).
Streifer (2002) listed exploring group differences, examining
growth over time,
program evaluation, and identifying root causes of educational
problems as several
ways data can be used. Chrispeels, Brown, and Castillo (2000)
demonstrated that
data use can be a strong predictor of the efficacy of school

improvement teams:
Data use not only increased efficacy directly but also served as
a mediator for the
positive effect of other factors. Chrispeels et al. described a
longitudinal case study
of a leadership team that saw the research role of this team
evolve to be one of
prominence over the 4 years of the study. Chrispeels and
colleagues noted this as
an empowering process: The more the team learned about and
used data, the more
data informed important decisions.
Case studies and interviews have suggested that data use may
have a positive ef-
fect on the people involved in the educational process. Feldman
and Tung (2001)
observed that schools involved in data use often evolved toward
a more profes-
sional culture. Educators in their study became more
collaborative during the
data/decision process, and school business consequently became
less “privatized.”
Similarly, Nichols and Singer (2000) reported increased
interdepartmental collab-
oration. One high school teacher in this study said, “We saw a
total picture versus
just our own department” (p. 36). Symonds (2003) presented a
variety of data indi-
cating that teachers involved in data inquiry were more
collaborative. Earl and
Katz (2002) noted that school leaders involved in data use often
consider them-
selves in charge of their own destiny, increasingly able to find
and use information
to inform their school’s improvement. Armstrong and Anthes

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