Running head TEAM ROLES1TEAM ROLES2Team Roles.docx

Running head: TEAM ROLES 1
TEAM ROLES 2
Team Roles
Student Name
Rasmussen College
Author Note
This paper is being submitted on March 24, 2017 for Michael
Heard’s Organizational Behavior Analysis Class, Online Plus,
2017 Spring Quarter.
Team Roles
Introduction
Use this section as an introduction to provide information about
the use of teams within organizations. Set the reader up for the
discussion to follow.
First Team Role Example
Select one of the nine team roles and provide an example of an
experience you have had working with people who have

fulfilled that role. Explain fully how each person fulfilled the
role. Provide research to support your viewpoint.
Second Team Role Example
Third Team Role Example
Conclusion
Finally, write a conclusion that summarizes the importance of
negotiating skills and why organizations should take it
seriously. Ideally, conclusions should be at least five (5)
sentences in length. Your references will then begin on the last
page.
References
The author and tour guide Audrey Pictou explain the role of
Native American stories during the introduction of a Haunted
Bar Harbor tour, allowing guests to prepare for new ideas
that may be challenging to their own world views. •
Interpreting Native American
Heritage through Ghost Stories
J E N N I F E R P I C T O U ____________________
Native American heritage can be one

of the most difficult and rewarding
topics to tackle. It can be a source of
great interest for visitors, but also one
of intimidating ideas and frustration
for interpreters. Take heart, because
it doesn’t have to be that way! There
really is a middle ground and
sometimes it comes in unexpected
ways.
I am a member of a Federally
Recognized Tribe (Aroostook Band
of Micmacs), hold the position of
Tribal Historic Preservation Officer,
and have been interpreting Native
issues and heritage for over two
decades. I now tackle the issue head
on through my own company, which
provides an experience called the
“Haunted Bar Harbor” tour. This
may seem incongruous, but there
is a method to my interpretive
madness. I will present here some of
the challenges to interpreting Native
heritage in Maine and how we deal
with them through the vehicle of
ghosts and Wabanaki Indian tales of
the supernatural using a few simple
guidelines.
The biggest challenge to
interpreting Native American
heritage is authenticity and there
is no more contentious subtopic
than Native interpreters versus

non-Native interpreters. While
there is no one better to interpret a
cultural topic than someone who is
actually part of the resource culture,
it doesn’t mean quality interpretation
cannot be given by someone
HEATHER
outside that culture. However,
having a representative from the
resource culture does give a level of
authenticity that many visitors look
for. I have often seen interpretive
situations where a visitor has said, “I
want to talk to the guy with long hair
because he is a real Indian.” This
does a disservice to both Native and
non-Native interpreters, because
the non-Native can feel resentful
and unacknowledged while a Native
interpreter can feel burned out by the
burden of so many visitors looking
for the “real” Indian. To address
this challenge, we have chosen to
currently employ Native interpreters
for our Haunted Bar Harbor tour
due to the sensitive subject of spirit
stories while other tours are led by
non-Native guides. When possible,
28 Septem ber/October 2015
getting first-voice interpretation

can be an invaluable and necessary
component but in the absence of
such, getting source material from
reputable Native tribal resources can
be the next best thing.
Finding the right story or cultural
context can also be a daunting
challenge based on the mission of
the interpreter’s organization or
program purpose. Connecting those
ideas to the content of an interpretive
program can be even more difficult.
Native American stories and events
need to be related to visitors in the
same manner as they were originally
and culturally intended. If this
cannot be accomplished, a Native
story or event should not be used to
illustrate a point. For example, there
are several wonderful Wabanaki
spirit stories we do not use because
they have no relatable segue to local
ghost stories and to use them would
take them out of cultural context. We
are addressing this by saving those
stories for special programs given at
events when we partner with local
organizations.
Cultivating cultural connections is
also a key component of interpreting
Native American heritage and one
of the most difficult things to get
when creating a program. This

deceptively simple idea is the way
understanding and connecting with
visitors can really happen. Otherwise,
the interpreter risks losing authority
and validity with the audience. An
example of how we address this issue
is to connect tribal spirit beliefs
regarding the Wabanaki Little People
and how many references to little
spirits visitors already know, such as
Tinkerbell from Disney’s Peter Pan
and Dobby the House Elf from the
Harry Potter series. By connecting
multiple pop culture ideas at once,
we allow visitors the opportunity
to see how many cross-cultural
beliefs have become mainstream,
which opens their receptiveness to
Native spirit stories having valid and
relatable meaning in their own lives.
The idea of Native American
imagery is a hot topic these days,
when the debate over headdresses
and mascots is larger than life. Many
visitors come with a preconceived
notion of what an Indian should look
like so we take great care to bust the
‘buckskin stereotype” by having our
The author uses traditional Micmac storytelling methods to
weave tales of a
Native spirit world into understandable connections with
tangible landscapes
and historic buildings for tour guests.

guides dress in period clothing for
the eras tours focus on. This means a
guide will dress in appropriate garb
depicting the Cottage Era of Bar
Harbor for this tour because it is the
perfect way to educate about cross-
cultural borrowing, particularly of
clothing styles. Guides keep several
historic photo images on hand
showing Native women wearing hoop
skirts combined with beaded peaked
cap designs (a traditional Wabanaki
womens’ head covering) and other
accessories should a guest address this
idea or show confusion as to why we
are not dressed “like an Indian.” Part
of the fun is continually researching
and adding historically correct
accessories such as Native beaded
bags and jewelry that were popular for
Victorian women to wear. These looks
are not only culturally appropriate but
add dimension and sometimes even
a hands-on experience for the visitor
when a guide passes around a beaded
item for them to hold.
Interpreting Native American
heritage cannot be confined to one
essay, but a few major guidelines have
been discussed here. The topic can
be a great addition to interpretive
programming if delivered in a
manner that makes the cultural
context relatable to the visitor
and is conducted in a culturally

appropriate manner. When in doubt
about how to present Native heritage,
ask a recognized and respected
representative of the resource culture.
By combining voices from Native
tribes and non-Native elements, an
interpretive program can be fun,
enlightening, and result in some very
interesting consequences such as new
cross-cultural understanding, further
inquiries, and a return investment
of customers and referrals to your
organization.
Jennifer is the owner of Dawnland
Tours, LLC. She is an NAI Certified
Interpretive Trainer, Certified
Interpretive Host Trainer, Certified
Interpretive Guide, and Certified
Interpretive Host, as well as being
a historian and Tribal Historic
Preservation Officer.
Legacy 29
Copyright of Legacy (National Association for Interpretation) is
the property of National
Association for Interpretation and its content may not be copied
or emailed to multiple sites or
posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express
written permission. However, users
may print, download, or email articles for individual use.

Subject
Evaluate the concrete benefits of Indian educational
programs that promote heritage language proficiency and
cultural connections, through bilingual or immersion programs,
such as the Salish School of Spokane.
sources
Source 1
BLACK, MALLORY. "In Congress, a Tribal Language Bill
Languishes." Native Peoples Magazine, vol. 28, no. 1,
Jan/Feb2015, p. 12. EBSCOhost,
libproxy.udayton.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/log
in.aspx?direct=true&db=pwh&AN=100261109&site=eds-live.
ABSTRACT
The article inspects a proposed U.S. charge that would make a
$5 million government allow program to help tribal dialect
submersion schools and not-for-profit associations devoted to
safeguarding indigenous dialects. Insights are incorporated on
the number of inhabitants in U.S. kids who talk their Native
dialect and the creator goes ahead to examine how the bill
would likewise decrease joblessness and enhance scholastic
accomplishment among Native American understudies.
Source 2
Conti, Gary J. "Culture and Place: A Legacy Darrell Kipp
Helped Create." Journal of Adult Education, vol. 42, no. 2, 01
Jan. 2013, pp. 1-13. EBSCOhost,

in.aspx?direct=true&db=eric&AN=EJ1047332&site=eds-live.
ABSTRACT
The article talking about the Adult Education program made a
course called Culture and Place and which was instructed a few
times. This course depended on the presumption that culture and
place are indivisible and that they strengthen each other.
Following grounds based planning, this course included
understudies making a trip to nearby areas in Montana to
interface with neighborhood grown-up teachers and to
Highlander Research Center in Tennessee. The understudies
discovered this experience a transformational occasion in both
their training and their lives.
Source 3
Hermes, Mary, et al. "Designing Indigenous Language
Revitalization." Harvard Educational Review, vol. 82, no. 3, 01
Sept. 2012, pp. 381-402. EBSCOhost,
ABSTRACT

Endangered Indigenous languages have received little attention
within the American educational research community. However,
within Native American communities, language revitalization is
pushing education beyond former iterations of culturally
relevant curriculum and has the potential to radically alter how
we understand culture and language in education. Situated
within this gap, Mary Hermes, Megan Bang, and Ananda Marin
consider the role of education for Indigenous languages and
frame specific questions of Ojibwe revitalization as a part of the
wider understanding of the context of community, language, and
Indigenous knowledge production. Through a retrospective
analysis of an interactive multimedia materials project, the
authors present ways in which design research, retooled to fit
the need of communities, may inform language revitalization
efforts and assist with the evolution of community-based
research design. Broadly aimed at educators, the praxis
described in this article draws on community collaboration,
knowledge production, and the evolution of a design within
Indigenous language revitalization. (Contains 6 notes and 1
figure.)
Source 4
Lockard, Louise and Jennie De Groat. "He Said It All in
Navajo!": Indigenous Language Immersion in Early Childhood
Classrooms." International Journal of Multicultural Education,
vol. 12, no. 2, 01 Jan. 2010. EBSCOhost,
ABSTRACT
This paper describes the historical and social foundations of the
Navajo Headstart Immersion program. The researchers have
worked as teachers, teacher educators, and parents in

these programs. They reflect on the need for new partnerships
among tribes, tribal colleges and universities to prepare teachers
and to develop curriculum materials for Indigenous
language immersion programs.
Source 5
Paskus, Laura. "More Than Words, a Way of Life: Language
Restoration Programs Reach beyond Tribal Colleges and
Universities." Tribal College Journal of American Indian Higher
Education, vol. 24, no. 4, 01 May 2013. EBSCOhost,
ABSTRACT
In North America, and worldwide, Indigenous languages are
disappearing at an alarming rate. There are, however, models of
success for language revitalization
in immersion language programs, usually found in tribal
colleges and universities. Whether the language learners are
tribal college students greeting one another in
their native language, kindergarteners seated in a semi-circle
around an elder, or people laughing and sharing a meal together,
the joy of language learning segues into something serious. The
language programs at tribal colleges and
within Native communities across North America represent a
way for young people to connect more deeply with the past--to
understand and speak the words their ancestors uttered, call the
features on their homelands by ancient names, and sing
traditional prayers with confidence--and to stitch together the
threads of a vibrant future for their tribes.
Source 6

PICTOU, JENNIFER. "Interpreting Native American Heritage
through Ghost Stories." Legacy (National Association for
Interpretation), vol. 26, no. 5, Sep/Oct2015, pp. 28-29.
EBSCOhost,
in.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=110011931&site=eds-live.
ABSTRACT
The article offers the author's insights on the role of ghost
stories in interpreting NativeAmerican heritage. Topics include
the challenges of interpreting NativeAmerican heritage in
Maine, cultivation of culturalconnections in
interpreting NativeAmerican heritage, and authenticity as the
biggest challenge in interpreting NativeAmerican heritage.
Source 7
Brent E, Sykes, et al. "Transformative Learning, Tribal
Membership and Cultural Restoration: A Case Study of an
Embedded Native American Service-Learning Project at a
Research University." Gateways : International Journal of
Community Research & Engagement, Vol 10, Iss 0 (2017), no.
0, 2017. EBSCOhost, doi:10.5130/ijcre.v10i1.5334.
ABSTRACT
This research examines the case of a service-learning project
embedded within a CBPR-based Native American tribal nation
and research university collaboration in the US. Transformative
learning (TL) served as the theoretical framework by which we,
the multidisciplinary research team, came to appreciate the
significance of the tribal nation’s lived history and deep sense
of cultural loss, as well as the social impact of the service-
learning project. To date, the majority of research on

transformative learning has focused on the individual. This
research builds on the work of a growing cadre of TL theorists
who consider the role of the collective in transformation. This
is especially salient for community-focused research efforts that
incorporate service-learning. In this case, we treat
consciousness raising, observed through documents, direct
observation and participant observation, as evidence of
collective transformation.
Results indicate that the service-learning project served as a
catalyst for tribal nation higher education students and tribal
leaders to collectively engage in critical reflection. In doing so,
both groups came to develop new, emergent views of tribal
membership. Students, in particular, emerged with transformed
world views and deepened cultural connections, while tribal
leaders came to appreciate service-learning relative to tribal
needs. We thus assert that service-learning can be a culturally
appropriate, sustainable educational mechanism that has
application across a wide range of Indigenous
communities, thereby highlighting the instrumentality of this
case.
The research also indicates how higher education institutions
and fellow researchers oriented to CBPR may render more
successful their future collaboration practices with historically
marginalised communities. We advocate that service-learning be
directed by the tribal nation or community in question. As such,
the community’s lived experience and world view becomes the
focal point of the partnership, thereby making it culturally
relevant and broadening the views of other stakeholders.
Source 8
Bounds, Amy. "Boulder Valley Continues Youth Leadership
Conferences with Help from Boulder County." Daily Camera
(Boulder, CO), 05 Oct. 2015. EBSCOhost,

in.aspx?direct=true&db=nfh&AN=2W63851292421&site=eds-
live.
Source 9
On the Wind » News
A teacher and student review writing in Cherokee at the
language immersion school in Tahlequah, Oklahoma.
In Congress, a
Tribal Language
Bill Languishes
WITH FEWER NATIVE SPEAKERS
AT EACH PASSING GENERATION,
A PROPOSED $ 5 MILLIO N GRANT
P R O G R A M C O U L D BOLSTER EFFORTS
TO SAVE IND IG EN O U S LANGUAGES
BY INCREASING NATIVE STUDENT
ACHIEVEMENT BY ITS FUTURE IS
UNCERTAIN IN THE NEW CONGRESS,
BY MALLORY BLACK (NAVAJO)

EACH M O R N IN G , MEDA N IX’S THIRD GRADE CLASS
sings songs in
Cherokee before the school day begins, setting the tone for the
day at the
Cherokee Immersion Charter School.
By the end of the school year, the students will be able to carry
on con-
versations in Cherokee, Nix says, and by sixth grade, they will
be fluent.
“I don’t know what they went through that morning before they
came
to school,” says Nix, a certified Cherokee speaker, “but I do
know that
once we sing, it just puts these kids in a better mood to learn.”
W ith 120 students in pre-kindergarten to eighth grade, the
school in
Tahlequah, Oklahoma, is key to restoring the number of fluent
Cherokee
speakers, which has dropped to roughly 3,000, says Chuck
Hoskin Jr.,
Cherokee Nation Secretary of State.
One of the school administrator’s and tribal leaders’ biggest
goals is to
expand the program to include a high school curriculum.
The school is supported by a mix of state and tribal funds and
follows
grade level Oklahoma state standard curriculum.
“W hat we’re needing is resources,” says Chuck Hoskin Jr.,
Cherokee
Nation Secretary of State. “We’re up against the same challenge

that all
Indigenous tribes and people are facing around the world, which
is we’re
losing our language.”
The opportunity for a Cherokee immersion high school could
come
with a proposed bill that would establish a $5 million federal
grant pro-
gram next year to support tribal language immersion schools
and nonprof-
its in Indian Country. U.S. Sen. Jon Tester, a Democrat from
Montana
who is the outgoing Senate Indian Affairs Committee Chairman,
says the
bill aims to reduce unemployment and improve Native student
education.
But its prospects are uncertain in the new Congress.
“The goals are to improve academic performance and lower the
dropout rate for Native American kids, and that’s done pretty
effectively
12 NATIVE PEOPLES
CO
UR
TE
SY
C
HE

RO
KE
E
NA
TI
O
N
O
F
O
KL
AH
O
M
A.
with language because it connects people back up with their
culture,”
Tester says.
According to the United Nations, 74 Native American languages
are
on track to disappear within the next decade. By 2050, only 20
of those
languages will be spoken to some degree.
Research shows fewer children can speak their Native tongue
with

each passing generation. The U.S. Census Bureau reports only
one in 10
Native American youth ages of 5 to 17 speak their Native
language at
home, compared with one in five people aged 65 and older.
It is unknown how many tribal immersion schools exist in the
U.S.
since most begin as small programs within the tribe and have a
quick
turnover rate. The Indigenous Languages Institute in Santa Fe,
New
Mexico is working to have a complete list of Native immersion
schools
by the end of 2015.
The Cherokee Immersion Charter School opened its doors in
2003,
and students who were among the first to be immersed in the
language are
now freshman at nearby Sequoyah High School.
School officials say more federal resources could also help
support two
other major needs: salaries for teachers and classroom assistant
and gen-
eral school operations. But approval of the bill would require
the U.S.
Department of Education to redistribute existing education
funds.
Still, Ahniwake Rose, a member of the Cherokee Nation and
execu-
tive director of the National Indian Education Association, says
funding
for immersion schools is a top priority voiced by many tribal

leaders.
“Tribes are able to gather a certain amount of money, reach
founda-
tions and other funding sources to start, but without
sustainability, they
close,” says Rose, who worked with Tester’s office to draft the
bill. “This
bill will allow our immersion programs to stay open, and what’s
more
important is that the longevity will allow us to have the data to
show that
these programs are working.”
No data exists yet to show increased academic performance at
the
Cherokee immersion school, but Principal Holly Davis says
they’re
working on it.
Last year the school translated the Iowa Test of Basic Skills
(ITBS),
a comprehensive academic achievement test, into Cherokee for
the first
time. However administrators quickly realized the Cherokee test
proved
more difficult for students than the English version.
“It’s new and fresh for us, and we know we have a long way to
go with
that test, but we’ve got a starting point on it,” Davis says.
“We’ve got to
figure that out.” She admits testing is likely be the school’s
biggest chal-
lenge since grantees would be required to submit annual reports
each year.

School officials say most parents support the immersion
program
because they want to instill the language in their children for
future gen-
erations. Davis says whether more federal support becomes
available, the
immersion school will continue to serve as an option for
families who are
otherwise limited.
“No one has to come to immersion,” Davis says, “but there are
parents
who choose to make language an important aspect of their home
and their
child’s life.”
Mallory Black (Navajo) is a freelance writer who lives in San
Diego, Cali-
fornia. She recently interned with W B E Z Chicago Public
Radio and holds a
master o f journalism from the M edill School o f Journalism
a t Northwestern
University. She has reported in Chicago an d Washington, DC.
Connect with
her on Twitter: @mblack47.
A C C O R D IN G TO THE UNITED
NATIONS, 7 4 NATIVE A M E R IC A N
LANG UAG ES ARE O N TRACK
TO DISAPPEAR WITHIN THE NEXT
DEC ADE, BY 2 0 5 0 , ONLY 2 0

O F THOSE LANG UAG ES WILL BE
SPOKEN TO SO M E DEGREE.
A la s k a N a tiv e s S e e Progress
in L a n g u a g e P reserv a tio n ,
V o tin g Rights
IN ALASKA, RECENT MOVES AT THE STATE LEVEL a n d
in the
courts have recognized the im po rta n ce o f Native languages
a n d put them o n election ballots.
Last fall, then-Gov. Sean Parnell signed off on legislation to
rec-
ognize 20 Alaska Native languages as official languages o f the
state, including Inupiaq, Siberian Yupik, Central Alaskan
Yup'ik,
Alutiiq, Unangax, Dena'ina, Deg Xinag, Holikachuk, Koyukon,
Upper Kuskokwim, Gwich'in, Tanana, Upper Tanana,
Tanacross,
Han, Ahtna, Eyak, Tlingif, Haida, a n d Tsimshian, in addition
to
English, However English will remain as the la n g u a g e for
official
business in Aaska. In Aaska. nearly 20 percent o f the p o p u la
-
tion identifies as American Indian a n d Aaska Native, a cco rd
in g
to th e U.S, Census,
Alaska state election officials are now required to translate
c a n d id a te summaries, voting information a n d materials
into
Gwich'in a n d Yup'ik. In September, a federal ju d g e in

Anchor-
a g e found the state had failed to provide Gwich'in or Yup'ik
speakers translations o f voting information equivalent to w hat
voters receive in English. "The court's decision marks a n im-
portant step towards ensuring that all voters in Aaska have an
equal opportunity to exercise their fundam ental right to vote,"
said attorney James Tucker, who spoke on behalf of the four
tribal councils a n d two Alaska Natives who filed the lawsuit,
in a
release from the Native American Rights Fund.
JAN UAR Y/FEBRU AR Y 2015 13
Copyright of Native Peoples Magazine is the property of Native
Peoples Magazine and its
content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted
to a listserv without the
copyright holder's express written permission. However, users
may print, download, or email
articles for individual use.
Transformative Learning,
Tribal Membership and
Cultural Restoration
A case study of an embedded Native American
service-learning project at a research university
In the United States, there are 565 federally recognised Native
American tribal nations, all of which experience a host of

challenges: lack of economic opportunities (Cornell & Kalt
2006;
Lynch & Stretesky 2012; Tighe 2014; Weaver 2012), increased
rates of mental health and substance abuse (Goins et al. 2012;
Gone 2007; Smokowski , Evans, Cotter, & Webber 2014; West
et al. 2012), and continued cultural loss resulting from historic
practices of genocide and legal and social marginalisation
(Evans-
Campbell 2008; Gone 2007; Hartmann & Gone 2014; Ramirez
& Hammack 2014; Writer 2001). Unsurprisingly, these negative
experiences also occur within settings of higher education.
Native
American students’ educational expectations are lower than
those
of other minority groups (Grande 2004; Thompson 2012) and
they
experience the lowest college admission rates and the highest
rates
of attrition (Kim 2011; McClellan 2005). Taken in totality, the
social and educational statistics are staggering.
In response, the US federal government and institutions

of higher education have established programs, resources and
services for Native American students aimed at improving
retention and preventing attrition. The US TRIO programs, for
example, are federally funded outreach and support programs
that provide under-represented and financially disadvantaged
students with institutionalised educational support. While the
programs are specifically for first-generation, low-income and
disabled students, many of the participants are Native
American.
One such TRIO program is Upward Bound, which targets under-
represented students and provides them with support to help
them
complete high school and enter a college program (US
Department
of Education 2017).
While these programs are helpful in orienting Native
American students during their first years of college life, they
do
not address the specific historic or cultural needs of these
students,
which are likely to vary by tribal affiliation. Where these

programs
do focus on tribal culture, they are pan-Indian in nature. Thus,
they fail to take into account cultural influences resulting from
the world view of the particular tribal nation. A growing body
Brent E Sykes
Randall University
Joy Pendley
Zermarie Deacon
University of Oklahoma
© 2017 by BE Sykes, J Pendley &
Z Deacon. This is an Open Access
article distributed under the
terms of the Creative Commons
Attribution 4.0 Unported
(CC BY 4.0) License (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/
by/4.0/), allowing third parties
to copy and redistribute the
material in any medium or format
and to remix, transform, and build
upon the material for any purpose,
even commercial, provided the
original work is properly cited and
states its license.
Citation: Sykes, BE, Pendley, J &
Deacon, Z 2017, ‘Transformative
learning, tribal membership
and cultural restoration: A case
study of an embedded Native

American service-learning project
at a research university’, Gateways:
International Journal of Community
Research and Engagement, vol. 10,
pp. 204–228. doi: 10.5130/ijcre.
v10i1.5334
Corresponding author:
Brent E Sykes;
[email protected]
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5130/
ijcre.v10i1.5334
ISSN 1836-3393
Published by UTS ePRESS
http://epress.lib.uts.edu.au/
journals/index.php/ijcre/index
Gateways:
International
Journal of
Community Research
and Engagement
Vol 10 (2017)
mailto:[email protected]
http://dx.doi.org/10.5130/ijcre.v10i1.5334
http://dx.doi.org/10.5130/ijcre.v10i1.5334
205 | Gateways | Sykes, Pendley & Deacon
of research illustrates the importance of tribal-specific cultural
support and connection for Native American students to succeed

in college (Grande 2004; Guillory & Wolverton 2008; James,
West & Madrid 2013; Writer 2001). Given that Native American
culture is not homogenous, Fletcher (2010) has challenged tribal
nations to create educational programming based upon their
own epistemological belief systems, as opposed to Westernised
models. It is in this vein that we consider a tribal-initiated
service-
learning project as a viable mechanism for linking specific
tribal
community needs with academic learning. This case is
noteworthy
because it was conceived of and funded by a tribal nation.
PURPOSE OF THE RESEARCH
We contend that institutions of higher education should respond
to
this cultural need by facilitating the adaptation of existing
models
of educational resource delivery, namely service-learning,
within
Native American communities. Consistent with this view,
Benson,
Harkavy & Puckett (2007) argue that it is the moral

responsibility
of universities to improve the wellbeing of communities, and
Fehren (2010) considers universities as intermediaries in this
process. Moreover, tribal community strengths (i.e. resources
and needs) should drive the process, and given the unique lived
experiences of each tribal nation, the core values and goals of
tribally directed service-learning projects should vary greatly.
The purpose of this investigation was to examine the
development and implementation of a service-learning project
embedded within a campus-based tribal learning community at
the university. This service-learning project was conceptualised
within the context of a community-based participatory research
(CBPR) collaboration (Figure 1). CBPR involves a partnership
that
builds on the knowledge and skills of community members and
researchers in a reciprocal manner to build capacity within the
community. It has also been shown to be an effective strategy
for developing action plans that help communities improve their
health or education system (Adams et al. 2014; Ahari et al.

2012;
Castleden, Morgan & Neimanis 2008).
In this case, the tribal nation sought out researchers at
the university to develop programming and research capacity
within the tribal nation. During this process, service-learning
emerged as a rich means to develop culturally meaningful
learning, and subsequent learning transformation, for all
stakeholders (Tribal Nation undergraduate students and leaders)
involved in the project. The principal research question that
we address in this article is: how did tribal students and leaders
come to understand the educational and cultural significance
of this service-learning project?
Tribe-University
Collaboration:
Year 1
Tribal Learning

Community: Year 2
(First Semester)
Service-
Learning
Project: Year
2 (Second
Semester)
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
Transformative learning theory (Mezirow 2000) serves as the
theoretical framework by which we came to understand the
cultural transformation of tribal members. We assert that
service-
learning provided a pathway for Native American tribal
members
to collectively experience Indigenous-based transformative
learning. This research advances the service-learning literature
by
demonstrating that service-learning is a culturally appropriate,
highly adaptable, non-Westernised option for marginalised
groups
to initiate and sustain highly impactful educational experiences.

Transformative learning theory is an adult learning theory
that seeks to understand qualitative changes that may occur
across
the life course. It places value on both psychological (individual
differences) and social (belief systems) components of learning
(Mezirow 1991). Habits of mind are the filters by which we
process
information and make sense of the world around us. According
to
Mezirow (2000), three conditions must be met for a
transformation
to occur: a disorienting dilemma, changes in initial frame of
reference, and critical reflection.
Critical reflection is the process by which people make and
ascribe meaning to critical incidents and life events. Perspective
shifts are often the result of disorienting dilemmas, which may
be a singular event such as trauma or an accumulation of
experiences. In the throes of disorientation, individuals must
choose to engage in critical reflection, otherwise transformation
will not occur. If individuals choose to engage in critical

reflection,
they may emerge with new perspectives through which they
view
Figure 1: Structure of
collaboration
themselves and their surroundings. According to Mezirow
(2000),
behavioural and attitudinal changes serve as evidence that
transformational learning has occurred.
A number of transformative learning theorists have
challenged the theory, as originally conceived by Mezirow,
arguing that it places too much emphasis on rationality and fails
to account for context (Clark & Wilson 1991; Taylor 1997). On
this point, Taylor (2008) and Brooks (2001) have considered the
role of constructivism by placing increased emphasis on the role
of culture and its impact on meaning-making. In addition, two
critical transformative learning theorists, Cunningham (1998)
and

Lange (2004), have examined transformations in light of
Freire’s
(1970) theoretical conception of critical consciousness-raising.
Freire argues that minorities might become marginalised by
the majority and the social structures that represent majoritarian
views. Over time, marginalisation leads to oppression and false
beliefs, which are created by the majority and become
internalised
by the minority in question. Overcoming marginalisation
involves
the development of a critical consciousness that will not only
make
them aware of the structures that limit their community but will
also give them the tools for fighting injustices (Diemer et al.
2016;
Gutierrez 1995). For Cunningham (1998), the transformative
process remains individualised; however, consciousness-raising
may entail a group of people undergoing similar processes.
Lange’s
(2004) prime focus, however, is communal action. As she
contends
that transformation goes beyond epistemological shifts, her

view is
most conducive to tribal identity and membership.
Service-Learning in Native American Communities
Service-learning is a highly effective pedagogical tool that links
community service with classroom learning. In higher education
settings, it is widely employed in both student affairs and
course
curricula (Furco 1996; Stewart & Webster 2011). Through well-
designed service-learning projects, students gain a deep sense of
knowledge and a broadened world view, which may result in
their
challenging their own epistemological values and beliefs
(Blouin &
Perry 2009). Given the history of forced removal and
assimilation
of Native American tribal nations in the US, it cannot be
assumed
that tribal members will have access to and knowledge of their
histories, family narratives, culture and traditions.
Indigenous service-learning involves tribal communities
placing emphasis on their own unique values and world view

(Guffey 1997; Roche et al. 2007) and from their tribal point of
view (Lipka 1991; Semken 2005; Steinman 2011). This is
especially
salient as institutionalised forms of education may suppress
Native
American world views through the promotion of Westernised or
colonised world views (Sykes 2014). In contrast, tribal service-
learning may provide a pedagogical opportunity for tribal
values and traditions to drive learning by providing structured
opportunities for increased awareness of cultural traditions,
belonging and civic responsibility that are commensurate with
the
values of Indigenous communities (Hall 1991; Steinman 2011).
METHODOLOGY
In this section, we discuss why we adopted CBPR as our
orientation
towards the research and then describe our thinking behind the
case study approach we embraced after considerable
consideration.

In the section that follows we discuss our research positionality
and philosophical orientation as these relate to the
investigation.
CBPR as an Orientation
CBPR is an approach or orientation that links community
members and researchers as partners in the research process.
CBPR emphasises the importance of cultural safety and requires
a significant investment of time and dedication from all parties,
as well as ongoing relationship building (Minkler 2005). In
CBPR, the community drives the research process, including
the methods used for investigation, the interpretation of data
and the application of results (Metzler et al. 2003). CBPR is of
particular relevance in Native American communities because
the communities themselves may question Westernised
education
models’ devaluation of Indigenous knowledge (Grande 2004).
Historically, Native American communities have been wary of
research as it promotes objective ways of knowing and
minimises

particular tribal world views and belief systems (Scheurich &
Young 1997; Smith 1999).
Case Study
Case study is a widely accepted research methodology that
places
value on the uniqueness of a phenomenon, event or experience
(Stake 1995; Yin 2009). Stake (1995) provides a three-fold
typology
of case study research: instrumental, collective, and intrinsic.
Instrumental case studies advance a field of study, collective
case
studies involve a grouping of cases, and intrinsic case studies
are
guided by a comprehensive understanding of a case. In the
latter,
the case may initially be puzzling, but themes emerge through
analysis. Initially, we focused on the significance of the tribal
learning community; however, through reflexivity and analysis,
we came to appreciate service-learning as the central force in
this
intrinsic case.

EMERGENT DESIGN
As indicated in Figure 1, this project spanned two years.
Through
prolonged exposure and an emergent design, we came to
understand the case through various theoretical lenses. Case
study
researcher Bob Stake (1995) proposes that viewing a
phenomenon
from multiple perspectives ultimately enhances researcher
understanding. Initially, we understood this project through the
lens of historical trauma, which is the intergenerational transfer
of
systemic trauma (Brave Heart & DeBruyn 1998). Decolonisation
literature (Gone 2008; Kirmayer, Gone & Moses 2014)
challenged
us to become critical of a narrow definition of historical trauma,
as it could further frame the experiences of Native Americans
according to Westernised perspectives (Fletcher 2013).
Through immersion in the case, we came to appreciate

the educational impacts of the service-learning project,
especially
given undergraduate students’ testing of tribal identities and
tribal leaders reflecting upon prior conceptions of citizenship.
Charmaz, Denzin & Lincoln (2003) view sensitisation as the
process by which researchers’ senses become attuned to
underlying ideas and concepts. In effect, we became sensitised
to transformations occurring in real time and, ultimately, we
came
to understand the case through the lens of transformative
learning
theory. Thus, language, tone and analysis reflect renewal. In our
view, this is culturally appropriate as the tribal nation
views education and cultural connections as central values.
As CBPR researchers, we recognise the importance of criticality
in Indigenous research; thus, in the implications of this
research,
we consider the possible intersection of transformative service-
learning and decolonisation literature.
Participants

Participants included tribal students involved in the service-
learning project embedded within the learning community
(n=24)
and tribal leaders (n= 6).
Sources of Data
As case study research seeks to gain a robust understanding of
a phenomenon, researchers should include two or more sources
of data (Yin 2009). In this case, data came from three broad
sources: direct observations of participants, documents (emails,
news articles and a radio show transcript), and participant
observation and researcher field notes. Sources of data were
coded
and categorised independently by all three researchers, thereby
establishing increased credibility. Additionally, triangulation
occurred through cross-analysis between data sources. Data
analysis did not begin until the conclusion of the research
team’s
engagement with the partnership, thereby minimising conflicts
of
interest and research bias.

Researcher Positionality
Researchers BS and JP worked directly with the learning
community
students, keeping field notes. Researcher ZD conducted an
evaluation of the program, which included participants’
interviews
and survey completion. Consistent with CBPR principles, the
first
author, BS, is a tribal member and was employed contractually
by
the tribal nation to facilitate the learning community and
service-
learning project. JP (an anthropologist) represented the
university
in the partnership and ZD (a community psychologist)
conducted
a first-year process evaluation of the learning community and
subsequent service-learning project.
JP began working with the tribal nation in 2009 to develop
a research program and from that work the idea of developing

a learning community emerged. BS and ZD began to work with
the tribal nation in 2010. The first learning community began
during the 2010–2011 academic year and continues to this day.
Researchers still meet periodically with tribal leaders to discuss
the
objectives of the learning community, including current
iterations
of service-learning projects. The tribal nation chose to be de-
identified because it continues to be engaged in partnership with
researchers and the university.
THE RESEARCH CONTEXT
As case study research is highly contextualised, it is imperative
to
note the setting in which this research occurred. In this section,
we
highlight central features of the two institutions represented in
this
research: the Native American tribal nation and the university.
The University
The university is the only ‘very high research activity’ higher
education institution in the state, as identified by the Carnegie

Classification of Institutions of Higher Education. It is also
the largest in the state, with a total undergraduate enrolment
of approximately 30,000, which includes a Native American
enrolment of over 1000. It provides a host of academic and
social support services for under-represented and first-
generation
students. Geographically, the university is outside the
boundaries
of the collaborative tribal nation jurisdiction.
The Tribal Nation
In the United States, ‘Indian Country’ represents land that has
been
placed in a federal trust as the direct result of signed treaties
(Baird
& Goble 2008; Davis 2010; Newton 1984; Schneider 2010;
Warren
2012). While some trusts are noted as reservations, in which
tribal
nations have sole ownership of the land, the majority of trust
land
in the US is allotted land. In this latter form, tribal sovereignty

exists provided it is in conjunction with federal laws, and non-
Indians can own property or businesses and operate on the
land. The tribal nation in this case was guaranteed allotted land
(totalling over 18 000 kilometres (7000 square miles) in
treaties.
In terms of population size, the tribal nation is quite large as it
falls within the top 10 per cent of membership of all 565
federally
recognised tribal nations. It has a three-tier system of
government
similar to the US government (executive, judiciary, legislative).
Historically, the tribal nation was located in what is now
the south-east United States, which resulted in early contact
with
Europeans and the mixing of bloodlines. As a result, many
tribal
members are phenotypically light-skinned. Forced removal to
Indian Territory (predominantly the state of Oklahoma) resulted
in
land allotments, which was a systematic effort to break
communal
identity and accelerate assimilation (Davidson 2011; Dippel

2014;
Fletcher 2013; Foreman 1974; Thornton 1997). Today, the
effects
of assimilation are evident across Indian Country, as Native
Americans have lost much of their language, rituals and other
forms of culture.
For this tribal nation, membership was legally defined by
the US federal government through the Dawes Treaty (1897–
1934).
Thus, tribal members are dispersed across a wide geographic
area and have varying degrees of contact with other tribal
members. Moreover, some tribal members (including one-third
of the participants in this study) reside outside these boundaries
altogether. Cultural loss, then, has had significant implications
for
the forming of existing tribal world views, as many present-day
tribal members have lost contact with their cultural traditions.
Today, the tribal nation invests heavily in the physical,

mental and social wellbeing of its tribal members through
varied
services and programs. As a result of a recent increase in
financial
resources, the tribal nation is actively developing educational
initiatives and programs to improve the quality of life and
wellbeing of tribal members, including providing significant
higher
education scholarships for all eligible members. The tribal
nation
has extensive experience in creating a host of PK–12
educational
programs (Head Start, performing and visual arts academies,
summer programs, mentoring), but has only recently begun to
develop programming for higher education.
PROJECT NARRATIVE: SERVICE-LEARNING
TRANSFORMING NATIVE AMERICAN LEARNING
This section serves two purposes. First, it discusses the
chronological progression of the case by providing detail on the
learning community and an overview of critical steps in the
service-learning project (Figure 2). Second, it provides a
framework

for analysis.
Year One: Collaboration Begins
The larger CBPR collaboration within which this study is
framed
began when the tribal nation requested to collaborate with the
university. This relationship focused on developing a culturally
appropriate health-care centre for the tribal nation. The second
and third authors of this article were asked to work with tribal
leaders to develop culturally appropriate health-care programs
for
the tribal nation’s department of family services. The
researchers
worked with tribal health providers to develop the ‘Strong
Family
Survey’ – a brief assets assessment designed to better
understand
how tribal members defined a strong tribal family.
The tribal nation desired to reach out to tribal students at
the university. While approximately 180 tribal members
attended
Figure 2: Progression of

collaboration
Year 1
— Collaboration
Begins
— Strong Family
Survey 1
Year 3
— Tribal Service
Learning I
— Presentation to
Governor
— Tribal Service
Learning II
Year 2
— Learning
community
— NAS Course
— Service-Learning
Project; Strong-
Family Survey 2
— Workshops I & II
— Administration
the university and received tribal scholarships, there were no
tribal-specific programs for students. A faculty member
suggested a
learning community as a means to connect with students,

provide
them with supports to assist them to be successful at university
and
possibly increase their connection to the tribal nation. A
learning
community is a cohort model that creates a peer-orientated
community, where members come together to participate in
educational or cultural activities that increase their
connectedness
within a larger institution (Tinto 2003). In terms of first-year
college experiences, George Kuh (2008) cites both learning
communities and service-learning as high impact practices for
first-year college students.
Year Two: Learning Community and Service-Learning
The three authors developed a learning community that offered
students access to academic support, group-based social events,
opportunities for professional development with tribal members,
and cultural programming designed to connect them to their
tribal identity. Upon implementation, we discovered that many
of our students were knowledgeable about the process of higher

education. Even first-generation students quickly accessed
existing
university resources designed for early academic intervention
and
social support, thereby rendering the academic aspects of the
learning community redundant. However, in contrast, the
majority
of students had limited exposure to tribal culture and traditions.
Learning Community programming was thus shifted to promote
students’ need for high-impact cultural experiences. Vaughan
(2002) notes the significance of collaborative environments for
first-generation and under-represented groups, as it leads to
joint
identity development.
Participation in the learning community was voluntary
and initially open to tribal freshmen at the university. Thus,
tribal
students in the project were self-selected. Forty tribal freshmen
were invited to participate via letters, letters to parents, emails
and phone. Ultimately, 24 students participated. Given the
unique

lived history of the tribal nation (some tribal members live
outside
tribal boundaries and in some cases out of the state), several of
the
students had not previously had the opportunity to participate in
tribal activities or events.
Learning community activities took place on a bi-weekly
basis on and off campus. These consisted of social and cultural
activities such as the creation of cultural artefacts, community
service events and field trips to tribal events. Interactive
cultural
events such as language classes and dance troupe
demonstrations
were included with experiential education in mind. For some of
the students, this was the first time they were exposed to tribal
language and dance. These activities were extracurricular,
which became a problem as students became more involved on
campus and had decreased time for communal activities. We
therefore sought an institutional mechanism to allow for
learning

community activities to become part of their accredited
coursework.
In response to this emergent need, the authors approached
the Native American Studies (NAS) program at the university to
modify one of its four sections of ‘Introduction to NAS’ for our
students. They agreed, and the new course included an emphasis
on this tribal nation’s history and culture. In this class, the
learning community participants were able to complete a
research
project on their tribal culture. This class helped deepen tribal
knowledge for these students.
During this time, the authors met monthly with the
executive committee in charge of the collaboration. Tribal
leaders
would learn about the progress of the learning community
activities and we would all brainstorm about next steps. Tribal
leaders desired an experiential learning activity to link new-
found

cultural knowledge and advance the importance of tribal
service.
Incidentally, the timing of the NAS course coincided with the
second iteration of a tribal survey, which was a component of
the
larger collaborative partnership. We, the researchers, suggested
that students could play a pivotal service role in developing a
new
version of the survey, which sought to assess ‘What is a Strong
Tribal Family’. Tribal leaders agreed, as this was consistent
with
goals of the course and learning community. From
correspondence
between an author and a tribal professional:
The goal of this project is to create and validate a survey that
can be
taken to other meeting points, listening conferences, gatherings,
etc.
to develop a broader understanding of strong families and how
the
[tribal nation] can provide support for those families...Second,
this
project is a pilot for service learning with the [Learning

Community]
students. Their participation in the project will be both an
educational process and a service project for the nation. Our
goal is
that they will come away from the project with a greater
appreciation
of the helping fields and a great appreciation of the [tribal
nation]
as a cultural heritage and an institution.
Thus, at the behest of the tribal nation, the authors planned
a two-part workshop over the course of two days. Part I
provided
a brief orientation to CBPR, an overview of survey methods and
a seminar discussion on historic trauma. During part II of the
workshop, students worked together to construct the second-
year
Strong Family Survey. Students were challenged to
conceptualise
their own feelings of tribal identity and cultural loss, and to
understand the impact of historic trauma and their family
history. They learned to critique much of the history they had

been taught in state schools. For instance, there was a
prolonged,
critical discussion on the US boarding school movement as a
means to not only assimilate Native American youth but also
annihilate tribal language. More importantly, the students came
to understand the significance of cultural loss. In the process,
they
experienced solidarity, which is consistent with Freiean
approaches
to consciousness raising (Diemer et al. 2016).
Based upon their physical characteristics and lived
experiences, students developed a question on phenotype for the
survey. This was potentially problematic given the
sociopolitical
issues of blood quantum and tribal membership (Demallie
2009; Green 2007; TallBear 2003; Villazor 2008). After the
workshop, researchers submitted a completed survey to the
tribal
Institutional Review Board (IRB) on behalf of the students. The

IRB
considered striking out the question on phenotype. The
fledgling
tribal members (students), however, responded by reiterating
the
significance of determining if phenotype was an important
aspect
of a strong tribal family. The IRB allowed the question to
remain.
The tribal leaders suggested the annual Children’s Fair as
the site for data collection. There, various service departments
within the tribal nation set up booths to provide educational
and interactive activities for families, including games. Thus,
the
atmosphere was geared towards children and family friendly.
There was a host of traditional exhibitions on areas such as
storytelling, dance and language.
When we arrived, the students were visibly nervous. Student-
constructed surveys in hand, we crossed the red dirt arena. We
brought university t-shirts as an incentive for completing
surveys,

which drew strong interest. We administered all one hundred
surveys during the first hour. This positive response helped the
students to feel more comfortable. Children, many of them
would-
be first generation students themselves, showered the learning
community students with questions about what college was like.
The students eagerly responded to questions and encouraged
them to do well in school so they could attend college too.
Tribal
parents smiled. The tribal dance troupe, consisting of mostly
elders,
recognised our students from learning community activities and
invited them to join in.
The group returned to the survey booth and, unexpectedly,
the tribal executive committee approached, meeting the students
for the first time. Up to this point, the committee had been
responsible for administrative duties, but never had they
interacted
with participants. We facilitated the interaction by introducing
students to the director and other tribal leaders. The
conversation

was lively. Leaders quizzed the students on their majors,
previous
experiences with the tribal nation, and most importantly their
views on the service-learning project and learning community.
Students conveyed their shared emotional experiences and
newly
formed tribal identities. At that moment, the tribal president
(i.e.
Governor) emerged. He too expressed sincere appreciation for
the
students making time to be involved in the project; the
committee
had been providing him with reports. The students were literally
awestruck. They were astounded that tribal leaders were
thanking
them. In a tribal nation of 30,000 plus members, this was a
distinct honour. The students quickly flipped the script by
profusely
thanking the tribal Governor and professionals for this
opportunity
to serve the tribal nation.
The long van ride back to campus provided the students

an opportunity to reflect on the academic year. It felt like a
commencement celebration. Students’ remarks on being Native
American were markedly different from what they were just
nine months ago at the beginning of the semester. Gone was
the mention of blood quantum, replaced with comments such
as ‘I wonder … who [our] common ancestors are?’ ‘What are
we [students] going to do next?’ and ‘I can’t believe the Tribal
Governor thanked us’. Collectively, students reflected upon the
most embarrassing and fun moments of the past year. And in the
process they recounted how they had grown from being nervous
about not knowing their tribal history to being eager to learn
more.
Year Two and Beyond
Initial funding plans for the learning community and the
subsequent service-learning project were uncertain; however,
based
upon an independent evaluation, the tribal nation extended both.

In order to continue NAS involvement in the project (making
the
project co-curricular), the Executive Committee made a
remarkable
decision to devote resources to the program in the form of a
financial donation towards the faculty member’s contract and
allocation of tribal staff to serve as cultural experts for the
course.
In effect, this institutionalised the service-learning project by
creating an upper-division course titled ‘Tribal Service-
Learning’.
Thus, this case illustrates Fletcher’s (2010) assertion that tribal
nations should exert their own sovereignty and create their own
novel programming.
The new tribal service-learning course differed from the
original in a few key ways. First, it was open to university
students
of all tribal nations. Second, with the guidance of an instructor,
students examined existing tribal programs and services,
conducted an informal needs analysis and, with the assistance

of cultural experts, were tasked with developing a curriculum
proposal. Ultimately, participants created ‘One Heart, One
Beat’,
an experiential program designed to highlight the importance of
social dance and culture. For this tribal nation and many others
that experienced severe cultural loss, social dance is one of the
few practices that has remained intact; thus, it has strong
cultural
significance (Axtmann 2001; Murphy 2007; Wilson & Boatright
2011). Tribal leaders gathered for the student presentation of
their
final project. Given the service-learning project results at the
Children’s Fair, tribal leaders had come to have high
expectations of
the participants. The presentation surpassed them. From field
notes:
‘They look so professional,’ a tribal administrator confided to
me
[researcher]. I smiled, knowing she was in for a treat. The lights
dimmed and we watched the student-created video ‘One Heart,
One Beat’, which detailed an eight-week social dance program.

The program was inter-generational, connecting tribal elders as
instructors, students as facilitators, and youth as participants. A
student explained, ‘We are not the experts on social dance and
feel like the kids [adolescence] would respond better to an elder
who commands more respect. We can identify with them [the
adolescents], so we see our role as bridging the gap between
young
and old.’
As evidence of their excitement, tribal leaders arranged for
the distinction of having students present their work to the
Tribal
Governor and his executive cabinet.
On presentation day to the Governor and his cabinet,
the students were visibly nervous, yet excited to showcase the
passion they had poured into their work. At the conclusion of
the
presentation, tribal leaders provided a standing ovation and the
students beamed with pride. On the spot, the Governor asked the

students to implement the project during the upcoming summer.
Thus, the course ‘Tribal Service-Learning II’ was created for
the
summer semester and students prepared a working budget and
implemented the program.
ANALYSIS
In this section, we analyse the case through transformative
learning theory. In doing so, we contend that service-learning
became a mechanism to promote cultural restoration for this
Native American community. Kitchenham’s (2008) summative
assessment of Mezirow’s perspective of transformative learning
serves as the basis of the analysis (Table 1). With this as our
theoretical framework, we assess stakeholder experiences as
evidence of transformation (phases categorised by case events
in
parentheses). Lastly, we consider institutionalisation as
evidence of
organisational transformation.
Phase Transformative
learning action

Service-learning
activity
Participant quotes as
evidence
NA Previous frame of
reference
NA (previous views). ‘I had no tribal
influences besides mail
and financial support…
it was not a constant
connection’ (Lance
2009).
1 Disorienting dilemma Participants enroll in
learning community
and ‘Introduction
to NAS’ and are
confronted with tribal
ways of knowing
and new cultural
experiences.
‘How much are you?’
(referring to blood
quantum)
2 Self-examination of
feelings of guilt or
shame
Workshop I:
Participants share
oral family histories

including guilt and
shame over lack of
tribal genealogy and
culture. Students share
stories about suppressed
culture.
‘I didn’t know what it
meant to be a member
of the tribe.’
Table 1: ‘Ten Phases of
Transformative Learning
& Corresponding Service-
Learning Activity’, adapted
from Kitchenham (2008)
3 Critical assessment of
epistemic, sociocultural,
or psychic assumptions
Workshop I:
Participants come to
understand that their
lack of knowledge is not
their fault nor is it the
fault of their parents
or grandparents, but
a product of forced
cultural assimilation,
i.e. historical trauma.

‘We have our own dress
and language….there
is more to our tribe,
not all Indians are the
same’ (Lance 2009).
4 Recognition that one’s
discontent and the
transfor-mation process
is shared; others have
negotiated a similar
change
Participants experience
a collective ‘aha’
moment, in recognising
similarities across their
stories. Instructor-
led discussion on the
cultural genocidal
practices of land
allotment to break
communal ties and
boarding schools as a
means to extinguish
language broaden
perspectives.
‘We’ve become good
friends….it’s amazing
to know you have that
connection; it helps you
realize they are there
and you are part of a
bigger family’ (Lance
2009).

5 Exploration of
options for new roles,
relationships and
actions
Participants question
their role in promoting
cultural knowledge
and awareness through
their responsibility for
constructing the survey
for the tribal nation’s
Strong Family research
project.
‘My mom said her
parents didn’t want her
speaking our language
because teachers would
punish her.’
6 Planning of a course of
action
Workshop II:
Participants tasked with
developing survey.
Not applicable because
this is an action.
7 Acquisition of
knowledge and skills for
implementation

Workshop II: Overview
of survey methods
including question
development.
Not applicable because
this is an action.
8 Provisional trying of
new roles
Administration:
Participants experience
‘being’ community
members by attending
Children’s Fair,
interacting with tribal
members and meeting
tribal professionals
including Governor.
‘It is really interesting;
it’s nice to know where
you are from, and to
have a cultural identity’
(Lance 2009).
9 Building of competence
and self-confidence
in new roles and
relationships
Participants’ reflections
on identity and
consideration of how
they can contribute to

the tribal nation.
‘I learned about
culture and was able to
participate with people
from the tribe; all of
us are looking for ways
to stay active; we don’t
want to give it up. It has
been a successful pilot
run’ (Lance 2009).
10 A reintegration into
one’s life on the basis of
conditions dictated by
one’s perspective
Year Two and Beyond:
Executive Committee
continues funding for
learning community,
participants present
to Tribal Governor,
tribal nation invests in
service- learning project
with NAS, participants
enrol in Tribal Service-
Learning I & II.
‘Through helping us we
can help others later;
the goal of the 8-week

program is foster a
network of support ….
and to provide the kids
a rich, deep cultural
experience so they will
feel more connected
with their culture’
(Lance 2009).
The Learning Community (Laying the Groundwork)
In our view, it is important to note the role of the learning
community, especially cultural activities in creating connection
among participants. Moreover, given the cultural focus of the
case,
we consider communal experiences as foundational for
collective
transformative learning to occur. Curriculum and cultural
programming were critical, as they challenged participants’
habits
of mind. A student’s quote that exemplifies this process are: ‘I
didn’t know what to expect. I grew up in Dallas and the only
other
[tribal] people I ever met were my cousins.…we’ve became
good
friends, it’s amazing how we all have that connection’ (Lance

2009). This student felt that the learning community had given
her an opportunity to make connections to other tribal members.
Service-Learning Workshop Part I: Phases 1–4
According to Mezirow (2000), a disorienting dilemma may be
the result of a single traumatic experience or an accumulation
of several incidents. In this case, we assert that the communal
discourse in Part I of the Service-Learning Workshop met the
definition of the latter. This discourse propelled students into
dilemmas. The Executive Committee decided that the Children’s
Fair survey would be an appropriate project for the learning
community students to fulfil their service-learning project.
Thus,
the curriculum of Workshop I was deliberately constructed with
an
orientation to the Strong Family Survey, and it provided a
forum
where participants could share family narratives and reflect on
their significance.
An important feature of this discourse is that participants
came to realise that their conceptions of identity were not

unique
to them, but shared among others. Due to forced relocation,
breaking of communal ties and cultural assimilation, there is
historical and cultural loss among many Native Americans
(Evans-Campbell 2008). A by-product of this is an incomplete
and fractured understanding of cultural practices and language.
Through prompts, we asked the students to talk about their
personal and familial experiences and knowledge of their tribal
nation. It was in the telling of these stories that they began
to express discomfort with their histories, thereby potentially
amplifying emotional effects.
Gradually, participants began to display discontent and
agitation as they shared these stories, which may speak to an
individual’s recognition that one’s discontent and the process
of transformation are shared, and that others have negotiated
a similar change (Kitchenham 2008). Indeed, the emotional

and shared feature of this socially constructed experience seems
to have magnified meaning making. Jointly, students came to
identify and define what constituted a tribal world view for
them.
Examples include ‘My mom said her parents didn’t want her
speaking our language because teachers would punish them’
and ‘My grandmother told me the same thing’. Due to the strong
rapport cultivated in the learning community, it is likely they
felt
safe in investigating their Indigenous identities by dredging up
oral
family histories.
Participants’ willingness to engage in this difficult discussion
challenged deeper underlying assumptions of the world. While
these instances regarding language echo that very first learning
community discussion on blood quantum and phenotype, they
now understood that their plight of identity may not be so
different
from that of previous generations. For instance, when
discussing
the cultural loss of language, one participant noted, ‘I think my

great grandmother was in a boarding school’, which is evidence
of how the loss of valuable family histories can potentially lead
to
an insecure cultural identity.
Service-Learning Workshop Part II: Phases 5–7
This case illustrates that service-learning can play a crucial role
in promoting transformative learning because it provides
curricular pathways for students to test new roles and
relationships
and formulate action. The project became a conduit for
collective
agency, which is regarded as the efficacious belief of the group
in achieving a similar goal (Goddard, Hoy & Hoy 2004). Due to
collective transformations occurring as a result of disorientating
dilemmas, two student characteristics that had recently served
as
a limitation to students’ development (lack of cultural
knowledge
and insecurity of blood quantum) became assets. The testing
and exploration of these new-found cultural identities were

strengthened as students developed the survey designed to help
determine ‘What is a strong tribal family?’
From a CBPR perspective, the creation of the survey radically
changed social dynamics by empowering students. Evidence of
critical reflection can be found in their collective reflection
upon
their own lived experiences. This was particularly apparent in
the ways that the two surveys differed. The first Children’s
Fair survey was faculty-driven, thus the questions were from
a Westernised perspective. For example, statements like, ‘A
family that maintains traditions and older ways of doing things’
(traditional) and ‘A family that consists only of immediate
family
members, a nuclear family (e.g., only parents and children)’
(Western) were both listed. When the students developed the
second survey, it looked very different.
The student or tribal-driven survey was more focused on

collective history and relationships. For example, the students
developed several questions about history, such as ‘strong
families pass on family history, learn from their elders,
participate
in ceremonies and pass on values through storytelling’.
The students were also interested in the relationship between
strong families and their connection to the tribal nation.
Sample questions included: strong families ‘see each other
often’
and ‘do activities together’.
Given their ongoing transformation, students created
questions regarding cultural identity and phenotype, which drew
ire from the tribal nation IRB. Upon reviewing the survey items,
the IRB flagged a few of these items and requested revisions.
Students agreed to change every item that the IRB had flagged,
except for the phenotype question, as they believed it
represented a
significant issue for tribal individuals and families. Tribal
leaders
and the IRB finally agreed to the question. The inclusion of this

sensitive item is evidence of students becoming empowered to
play a role in tribal relations, as well as tribal leaders’ expanded
notions of tribal membership. Ultimately, having tribal members
– the students – develop the survey proved to intensify the
CBPR effects of the collaboration. This second survey serves as
evidence of the students reflecting upon their family histories
and
connection to the tribal nation.
Service-Learning Implementation – The Children’s Fair:
Phases 8–9
Survey development provided students with a means to give
back
to the tribal nation by trying on the role of citizen. From this
view, approval from the IRB and tribal leaders served as a
means
of acceptance and validation. While the workshop experiences
facilitated a collective realisation that they had something of
value
to contribute to the tribal nation, implementation of the survey
at
the Children’s Fair heightened this sense of civic responsibility

and
provided an opportunity for students to interact with tribal
youth,
elders and leaders. These interactions reinforced their cultural
identities and validated their perception that they could
contribute
to the tribal nation in a beneficial way. One student noted: ‘I
learned about culture and was able to participate with people
from the tribe’. And, another: ‘All of us are looking for ways to
stay
active; we don’t want to give it up. It has been a successful
pilot
run.’ Thus, developing the survey and implanting it as a
service-
learning project helped solidify their transformation from
students
to tribal members.
The service-learning project served to raise the collective
consciousness of tribal students, thereby fostering
epistemological
shifts in perspectives necessary for transformative learning.
This

process of critical reflection resulted in deep cultural
connection
and subsequent transformations. Consistent with transformative
learning theory, Martin (2007) weighs the importance of
culture,
identity and education. She contends that identity is contextual,
may take on multiple dimensions and is heavily influenced by
culture. This can be seen in the discussion on the way home
from
the community fair, as students actively reflected on tribal
culture,
learning and identity.
Year Two and Beyond: Phase 10
As this research is embedded within a larger partnership, in this
section we consider three additional forms of evidence that
service-
learning provided a pathway towards cultural restoration in this
case. This approach is consistent with transformative learning
theory as it focuses on psychological, attitudinal and

behavioural
facets of change (Mezirow 2000). Thus, it is necessary to look
beyond the service-learning project to seek behavioural
evidence of
transformation.
First, at the conclusion of the service-learning project,
students volunteered to become peer mentors and completed
two three-credit hour courses (each three-hour course is one
semester worth of credit) to develop a program for tribal youth.
As they continued coursework and career preparation, they were
fully committed to integrating their new identities with their
former sense of selves. Martin (2007) refers to this process as
‘gift
recirculation’. For her, the linkage of identity and education
creates
powerful experiences, and being so moved, individuals yearn to
share them with others.
Over the course of one short academic year, many students
incurred rapid transformations. Initially, a common shared
feature

among them was that they perceived little opportunity to give
back to the tribal nation. Recirculating the gift of cultural
identity
through collective action (through Service-Learning I & II
courses,
presentation to the Tribal Governor and being relied upon to
implement an eight-week summer program) became a powerful
force for solidifying transformations.
Second, the development and implementation of One Heart,
One Beat provided the students with an opportunity to articulate
their vision of a remedy for intergenerational cultural loss.
Engaging in social dance was an emotional experience, which
they
wished to share with other tribal adolescents. Viewing
themselves
as facilitators and tribal elders as teachers suggests an
ontological
shift from Westernised individualised education towards
communal education. This echoes the research on
transformative
and restorative learning by Lange (2004). Rendering elders as

teachers is consistent with tribal ontological beliefs in cultural
renewal and in preserving Indigenous ways of knowing.
Third, the service-learning project unexpectedly galvanised
all stakeholders to continue collaborative work: both the tribal
nation and the university institutionalised components of the
project across multiple years. Specifically, the learning
community
is now in its fifth year and has expanded to two additional
higher
education institutions in the state. The Native American Studies
program at the university extended the permanent service-
learning
course, and it remains opens to all students, not just this tribal
nation. Institutionalisation is regarded as evidence of
sustainability
in higher education environments (Yarime et al. 2012). In
addition,
as Mezirow (2000) and others consider behavioural change
as evidence of transformation, we highlight the importance of

organisational institutionalisation and consider it further
evidence
of cultural transformation. Finally, service-learning has also
become an institutionalised practice for the tribal nation, as it
remains nested within the learning community model.
CONCLUSION
This case has significant value for Indigenous nations seeking
to exert sovereignty as well as other communities that, through
oppression, have experienced marginalisation, especially in
educational settings. We contend that service-learning is a
significant mechanism whereby disenfranchised groups can
advance their own values, as well as notions of communal
education and tribal membership, in higher educational
settings and beyond. For Indigenous communities, in particular,
it is important to underscore that service-learning can be
culturally appropriate if it places value on non-Westernised
epistemology and values, and the lived history of specific tribal
nations (or communities).
As discussed in this case, tribal nation community needs

(and thus service-learning projects) will vary based upon
a community’s strengths and challenges. For example, this
tribal nation has exerted its sovereignty by developing a strong
infrastructure and extensive resources; however, the challenges
of
developing an educational model appropriate for higher
education
and shepherding tribal identity tacitly guided the evolution of
this service-learning project. Thus, for this tribal nation,
service-
learning came to foster cultural connection and transformation
by linking life experiences, cultural identity, and views of
service
and tribal membership. It is likely that other tribal nations or
communities may choose to focus on economic or health needs,
or
a host of other pressing needs.
In our view, this case, in particular, teaches us two key
lessons. First, we cannot assume that students from
marginalised
communities possess the cultural knowledge to meaningfully

engage in service-learning, even within their own communities.
As such, to increase the likelihood of service-learning being
transformative, community members and educators should work
in
tandem to provide relevant learning experiences
epistemologically
grounded in community values (Blouin & Perry 2009; Guffey
1997). Second, tribal identity is cultivated through experiential
activities. Not only did service-learning cement participants’
notions of service and giving back, but it also expanded the
tribal leaders’ views of what young tribal members are capable
of achieving, as evidenced by their willingness to green light
the
courses Service-Learning I & II.
This research also expands upon notions of critical
transformative learning (Cunningham 1998; Lange 2004)
by leveraging CBPR as a means to raise consciousness from

tribal perspectives. Doing so provided a deep learning
experience
and cultural connection for the students, and broadened tribal
conceptions of tribal membership. At the outset, cultural
identities were weak, but the service-learning project provided
a means for them to jointly transform and create understanding
of how they contributed to a stronger tribal nation. In addition,
the tribal professionals and the Tribal Governor were
appreciative
of the students’ work and institutionalised service-learning in
higher education for students of this tribal nation and others.
These acts provide an opportunity for cultural restoration of the
larger tribal community.
Finally, this case not only represents gains for tribal nations,
CBPR research and service- learning, but provides an
alternative
framework to further explore the roles of historic trauma and
decolonisation literature. Initially, we approached this project
as a possible remedy to historic trauma (Duran & Duran 1995;
Gone 2007), but the project evolved to using a transformative

learning theory framework. Transformative learning theory, as a
framework, does not negate the role of historical trauma; rather,
understanding cultural loss creates a disorientating dilemma and
medium for transformation. If the individual engages in
reflection,
then cultural connections may ensue.
In this vein, service-learning provides a practical,
educational means to facilitate consciousness raising, which is
consistent with present-day views of the decolonisation
literature.
For example, Gone (2008) and Kirmayer, Gone and Moses
(2014)
maintain that tribal nations and other marginalised groups
should work towards addressing ongoing sources of exclusion
and discrimination. This case challenges Indigenous educators
to consider the importance of creating epistemological shifts by
building cultural connection in the face of disconnection. For
our
participants, this created a strong antidote to colonial
viewpoints.

Future researchers could further explore the linkage between
decolonisation, transformative learning theory and service-
learning. Viewed through these lenses, culturally connected
tribal
members can become assets in contributing to the remediation
of
colonialism and historic trauma by playing a deliberate,
formative
role in the construction of their community’s future. This case
thus
provides a blueprint for the application of transformative
service-
learning projects in multiple other contexts.
Notes: The researchers received no funding for this research.
The Native American tribal nation discussed in this case
continues
to implement and expand service-learning projects. For these
reasons it has elected to be de-identified.
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