Chapter Five Principles of DesignUnityVariety Repetition.docx

Chapter Five
Principles of Design
Unity
Variety
Repetition
Rhythm
Balance
Emphasis/focal point
Proportion/scale
© 2010, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights
Reserved.
The organization of elements is called composition or design.
‹#›
1
The definitions are within the slide show, as there wasn’t
enough room on this slide for terms and definitions. Students
will want to leave room under each definition for notes.
Instructors may want to use an elements and principles chart so
that students can follow the handout as you are pointing out
how these work together. It is helpful for the instructor to
discuss how each principle combines with elements in this
visual.
Have students break into groups and, using the chart, do an
analysis of a slide they haven’t seen before. You may want to
take them to a gallery to do the analysis.
Unity:

The sense of oneness, of things belonging together and
making up a coherent whole
Reserved.
Figure 5.1 Henri Matisse, Memory of Oceania, 1953.
Variety:
Differences that provide interest and contrast
Unifying Principles of Design
Composition is the organization of all the visual elements
within a work of art. Artists design their compositions using
guidelines known as the Principles of Design.
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2
These are the two principles that must be present in a work of
art. A piece with little or no variety can become boring, causing
the viewer to scan quickly. Variety is what holds our attention
for longer periods of time. On the other hand, a piece with too
much variety can be chaotic or overwhelming.
Color and shape provide the variety in this piece, but the colors
are repeated to create unity and visual connections for our eyes
to follow. The shapes consist of rectangles, simple curves, and
waves which alternate in positive and negative shapes. The pale
yellow shape has no echo, and provides a focal point. This
French artist traveled to Tahiti to experience painting in a
different kind of light. This painting is a distillation of his
voyage.
Reserved.

Figure 5.2 Jackson Pollock, Shimmering Substance, 1946.
Unifying Principles of Design
Figure 5.3 Annette Messenger, Mes Voeux, 1989.
Visual Unity: Based on using the visual elements.
Conceptual Unity: Created through tying a group of ideas
together.
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3
Visual Unity : based on using visual elements repeated in a
work of art.
Jackson Pollock-repetitive use of color and bush strokes help to
create unity and variety. Surface is woven into a unified work.
Conceptual Unity: created through tying a group of ideas
together.
Annette Messenger-Mes Voeux , French for “My Wishes” The
grouped ideas in this work are the photographs of body parts
(knee, throat, mouth, ear, hand) Also the framed text (they ask
not to just be looked at, but to be read)
Restricted color help to achieve visual unity.
This work ask for us to interpret the message and unity within
it.
Balance Visual Weight
Reserved.
Visual Weight: Refers to an apparent “heaviness” or
“lightness” of forms arranged in a composition.

When visual weight is equally distributed to either side of the
implied center of gravity a composition is felt to be visually
balanced.
Figure 5.7 Georgia O’Keeffe, Deer’s Skull with Pedernal, 1936.
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4
Symmetrical balance is considered to be the least interesting
format for design. Symmetrical balance, however, is often used
in religious images that emphasize a central, important being.
This Tibetan Buddhist mandala, a diagram of a cosmic realm,
emanates from the female buddha, Jnanadakini. Everything
radiates outward from her, including four more buddhas, deities
of the cardinal points. A mandala serves to focus meditation in
the goal of achieving enlightenment. The basic geometry and
the formal order of symmetry gives the message: We are living
in a universe that makes sense, even if its logic and order are
hidden from us during our brief lifetimes.
Balance Visual Weight
Reserved.
Symmetrical balance:
Mirror image of shapes/ forms on either side of an imaginary
axial dividing line; elements correspond to one another in size,
shape, and placement
Figure 5.8 Newar artists at Densatil Monastery, Tibet, Thirteen-

Deity Jnanadakini Mandala, 1417-47.
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5
Symmetrical balance is considered to be the least interesting
format for design. Symmetrical balance, however, is often used
in religious images that emphasize a central, important being.
This Tibetan Buddhist mandala, a diagram of a cosmic realm,
emanates from the female buddha, Jnanadakini. Everything
radiates outward from her, including four more buddhas, deities
of the cardinal points. A mandala serves to focus meditation in
the goal of achieving enlightenment. The basic geometry and
the formal order of symmetry gives the message: We are living
in a universe that makes sense, even if its logic and order are
hidden from us during our brief lifetimes.
Reserved.
Relieved symmetry or
Approximate symmetry:
Slight differences between axial areas
of a work
The Luo Brothers, Welcome to the World Famous Brand Name
Balance
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6
The symmetrically designed Welcome to the World Famous

Brand Name depicts an extravagant patriotic pageant. Overhead
is a heavenly pageant aloft with famous products.
Balance
Reserved.
Asymmetrical balance: Two sides that do not correspond to
one another in size, shape, and placement
Figure 5.11 Tawaraya (Nonomura) Sotatsu, The Zen Priest
Choka, late 16th-early 17th century.
Figure 5.10 Gustav Klimt, Death and Life, Before 1911-1915.
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7
Asymmetrical balance tends to allow the most variety;
therefore, it tends to be more interesting. The heaviness or
lightness of each form varies depending on its size in relation to
other forms around it; its color in relation to other colors
around it; and its placement in the composition in relation to
other forms.
The asymmetrical balance emphasizes the opposition between
life and death. The woman Death has come for is placed in the
center of the painting, a symbolic border between life and
death. She is the only waking person, and gestures as if to say,
“Me?” What links the two halves of the painting is the gaze that
passes between Death and his victim. The figure of Death is so
compelling that Klimt consciously balances this visual weight
with a myriad of patterns at the lower right of the painting.
Japanese artists often use dramatic asymmetrical compositions.

This image is an example of economy, resulting in a peaceful,
meditative scene. This ink painting of Choka is placed so far to
the left as to be barely on the page. An implied line of vision is
used both to balance the composition and to reveal its meaning.
We naturally raise our eyes to look at the priest- that’s all there
is to look at. We then follow the direction of his gaze down
to…nothing. Meditation on emptiness is one of the exercises
prescribed by Zen Buddhism, and Sotatsu makes it clear in this
daring composition.
Balance
Reserved.
Principles of Asymmetrical Balance:
1-A large form is visually heavier than a smaller form.
2-A dark valued form is visually heavier than a lighter valued
form of the same size.
3-A textured form is visually heavier than a smooth form of the
same size.
4-A complex form is visually heavier than a simple form of the
same size.
5-Two or more small forms can balance a larger one.
6-A smaller dark form can balance a larger light one.
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8
Asymmetrical balance tends to allow the most variety;
therefore, it tends to be more interesting. The heaviness or
lightness of each form varies depending on its size in relation to
other forms around it; its color in relation to other colors
around it; and its placement in the composition in relation to

other forms.
The asymmetrical balance emphasizes the opposition between
life and death. The woman Death has come for is placed in the
center of the painting, a symbolic border between life and
death. She is the only waking person, and gestures as if to say,
“Me?” What links the two halves of the painting is the gaze that
passes between Death and his victim. The figure of Death is so
compelling that Klimt consciously balances this visual weight
with a myriad of patterns at the lower right of the painting.
Japanese artists often use dramatic asymmetrical compositions.
This image is an example of economy, resulting in a peaceful,
meditative scene. This ink painting of Choka is placed so far to
the left as to be barely on the page. An implied line of vision is
used both to balance the composition and to reveal its meaning.
We naturally raise our eyes to look at the priest- that’s all there
is to look at. We then follow the direction of his gaze down
to…nothing. Meditation on emptiness is one of the exercises
prescribed by Zen Buddhism, and Sotatsu makes it clear in this
daring composition.
Reserved.
Emphasis:
The viewer’s attention
will be centered more
on certain parts of
the composition
than on others
Focal point:
A specific spot to which one’s
attention is directed
Subordination:
A less visually interesting area

Figure 5.14 Henry Tanner, The Banjo Lesson, 1893.
Emphasis and Subordination
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9
Emphasis and subordination are complementary concepts. An
artist draws our attention to the important elements in a
composition and purposefully makes other areas less interesting
so that the focal points stand out.
Tanner uses size and placement to emphasize the figures in the
foreground. It is as if they have combined to form a single
mass, emphasizing their bond. Additionally, he uses strongly
contrasting values to create further emphasis. The directional
lines of sight create a small focal point of the banjo. Tanner has
subordinated the background, blurring the detail and working in
a narrow range of light values.
Reserved.
Emphasis:
The viewer’s attention will be centered more
on certain parts of
the composition than
on others
Focal point:
A specific spot to
which one’s attention
is directed

Figure 5.15 Paul Cézanne, Still Life With Compotier, Pitcher
and Fruit, 1892-94.
Emphasis and Subordination
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10
This artist arranged a white napkin to create a central focal area
and subordinated the rest with earth tones. The napkin is peaked
at the center, like a domestic version of Mont Saint-Victoire,
the mountain that Cézanne painted so often. The white fruit dish
(compotier) and white pitcher flank the peak, lending additional
visual weight to the center. Patches of intense color are
scattered throughout the fruits. This busy still life is ordered
through the white cloth and pyramidal form.
Reserved.
Scale:
Size in relation to
a constant or “normal” size
Proportion:
Refers to size relationships between parts of a whole or between
two or more items perceived as
a unit
Figure 5.18 René Magritte, Delusions of Grandeur II, 1948.
Proportion and Scale
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11
Each portion of this figure maintains expected proportions, but
the scale is unexpected. This Belgian painter tells us that the
world around us might not be as rational and ordered as we like
to think. He uses a shift in scale to create a telescoping woman.
The sky looks perfectly normal at the horizon. As our eye gazes
upward, we realize Magritte has broken the sky into cubes. He
has also thrown in a small hot air balloon to equalize a sense of
balance.
Reserved.
Figure 5.20 Benin, A Royal Altar to the Hand, 18th century.
Hierarchical Scale: Using size change to indicate relative
importance.
Figure 5.19, Stele of the sculptor Userwer,
1991-1783 BCE
Scale in ancient times were
often based on measurement
using the hand.
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12
Ancient Egyptian artists relied on a squared grid to govern the
proportions of their figures. This unfinished fragment gives us a

rare insight into their working methods. In a finished work, the
grid would no longer be evident. Egyptian artists used the palm
of the hand as a basic unit of measure, with each square of the
grid representing this unit. For example, a standing figure
measures eighteen units (hands) high and six units at the
shoulders.
African kingdom of Benin – altar is based on the King’s hand.
Hands around the base where they alternate with rams heads.
King seated on top of altar flanked by attendants in a
symmetrical composition.
Expresses social hierarchy with king being of greatest
importance he is the largest and attendants smaller.
Reserved.
Figure 5.22 Proportions of the golden section and golden
rectangle.
Figure 5.21 Leonardo da Vinci, The Study of Human
Proportions According to Vetruvius, c. 1485-90.
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13
Ancient Greeks and Romans believed that numerical
relationships held the key to beauty, and that perfect human
proportions reflected a divine order. Leonardo da Vinci was one
of many artists fascinated by the ideas of Vetruvius, a Roman
architect. Vetruvius’s treatise on architecture related the
perfected male form to the perfect geometry of the square and

the circle. Leonardo’s figure uses these numerical concepts to
depict the proportion of the human figure in movement.
Ancient Greeks also formulated the golden section that
essentially mimics the proportions of the natural phenomenon of
the spiraling outward growth of a shell. The intellectual and
mathematical aspects of the resulting rectangle is one of
innately pleasing visual proportion. The ratio of the golden
rectangle is 1:1.6178. The Greeks applied this to the design of
such structures as the Parthenon, which we will study later.
Today your printer paper and business cards adhere to this
ancient invention.
Reserved.
Rhythm is based in repetition and is a basic part of our world.
Visual Rhythm: Depends on the repetition of accented
elements, usually shapes.
Figure 5.27 Paul Klee, Landscape with Yellow Birds, 1923.
Rhythm
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14
Rhythm is repetition and is part of our lives: The rhythm of
seasons, waves on the shore, and cycles of the moon. It is an
integral part of music, dance, poetry, and visual art. A beat in
music is the underlying rhythm that unifies the composition. In
visual art, rhythm is used to structure a composition and lead
our eyes.
In “Easy to Remember,” Lorna Simpson uses music to suggest
a profound human connectedness that lies beyond material
concerns. Shapes are repeated to create a visual rhythm, or grid.
She used a tune by Rogers and Hart, “Easy to Remember,” and

invited people to individually hum along to a jazz version
recorded by the saxophonist John Coltrane. She played the
music over a headset, so that only they could hear it. She
recorded each person’s humming, filmed their faces as they
hummed, then isolated their mouths, devoid of details of race,
age and gender. For the sound she combined all of the
humming, without the music. At first the sounds are a calming
drone, then differences begin to emerge. In the end, Simpson’s
work presents a vision of a harmonious society, connected to a
community that is bigger than we know. We are different and
yet together, living with art.
Yusho used line to create two starkly contrasting rhythms- the
long, swooping lines of the drying nets at the left, and the short,
straight lines of the leaves on the right. If we imagined the lines
as music, we might hear a beautiful, arching melody played by
cellos, interrupted suddenly by chirping and twittering from the
flutes.
Elements and Principles:
A Summary
Unity
Variety
Balance
Emphasis/
subordination
Scale/proportion
Rhythm
Reserved.
Figure 5.29 Pablo Picasso, Girl Before a Mirror,1932
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15
The motif of this painting is connected with the European
subject: vanitas, which we studied previously. This particular
type of mirror is called psyche in French, named for the Greek
goddess. The model is presumed to be his lover. This design,
with relieved symmetry, divides the composition in two. As in
Frida Kahlo’s double self-portrait, the two sides are set in
opposition. Warm colors are reflected as cool colors and firm
shapes become fluid in reflection. It evokes a mysterious,
shadowy realm of uncertainty. The girl’s gesture, almost an
embrace, unifies the two halves. Picasso reinforces this gesture
with a red striped shape. Together, gesture and shape set up a
pendulum motion, or rhythm. The scale is larger-than-life and
the subject is out of proportion, creating a distance between
Picasso’s image and reality. The rhythmical curves and
repeating circles are only some of the aspects that unify this
piece. Another unifying device is the wallpaper, which extends
across the entire canvas. Its geometric pattern acts as a foil for
the organic curves of the model. Color unifies the composition
as well. In spite of the variation, these colors have the same
range of intensities and values, with the important exception of
the girl herself. Her face is a natural focal point which seems to
be almost a source of light. The pale violet portion of her face
is depicted in profile, gazing at the mirror. In the yellow
portion, she turns her head to look at us, or perhaps the painter
for whom she is modeling. Her body is also divided vertically,
half clothed, half nude. Picasso gives us an X-Ray view straight
through to the womb.
Chapter Five
Principles of Design
Reserved.
Unity
Variety
Repetition

Rhythm
Balance
Emphasis/focal point
Proportion/scale
The organization of elements is called composition or design.
‹#›
The definitions are within the slide show, as there wasn’t
enough room on this slide for terms and definitions. Students
will want to leave room under each definition for notes.
Instructors may want to use an elements and principles chart so
that students can follow the handout as you are pointing out
how these work together. It is helpful for the instructor to
discuss how each principle combines with elements in this
visual.
Have students break into groups and, using the chart, do an
analysis of a slide they haven’t seen before. You may want to
take them to a gallery to do the analysis.
16
Reserved.
• Texture: surface quality (actual or visual; implied)
• Impasto
• Pattern (regular repetition)
• Space: 2- & 3-dimensional (height, width &/or depth)
(actual or implied)
• Positive/negative; figure/ground

• Overlapping; foreground/background
• Position
• Linear & isometric perspective
• Atmospheric perspective & chiaroscuro
• Foreshortening
• Time & motion: elapsed, implied, kinetic
Chapter Four, Part B
The Visual Elements
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1
Students will need to leave extra room in their notes after these
terms for definitions and explanations as there wasn’t enough
room on this slide. This chapter is presented in a condensed
format to allow extra time for experiential activities using art
media.
Suggested activities:
1. Go over perspective in the web site. Have students go outside
to do perspective (1 pt. or isometric) drawings on campus.
2. Non-objective designs (see presentation 4a). This project is
recommended if you did not have time to include it previously.
It allows students do some dramatic interpretations of emotions.
Texture
Reserved.
Texture and pattern are the perceived surface qualities of a
work of art. They can be actual or implied.
Actual texture:
a tactile experience

Visual or implied texture:
an illusionary experience
Figure 4.37 Brancusi, Bird in Space, 1925.
Figure 4.38 Raoul Dufy, Regatta at Cowes, 1934.
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2
Texture can be described as a perception of smooth or rough,
fine or coarse.
This sculpture could be experienced through touch (if we were
allowed). Some museums have had to set up detection alarms
due to our need to touch. Brancusi included three different
textures, which grow more refined as our eyes move upward.
This contributes to the sense of movement, as if the material
world were falling away. The rough, wooden pedestal exerts an
upward thrust; the small limestone base acts as a compression
zone for gathering energy; the smooth marble bird makes a leap
into space. Paint applied thickly creates an actual texture, called
Impasto, that we could feel (again, if we were allowed).
Dufy’s painting is on a flat canvas, but he creates a visual
illusion or an implied texture through his brushstrokes. They
create “rough patches.” The water does not have a
representational illusion, but still conveys choppiness.
Artists can create convincing illusions of actual texture created
through ranges of VALUE and use of LINE. The mask is an
example of actual textures which are tactile (can be felt), and
create a dynamic visual PATTERN.
Texture with Pattern

Reserved.
Pattern: Any decorative, repetitive motif or design.
Figure 4.36 Mona Hatoum, Prayer Mat, 1995.
Figure 4.39 Samuel Fosso, The Chief, 1997.
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3
This photograph has no actual texture, save for the smoothness
of the glossy paper on which it is printed. The continuous tone
of the printing creates an illusion of skin, hair and fabric.
Within this photograph, the fabrics additionally have a regular
repetition, which is a PATTERN. This is the same concept in
most fabrics and wallpaper. Patterns tend to have a flattening
effect, which makes the space hard to read. The patterns clamor
for attention, and almost seem to blend together. Fosso is
mocking traditional rulers, as artists have for centuries, in this
self portrait by the African photographer.
Hatoum’s mat is made from brass pins glued on canvas, which
is an example of both patterns and actual texture. It refers to the
small portable prayer rugs that Muslims use to pray five times
daily. It’s equipped with a compass that orients the user toward
Mecca, no matter where they are located. Ask your students
what questions are posed by this work. Is it meant to be
functional?
Space
Reserved.
Space interacts with other visual elements and helps give them
definition. There exists both negative and positive space.

Figure 4.41 Do Ho Suh, Reflection, 2004.
Three dimensional space has height, width, and depth.
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4
Sculpture, architecture, and all forms with mass exist in three-
dimensional space. We are as interested in the negative space as
we are the positive space.
Giacometti created this sculpture after visiting a friend in the
hospital. He recalled that his friend’s eyes and cheeks were
sunken, but his bony nose seemed to rise upwards. The frame
seems to accentuate the void around the man, and serves to
contain all but the nose.
Do Ho Suh’s installation produces a heightened awareness of
the shaped space it occupies by modifying that space in an
unexpected and disorienting way.
Space
Reserved.
Two dimensional space has only height and width. There exists
the picture plane and the illusion of the negative (ground) and
positive (figure) space.
Implied Space: Includes overlapping and position
(foreground, middle- ground, background)
Illusionistic Space: Includes foreshortening, linear, isometric,
and atmospheric perspective
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5
Sculpture, architecture, and all forms with mass exist in three-
dimensional space. We are as interested in the negative space as
we are the positive space.
Giacometti created this sculpture after visiting a friend in the
hospital. He recalled that his friend’s eyes and cheeks were
sunken, but his bony nose seemed to rise upwards. The frame
seems to accentuate the void around the man, and serves to
contain all but the nose.
Do Ho Suh’s installation produces a heightened awareness of
the shaped space it occupies by modifying that space in an
unexpected and disorienting way.
Implied Space
Reserved.
Two dimensional space has only height and width.
There exists the picture plane and the illusion of the negative
(ground) and positive (figure) space.
Figure 4.42 Maharana Amar Singh II, Prince Sangram Singh…c.
1705-08.
Overlapping
Position (foreground, middle-ground, background)
Linear perspective or isometric perspective
Atmospheric perspective
Foreshortening
‹#›
6

The picture plane is the flat surface of a two-dimensional work.
The space is only implied, as there is no actual depth. Artists
use many devices to give the illusion of depth:
1. Overlapping: The elephant seen in its entirety is viewed as
the closest.
2. Position: The performers at the bottom are viewed as the
closest (foreground), followed by those in the middle-ground.
The most important person in this story is the Indian prince in
the background. The space of the architectural setting frames
him, and the implied line of the gaze from his court and
attendants points him out.
An important feature of the Eastern aesthetic is the flattened
space. Profile views are common, as they give the least
implication of depth. It is conceptually convincing, but not
optically convincing.
Illusion of Space
Reserved.
Figure 4.43 Basic principles of linear perspective.
Linear Perspective
Overlapping
Linear perspective or isometric perspective
Foreshortening
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7
In order to create a “window on the world,” Renaissance artists

used the camera obscura, a drawing device, to replicate how
structures recede into space. It is based on two observations:
1. Forms seem to diminish in size as they recede.
2. Parallel lines that recede seem to converge towards a
vanishing point, where they appear to disappear on the horizon
line.
Review each of these terms in one and two point perspective.
Illusion of Space
Reserved.
Figure 4.45 Leonardo da Vinci, The Last Supper, 1495-97.
Linear Perspective
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8
This Renaissance artist used all of the above techniques to
create depth except isometric perspective, which is an Eastern
invention. The ceiling divisions and wall hangings have parallel
lines that converge at the vanishing point behind Jesus’ head.
The window frames him as he announces that one of them will
betray him. Judas pulls back as he clutches the bag of silver, his
price for handing over his leader to authorities.
Illusion of Space
Reserved.
Figure 4.51 The Siege of Belgrade, Manuscript 1558.

Figure 4.50 Basic principles of isometric perspective.
Overlapping
Linear perspective or Isometric perspective
Foreshortening
Isometric Perspective
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9
This manuscript from Istanbul is an example of ISOMETRIC
PERSPECTIVE, which is an Eastern aesthetic. Only the first 3
methods are contained here. The mobile and airborne viewpoint
has no use for converging lines. It uses diagonals, but without
allowing parallels to converge. Depicted here is the 16th
century Ottoman ruler, Sulayman.
Illusion of Space
Reserved.
Figure 4.48 Bierstadt, The Rocky Mountains, Lander’s Peak,
1863.
Figure 4.49 Detail, Gongwang, Dwelling in the Fuchun
Mountains, 1530.
Atmospheric Perspective: As objects recede into the distance
they become paler, bluer, and less distinct.

‹#›
10
In addition to the fact that our eyesight fails as objects reach the
vanishing point, moisture and dust in the atmosphere scatters
light. Blue light scatters the most, hence the sky appears blue,
and things take on a bluish tinge as their distance from us
increases. These concepts are clear on both of these paintings.
Bierstadt’s dramatic landscape draws our eyes through the
Indian encampment, to a waterfall, and on to the distant
mountain peaks.
This Chinese hand-scroll uses no color, but the values adhere to
the concept as all detail is reduced to a hazy gray as our
eyesight diminishes toward the horizon line. This detail is taken
from a scroll that is over 20’ long. It is traditionally unrolled
and rolled slowly, showing a foot or two at a time in order to
savor the journey. All is painted from a “bird’s-eye view” so the
viewer can be everywhere and see everything.
Illusion of Space
Reserved.
Figure 4.46 Hans Baldung Grien, The Groom and the Witch,
c.1540.
Figure 4.47 Dürer, Draftsman Drawing a Reclining Nude, c.
1527.
Foreshortening: The affect of linear perspective when applied
to objects and human forms within a work of art.
‹#›

11
The logic of linear perspective applies to all forms that recede
into the distance, including human and animal forms. Ask
students to point an index finger upwards and look at it with
one eye closed. They should watch how the size changes as they
slowly tilt the finger until it points away from them. This effect
is called foreshortening. To observe this accurately is more
difficult, as there are no parallel lines. Artists during the
Renaissance used a gridded window placed in front of their
models. They drew each square in this window on a
proportionally smaller square on their drawing paper. The artist
must close one eye and stay in exactly the same viewpoint until
all grids are replicated.
Time and Motion
Reserved.
Figure 4.52 Calder, Southern Cross, 1963.
Kinetic art: (actual motion)
Time and motion have become increasingly important to art
during the 20th and 21st centuries. There is more thought and
emphasis placed on the nature of time in our modern world.
Kinetic art: Art that actually moves.
‹#›
12
During the 1930s Alexander Calder set sculpture in motion with

works that came to be known as mobiles. The slender wire
allowed the shapes to move independently on the lightest
currents of air. His larger ones are motorized. Kinetic comes
from the Greek word “kinetos,” which means moving. Calder
also created “stabiles,” sculptures that do not move. Here,
Calder combined these ideas. The orange stabile holds aloft a
black mobile, to depict the southern constellation, Crux, by
which sailors navigated.
The same Greek root also gives us the word cinema. Sussman
uses time and motion to reference one of the world’s most
famous paintings, “Las Meninas,” by Velazquez (see 17.11).
Actors depict each of the people in his complex painting, but
the space becomes even more disconcerting as the camera, in
addition to the actors, moves fluidly. Once again, the viewer is
left to wonder what is happening and who Velazquez is actually
painting.
Time and Motion
Reserved.
Figure 4.55 Steinkamp, Dervish, detail, 2004.
Time and Motion
Elapsed time · Implied motion
‹#›
13
This video installation by Jennifer Steinkamp consists of
digitally animated trees, stand-ins for the Sufi mystics, who
enter a state of spiritual ecstasy by means of a spinning dance.
She begins with an image of a maple tree, then digitally
modifies each tree until they are generic. She then animates the

images, as the trunks twist like wrung laundry, and cycle
through the seasons as they sway. They can also be programmed
to change on cue (the sound of a slamming door, for example,
could cause spring to turn into summer).
Line, shape, mass, light, value, color, texture, pattern, space,
time, and motion are the raw materials, or elements, of a work
of art.
In the next chapter, we examine how artists ORGANIZE all of
these elements of design.
Reserved.
Chapter Four, Part B
The Visual Elements
• Texture: surface quality (actual or visual; implied)
• Impasto
• Pattern (regular repetition)
• Space: 2- & 3-dimensional (height, width &/or depth)
(actual or implied)
• Positive/negative; figure/ground
• Overlapping; foreground/background
• Position
• Linear & isometric perspective
• Atmospheric perspective & chiaroscuro
• Foreshortening
• Time & motion: elapsed, implied, kinetic
‹#›
14
Students will need to leave extra room in their notes after these
terms for definitions and explanations as there wasn’t enough
room on this slide. This chapter is presented in a condensed

format to allow extra time for experiential activities using art
media.
Suggested activities:
1. Go over perspective in the website. Have students go outside
to do perspective (1 pt. or isometric) drawings on campus.
2. Non-objective designs (see presentation 4a). This project is
recommended if you did not have time to include it previously.
It allows students do some dramatic interpretations of emotions.
Reserved.
Part Two
The Vocabulary of Art
Figure 4.1 Elizabeth Murray, The Sun and the Moon, 2005.
‹#›
1
Line: path of moving point
Actual & Implied (contour/outline;
direction & movement; hatching, cross-hatching, stippling)
Shape: (2-D) enclosed line
Actual & Implied
Mass/Form: (3-D) depth, height & width
Figure (positive) & Ground (negative)

Reserved.
Chapter Four, Part A
The Visual Elements
Light: digital & electronic
Actual & Implied
Value: relative light & dark
Chiaroscuro (light & dark)
Color: Hue
Analogous (warm & cool)
Primary
Secondary
Complementary
Pointillism: optical mixing
The visual elements help us analyze our visual experiences.
These terms are also used as the fundamental language for the
discussion about works of art.
‹#›
2
This chapter is divided into two parts, as there are a lot of
terms. This also allows lecture time to be divided by an activity.
Students will find the need to take notes on individual slides, so
they should save more room beneath each term.
Activity: Non-objective design using line, shape, and color to
convey meaning: Write several adjectives on the board (anger,
exuberance, alienation, passion). Students must use
nonobjective lines, shapes, and colors to convey the meaning.
Remind students to bring supplies (paper, pencils, range of
color media).

Reserved.
Dotted lines and directional cues such as a finger pointing in a
specific direction creating a line of sight are examples of
implied lines in action.
Figure 4.2 Keith Haring, Untitled, 1982.
Figure 4.3 Sarah Sze, Hidden Relief, 2001.
Line: Contour and Outline
Outline: Defines a 2-dimensional shape.
Contour lines: Record boundaries and define more specifically
what shapes represent.
‹#›
3
Line is defined as a path of a moving point. The thick lines in
Haring’s painting are bold and are symbolic for boundaries of
shapes. While there are no lines surrounding us in real life,
these contour lines are immediately perceived by us as a symbol
for the represented images.
The use of line is a dominant element in this sculpture. The type
of line varies from thick to thin depending on the thickness of
the wire, or groups of wire twisted together. These “drawings”
in space direct the movement of our eyes through a roller
coaster ride of visual excitement.
An outline defines a two-dimensional shape. Contour lines are
interior and exterior boundaries (edges) of an implied three-
dimensional form.
Reserved.

Direction
Vertical lines
seem assertive, or denote growth & strength.
Horizontal lines
appear calm.
Diagonal lines are the most dramatic
and imply action.
Figure 4.6 and 4.7 Eakins, The Biglin Brothers Racing, 1873-
74.
Line: Direction and Movement
‹#›
4
The tree line, shore, and boat give the feeling of tranquility,
while the verticals of the figures imply strength and effort. The
only diagonals are the arms and the oars, which convey a sense
of motion. The effort of these rowers is downplayed in order to
achieve a peaceful, quiet morning. Where is the viewer intended
to be?
Reserved.
Eye movement and implied emotion
Figure 4.8 and 4.9 Géricault, The Raft of the Medusa, 1818-19.
Implied Line
Direction & Eye Movement

‹#›
5
The diagonals of the limbs, the mast, and rope imply intense
human effort and stress, while the verticals of the figure with
the waving shirt conveys hope and strength. It is only when we
follow the implied lines of their attention that we notice the
ship on the horizon. The rope leads our eye to the sail, which
we realize will pull the survivors away from the rescue craft.
Reserved.
Figure 4.13 Emmi Whitehorse, Chanter,1991.
Figure 4.12 Bill Reid, The Raven and the First Men, completed
1983.
Figure (positive shape)
Ground (negative shape)
Shape:
An enclosed line;
a two-dimensional area with identifiable boundaries
i.e.: circles or squares
Mass/Form:
A three-dimensional area with identifiable boundaries
i.e.: spheres and cubes
Shape and Mass
‹#›

6
This carving depicts a story from the Haida people from the
Pacific Northwest coast. The spirit hero, called Raven,
discovers the first humans and coaxes them out of the clam
shell. To fully appreciate the actual three-dimensional
sculpture, we need to walk all the way around the four sides.
Seen in person, we would be aware of the play of light and
shadow, which emphasizes the depth of the carvings.
Using signs and symbols from the Navajo, this Native American
artist implies shapes and three-dimensional mass. The solid
lines imply shapes, while the changes in value imply mass. We
perceive the shapes to be the figure, or positive shape. The
background surrounding them is the ground, or negative shape.
Both of these works combine geometric and organic shapes.
Reserved.
The figure and the ground are how we perceive shapes and
masses within a work of art.
Figure: the positive shape on which visual focus is placed.
Ground: the negative shape or area sometimes considered the
background of a work of art.
Figure 4.14 Aztec, circular shield, before 1521.
Shape and Mass
‹#›

7
Note the shapes created in the negative space. This requires
time on the part of the viewer to be able to perceive the
subtleties. This is a configuration where our eyes perceive first
one color as the positive, then the other.
Reserved.
The 2 broad categories of shapes and masses are geometric and
organic.
Geometric forms can be mathematically defined.
Organic forms are irregular and suggest forms found in nature.
Shape and Mass
‹#›
8
Note the shapes created in the negative space. This requires
time on the part of the viewer to be able to perceive the
subtleties. This is a configuration where our eyes perceive first
one color as the positive, then the other.
Reserved.
Implied Shape
Figure 4.16 Raphael, The Madonna of the
Meadows, 1505.

Implied Shape
Artists use implied shapes to help unify their compositions.
Implied shapes can help to create a sense of order in a work of
art.
‹#›
9
Here we see another type of implied shape, one that does not
exist. It is our eye movement in the grouping of figures that
follows a triangular shape. This triangular composition was a
popular device to provide unity during the Renaissance. The
contrast of light and dark creates emphasis, which helps our eye
movement within this triangle.
Reserved.
Shading and Modeling: Create mass
Hatching:
Closely spaced parallel lines
Cross-hatching:
Parallel lines intersect like a checkerboard
Stippling:
Dots spaced close or far apart to suggest darker or lighter areas
Michelangelo,
Head of a Satyr
(not in text)
Line
Implied Shape & Mass

‹#›
10
While this visual is not in the text, it provides an example of all
of the techniques listed here in one image.
Shape is a two-dimensional form or area with boundaries
defined by line, texture, value or color. Mass is a three-
dimensional form that occupies a volume of space. It can also
be implied on a flat surface as the example above demonstrates.
Note the ability of pure line to depict a 3-D impression on a 2-D
plane. Also notice the line quality: thick and thin lines. You
may want to explain bracelet modeling and the direction of the
hatching & cross-hatching lines.
Reserved.
Light:
Actual light
The fundamental purpose of light is to show us the material
world. It helps us understand forms and spatial relationships.
Figure 4.17 Doug Wheeler, DW 68 VEN MCASD 11,
1968/2011.
Light Value and Color
‹#›
11
Light, color, and value are intimately connected. Sculpture and

architecture become more dynamic with the use of intentional
lighting effects. Actual light is also used in digital and
electronic art.
Turrell creates “skyspaces,” carefully calculated apertures that
frame an unobstructed view of the sky. A twelve-foot opening is
set at the center of a curving white ceiling. All trees
overhanging this area were cut down so that the sky does not
reflect depth, but seems to hover inside the room. This is an
optical effect that Turrell refers to as “bringing the sky down.”
Artificial lighting along the base of the ceiling causes the
ceiling to appear to float. This plain white room where light is
experienced is a metaphor for spiritual awareness that Quakers
call “the light within.”
Reserved.
Value: Relative lightness or darkness
Chiaroscuro: Means light/dark (contrasts of light and shadow)
Figure 4.20 Leonardo da Vinci, The Virgin and Saint Anne
with Christ Child and John the Baptist.
Figure 4.21 Charles White, Untitled, 1979.
Implied Light
Value Modeling in Two Dimensions
‹#›
12
Value enables our eyes to perceive form and spatial

relationships, even on a flat, two-dimensional surface. The
technique of chiaroscuro was invented during the Renaissance.
This unfinished drawing shows continuous tones on a middle-
value brown paper with charcoal and white chalk. Notice the
raised hand of Saint Anne and the flatness due to the lack of
value range.
An etching process relies on the use of line, not continuous
tone. As we saw earlier, these same effects can be achieved
through the use of stippling, hatching, and cross-hatching. If the
direction of these lines follow the rounded forms, it is called
bracelet modeling. When viewed from a distance, the marks
average out to nuances of gray in an effect called optical
mixing.
Reserved.
Color wheel:
Made up of the colors refracted by Sir Isaac Newton’s prism
Figure 4.24 Color Wheel.
Color Theory
‹#›
13
Using a prism, Newton observed that a ray of sunshine refracted
into colors of the rainbow. With a second prism he found he was
able to recombine these colors into white light. All color is
dependent on light. What we perceive as color is reflected light
rays. A red shirt, for example, absorbs all of the color rays
except the red ones, which are reflected back to our eyes.

Point out: Primary (1), secondary (2), and tertiary (3) colors as
well as warm and cool colors.
Primary Colors:
Yellow, Red, Blue
Secondary Colors:
Orange, Green, Violet
Intermediate Colors (total of 6):
Also called tertiary; Mix a primary and adjacent secondary
together
Color Wheel
COLOR: Color Theory
© 2013, McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Color Wheel: Based on the refracted colors observed by Sir
Isaac Newton when light was directed through a prism.
‹#›
14
Hue: Name of the color
Value: Relative lightness or darkness
Intensity: (Chroma, Saturation)
Relative purity of a color
Color, Value, and Intensity
COLOR: Color Properties

‹#›
15
Discussion Question:
Choose any primary or secondary color. Which would you be
visually attracted to first. A highly saturated version of this
color or a tint/shade of this color? Support your reasoning.
Warm colors: located on red-orange side of the color wheel
Cool colors: located on the blue-green side of the color wheel.
Tint: adding white to a pigmented color.
Shade: adding black to a color
Color Wheel
COLOR: Color Properties
‹#›
16
Discussion question:
Which part of the United States would you associate with the
warm side of the color wheel and why?
Which part of the U.S. would you associate with the cool side
of the color wheel and why?
Light primaries and their additive mixtures
COLOR: Light and Pigment
Additive Color: Colors of light mixed to produce still lighter

colors.
‹#›
17
Discussion Topic:
Visually demonstrate the effect of light by having the students
observe the classroom or their surroundings with the lights on
and then observe the color in color by switching off the lights.
Have them note the very real changes in color and how an
intense strong color is diminished or altered by a change in
lighting.
Pigment primaries and their subtractive mixtures.
COLOR: Light and Pigment
Subtractive Color: Pigments of different hues mixed together
result in darker and duller colors.
‹#›
18
Discussion Topic:
Have the students bring in some brightly colored crayons or
markers and do some simple color mixing in class so that they
can personally experience subtractive color operating.

A color scheme is the selective use of 2 or more colors in a
single composition.
Monochromatic: Variations of the same hue.
Complementary: Hues directly opposite on the color wheel.
Analogous: Adjacent hues on the color wheel.
Triadic: 3 equidistant hues on the color wheel.
COLOR: Color Harmonies
‹#›
19
Discussion Question:
What would it be like to live in a world of complementary
color? Analogous color? Monochromatic color?
Reserved.
Complementary:
Directly opposite on the
color wheel
Color conveys emotions.
Monochromatic:
Variations of the same hue
Figure 4.34 Whistler, Nocturne in Blue and Gold, c. 1872-75.
Figure 4.28 Inka Essenhigh, In Bed, 2005.
Color Harmonies

Figure 3.14 Edward Hopper, Gas, 1940.
‹#›
20
Monochromatic color schemes usually include a range of values
and intensities. This nighttime scene is soothing with tints and
shades of one hue: blue. Flecks of yellow have been added for
interest and variety. This is an example of a “restricted palette”
(few pigments with tints and shades). Color combined with
verticals for stability, horizontals for peacefulness, and hazy
negative space all help to create the mood.
Complementary harmonies tend to accentuate each other vividly
(simultaneous contrast). You may want to go back a few slides
to the color wheel for a demonstration of this.
Note the difference in the effect on the viewer between the
color schemes of these two landscapes.
Reserved.
Figure 4.29 Diana Cooper, The Site, 2006.
Figure 21.26 Piet Mondrian, Trafalgar Square, 1939-43.
Color Harmonies
Color conveys emotions.
Analogous:
Adjacent hues on the
color wheel
Triadic:

Three equidistant colors on the color wheel
‹#›
21
You may want to back to the color wheel to demonstrate the
placement of red-violet, violet, blue-violet, blue and blue-green
on the color wheel. Analogous colors are not nearly as vibrant
as complimentary ones.
Hopper used the triadic harmony of red, yellow, and blue
(primary colors) to create abrupt shifts in value and color.
Note the difference in the effect on the viewer between the
color schemes of these two environments.
There are numerous other color harmonies, but artists also
speak generally of working with a “restricted palette” or an
“open palette.” An example of an “open palette” consist of
numerous hues, tints and shades, whereas with a restricted
palette, artists limit themselves to a few hues, tints and shades.
Reserved.
Figure 4.30 Complementary color afterimage.
Optical Effects
Afterimage: Simultaneous contrast
‹#›

22
Certain colors can fool our visual perception. Stare at the black
dot until your eye receptors are fatigued. Then stare at the white
square with your eyes unfocused. The colors will appear to
reverse. Impressionist painters studied these scientific concepts
of color and applied them in their paintings.
Warm colors tend to advance, and cool colors tend to recede.
These artists used these concepts to enhance spatial illusions.
Reserved.
Pointillism: Dots of pure color that tend to mix in our eyes to
produce the illusion of color mixtures
Seurat, A Sunday on La Grande Jatte, 1884-86.
Detail of A Sunday on La Grande Jatte
Optical Effects
‹#›
23
Seurat was fascinated with the new scientific concepts of color.
He did not blend his colors on the palette or the canvas, but
painstakingly laid many thousands of dots next to each other.
Up close, each dot is seen distinctly. As the viewer moves away
from the canvas, these dots seem to merge to produce mixtures
of tones.

Reserved.
Figure 4.35 Edvard Munch, The Scream, 1893.
Emotional responses
to color are both
cultural and personal.
Emotional Effects
‹#›
24
Consider the associations with the color blue. It is a “cool”
color that has been proven to have a calming effect. In America
we use this color to refer to feeling sad. In India blue is
associated with the god Vishnu, the god of order and stability.
It is also the color associated with the goddess Kali, a dark and
disturbing power.
This Norwegian artist wrote about this painting, “I sensed a
shriek passing through nature…I painted this picture, painted
the clouds as actual blood.”
Red can be associated with warmth, love, and passion, or with
horror, blood, and anguish. Ask students for other devices
Munch has used to produce the effect of this silent scream
projected onto nature (diagonals; thick, swirling lines).
Reserved.
Chapter Four, Part A
The Visual Elements
Line: path of moving point

Actual & Implied (contour/outline;
direction & movement; hatching, cross-hatching, stippling)
Shape: (2-D) enclosed line
Actual & Implied
Mass/Form: (3-D) depth, height & width
Figure (positive) & Ground (negative)
Figure-ground reversal
Light: digital & electronic
Actual & Implied
Value: relative light & dark
Chiaroscuro (light & dark)
Color: Hue
Analogous (warm & cool)
Primary
Secondary
Complementary
Pointillism: optical mixing
‹#›
25
This chapter is divided into two parts, as there are a lot of
terms. This also allows lecture time to be divided by an activity.
Students will find the need to take notes on individual slides, so
they should save more room beneath each term. While there
aren’t a lot of cross-cultural examples, there is a mix of
contemporary and historical images students will see on the
final test.
Activity: Non-objective design using line, shape, and color to
convey meaning: Write several adjectives on the board (anger,
exuberance, alienation, passion). Students must use

nonobjective lines, shapes, and colors to convey the meaning.
Remind students to bring supplies (paper, pencils, range of
color media).

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