kinsiology.pptx

Chapter one
Introduction
kinesiology
By :-
Mr. Seid D
1
Woldiya university Department of Sport
Science Kinesiology ppt

1.1 What is kinesiology?
• The human body, in many respects, can be referred to as a
living machine.
• It is important when learning about how the body moves
(kinesiology) to also learn about the forces placed on the
body that cause the movement.
• Kinesiology is the study of human movements.
• Kinesiology brings together the fields of anatomy,
physiology, physics, and geometry, and relates them to
human movement.
• Kinesiology utilizes principles of mechanics,
musculoskeletal anatomy, and neuromuscular physiology.
2

Cont.
• Kinesiology, as it is known in physical education,
athletic training, physical therapy, orthopedics, and
physical medicine, is the study of human movement
from the point of view of the physical sciences.
• The study of the human body as a machine for the
performance of work has its foundations in three major
areas of study namely, mechanics, anatomy, and
physiology; more specifically, biomechanics,
musculoskeletal anatomy, and neuromuscular
physiology.
3

Kinesiology & Body Mechanics
• Kinesiology - study of motion or human movement
• Anatomic kinesiology - study of human
musculoskeletal system & musculotendinous
system
• Biomechanics - application of mechanical physics
to human motion
4

Cont.
• Structural kinesiology - study of muscles as
they are involved in science of movement
• Both skeletal & muscular structures are involved
• Bones are different sizes & shapes − particularly
at the joints, which allow or limit movement.
• Muscles vary greatly in size, shape, & structure
from one part of body to another,
• More than 600 muscles are found in human body
5

Cont.
• Mechanical principles that relate directly to
biomechanics. Because we may use a ball, racket,
crutch.
• The static (nonmoving) and/or dynamic (moving)
systems associated with various activities.
• Dynamic systems can be divided into kinetics and
kinematics.
6

Cont.
• Biomechanics is broadly defined as the study of
forces and their affects on living things.
• In mechanics there is use of a further subdivision
into what is known as kinematic and kinetic
quantities.
• Biomechanics and mechanics are used to study
human motion.
7

Cont.
• Kinetics is those forces causing movement, whereas
kinematics is the time, space, and mass aspects of a
moving system.
8

Cont.
• Kinematics can be divided into osteokinematics
and arthrokinematics.
• Osteokinematics focuses on the manner in which
bones move in space without regard to the
movement of joint surfaces, such as shoulder
flexion/extension.
• Arthrokinematics deals with the manner in which
adjoining joint surfaces move in relation to each
other that is, in the same or opposite direction.
9

Cont.
10

Mechanical Terms
• Force is a push or pull action that can be
represented as a vector.
• A vector is a quantity having both magnitude and
direction.
• For example, if you were to push a wheelchair,
you would push it with a certain speed and in a
certain direction.
11

Cont.
• Velocity is a vector that describes speed and is
measured in units such as feet per second or miles
per hour.
• A Scalar quantity describes only magnitude.
Common scalar terms are length, area, volume, and
mass.
• Everyday examples would be units such as 5 feet,
2 acres, 12 fluid ounces, and 150 pounds.
12

Cont.
• Mass refers to the amount of matter that a body
contains. In this example, the amount of matter within
and making up the body is the mass.
• Inertia is the property of matter that causes it to resist
any change of its motion in either speed or direction.
• Mass is a measure of inertia—its resistance to a
change in motion. Kinetics is a description of motion
with regard to what causes motion.
13

Cont.
• Torque is the tendency of force to produce
rotation around an axis.
• Muscles within the body produce motion around
joint axes.
• Friction is a force developed by two surfaces,
which tends to prevent motion of one surface across
another.
• For example, if you slide across a carpeted floor
in your stocking feet, there will be so much
friction between the two surfaces that you won’t
slide very far. Woldiya university Department of Sport
14

1.2. Function of kinesiology
• In order to instruct athletes in skill acquisition,
the athletics coach should know some basic
biomechanics concepts.
• The understanding of these concepts can aid
the coach in making appropriate decisions in
the instruction of skills for the athletes and also
can help the coach evaluate the skill
instructions in books, periodicals and articles
on athletics.
15

Cont.
• Improve movement techniques
• Sport performance
• Locomotion
• Motor skill acquisition
• Improve equipment
• Prevent injury
• Guide rehabilitation and treatment
16

Cont.
• Improve performance in sport and dance
• Reduce or prevent injuries at work, at home, and during
exercise and sport tasks
• Improve the movements of people with pathological
conditions (clinical settings)
• Increase performers’ health with exercise or training
regimens
• Assist with the design of equipment, artificial limbs,
and orthoses for safety.
17

Why Kinesiology?
• Should have an adequate knowledge &
understanding of all large muscle groups to teach
others how to strengthen, improve, & maintain
these parts of human body
• Should not only know how & what to do in
relation to conditioning & training but also know
why specific exercises are done in conditioning &
training of athletes.
18

Cont.
• Through kinesiology & analysis of skills, physical
educators can understand & improve specific
aspects of physical conditioning
• Understanding aspects of exercise physiology is
also essential to coaches & physical educators
19

1.3. Relation of kinesiology to
biomechanics
• Kinesiology to mean literally the study of motion
and biomechanics to mean the study of the
mechanics of life.
• Kinesiology is, therefore, inclusive of the
biomechanics of motion and the neural and
cardiovascular elements of movement.
• Biomechanics is a branch of the field of
bioengineering, which we define as the application
of engineering principles to biological systems.
20

Cont.
• Biomechanics is the study of how physical forces
interact with living systems .
• Biomechanics plays an important role in diverse
areas of growth, development, tissue remodeling
and homeostasis.
• Biomechanics includes the statics and dynamics of
musculoskeletal function, the mechanics of blood
flow, cardiovascular and renal function, and the
mechanics related to any bodily function.
21

Cont.
• Biomechanics can help one predict what changes
will or should be made to improve performance.
• Further, biomechanics plays a central role in the
pathogenesis of some trauma & diseases, and in the
treatment/prevention of these disease & trauma.
• These biomechanics concepts are mostly
straightforward and may seem simple but have direct
applications to the proper execution of events and
provide some understanding of the rotation aspects
of events.
22

Cont.
• As athletic movements are about joints and since so
many events have rotation in them, the
understanding of the biomechanics of rotation is
absolutely necessary.
• Biomechanical techniques can be used within any
sport to define the characteristics of skills, to gain an
understanding of the mechanical effectiveness of
their execution and to identify the factors underlying
their successful performance.
23

Who needs Kinesiology?
• Anatomists, coaches, strength and conditioning
specialists, personal trainers, nurses, physical
educators, physical therapists, physicians,
athletic trainers, massage therapists & others in
health-related fields.
24

Chapter Two
Biological and Structural
Bases
25

2.1. Anatomical Descriptive Terminology
• The human body is active and constantly moving.
• It is subject to frequent changes in position.
• It is necessary to use some arbitrary position as a
starting point from which movement or location
of structures can be described. This is known as
the anatomical position (Fig. 1-1A)
26

Cont.
27

Cont.
• Is described as the human body standing in an upright
position, eyes facing forward, feet parallel and close
together, arms at the sides of the body with the palms
facing forward.
• Although the position of the forearm and hands is not
a natural one, it does allow for accurate description.
• The fundamental position (Fig. 1-1B) is the same as
the anatomical position except that the palms face the
sides of the body.
• This position is often used in discussing rotation of the
upper extremity.
28

Cont.
29

Cont.
• Medial refers to a location or position toward the
midline,
• lateral refers to a location or position farther
from the midline.
• Anterior refers to the front of the body or to a
position closer to the front.
• Posterior refers to the back of the body or to a
position more toward the back.
30

Cont.
• Distal and proximal are used to describe locations
on the extremities. Distal means away from the
trunk, and proximal means toward the trunk.
• Superior is used to indicate the location of a
body part that is above another or to refer to the
upper surface of an organ or a structure.
• Inferior indicates that a body part is below
another or refers to the lower surface of an organ
or a structure
31

Segments of the Body
• The body is divided into segments according to bones
• In the upper extremity, the arm is the bone (humerus)
between the shoulder and the elbow joint. Next, the
forearm (radius and ulna) is between the elbow and
the wrist. The hand is distal to the wrist.
• The lower extremity is made up of three similar
segments. The thigh (femur) is between the hip and
the knee joint. The leg (tibia and fibula) is between
the knee and the ankle joint, and the foot is distal to
the ankle
32

Cont.
• The thorax, or chest, is made up of the ribs,
sternum, and mostly thoracic vertebrae. The
abdomen, or lower trunk, is made up of the
pelvis, stomach, and mostly lumbar vertebrae.
• The neck (cervical vertebrae) and head (skull)
are separate segments.
33

Cont.
34

Joint Movements (Osteokinematics)
• Joints move in many different directions.
• movement occurs around joint axes and through
joint planes.
• The following terms are used to describe the
various joint movements that occur at synovial
joints (Fig. 1-9).
• Synovial joints are freely movable joints where
most joint motion occurs
35

Cont.
36

Cont.
• Osteokinematics, which deals with the
relationship of the movement of bones around a
joint axis.
• Flexion is the bending movement of one bone on
another, bringing the two segments together and
causing an increase in the joint angle.
• Extension is the straightening movement of one
bone away from another, causing an increase of the
joint angle.
37

Cont.
• Hyperextension is the continuation of extension
beyond the anatomical position.
• The shoulder, hip, neck, and trunk can
hyperextend.
• Flexion at the wrist may be called palmar flexion
and flexion at the ankle may be called plantar
flexion
• Extension at the wrist and ankle joints may be
called dorsiflexion.
38

Cont.
• Abduction is movement away from the midline
of the body.
• Aduction is movement toward the midline.
• The shoulder and hip can abduct and adduct.
• Exceptions to this midline definition are the
fingers and toes.
39

Cont.
40

Cont.
• Supination This faces the palm of the hand forward,
or anteriorly.
• Pronation the palm is facing backward, or posteriorly.
• Inversion is moving the sole of the foot inward at the
ankle
• Eversion is the outward movement .
• Protraction is mostly a linear movement along a plane
parallel to the ground and away from the midline
• Retraction is mostly a linear movement in the same
plane but toward the midline.
41

Cont.
42

Cont.
43

Skeletal System
Functions of the Skeleton
• The skeletal system, which is made up of numerous
bones.
• Is the rigid framework of the human body.
• It gives support and shape to the body.
• It protects vital organs such as the brain, spinal
cord, and heart.
• The skeletal system also manufactures blood cells
in various locations.
44

Types of Skeletons
• The bones of the body are grouped into two main
categories: Axial and Appendicular.
• The Axial skeleton forms the upright part of the
body. It consists of approximately 80 bones of the
head, thorax, and trunk.
• The Appendicular skeleton attaches to the axial
skeleton and contains the 126 bones of the
extremities.
45

Cont.
• There are 206 bones in the body.
• Individuals may have additional sesamoid bones,
such as in the flexor tendons of the great toe and
the thumb.
• Bones can be considered organs, because they are
made up of several different types of tissue
(fibrous, cartilaginous, osseous, nervous, and
vascular), and they function as integral parts of
the skeletal system.
46

Bone of the human body
47

Appendicular skeleton
48

Structure of Bone
• The Epiphysis is the area at each end of a long
bone.
• The epiphysis is cartilaginous material called the
Epiphyseal plate
• The Diaphysis is the main shaft of bone.
• Its center, the Medullary canal, is hollow, which,
among other features, decreases the weight of the
bone.
• The flared part at each end of the diaphysis is
called the Metaphysis
49

Cont.
50

Types of Bones
• Long bones are so named because their length is
greater than their width.
• They are the largest bones in the body and make
up most of the appendicular skeleton.
• Long bones are basically tube-shaped with a shaft
(diaphysis) and two bulbous ends (epiphysis).
51

Cont.
• Short bones tend to have more equal dimensions
of height, length, and width, giving them a cube
shape.
• They have a great deal of articular surface and,
unlike long bones, usually articulate with more
than one bone.
• Examples of short bones include the bones of the
wrist (carpals) and ankle (tarsals).
52

Cont.
• Flat bones have a very broad surface but are not
very thick. They tend to have a curved surface
rather than a flat one.
• The ilium and scapula are good examples of flat
bones.
• Irregular bones have a variety of mixed shapes,
as their name implies.
• Examples of irregular bones include the vertebrae
and sacrum,
53

Types of bones
54

Cont.
55

Common Skeletal Pathologies
• Fracture, broken bone, or cracked bone are all
synonymous. It is a break in the continuity of the bony
cortex caused by direct force, indirect force, or
pathology.
• Osteoporosis is a condition characterized by loss of
normal bone density, or bone mass.
• This condition can weaken a bone to the point it will
fracture.
• The vertebra of an elderly person is a common site for
osteoporosis.
56

Cont.
• Osteomyelitis is an infection of the bone usually
caused by bacteria.
• A fracture that breaks through the skin (open
fracture) poses a greater risk of developing
osteomyelitis than a fracture that does not break the
skin (closed fracture).
57

Articular System
• A joint is a connection between two bones.
• The most important is to allow motion.
• Joints also help to bear the body’s weight and to
provide stability.
• Joints also contain synovial fluid, which
lubricates the joint and nourishes the cartilage.
58

Types of Joints
• A Fibrous joint has a thin layer of fibrous
periosteum between the two bones, as in the
sutures of the skull.
• There are three types of fibrous joints:
synarthrosis, syndesmosis, and gomphosis.
• A Synarthrosis, or suture joint, has a thin layer of
fibrous periosteum between the two bones, as in
the sutures of the skull.
59

Cont.
60

Cont.
• Another type of fibrous joint is a syndesmosis, or
ligamentous joint.
• There is a great deal of fibrous tissue, such as
ligaments and interosseous membranes, holding
the joint together.
• The third type of fibrous joint is called a
gomphosis, which is Greek for“bolting together.”
• This joint occurs between a tooth and the wall of
its dental socket in the mandible and maxilla
• It’s structure is referred to as peg-in-socket.
61

Cont.
62

Cont.
• A Uniaxial joint has angular motion occurring in
one plane around one axis, much like a hinge. The
elbow, or humer ulnar joint, is a good example of
a Hinge joint with the convex shape of the
humerus fitting into the concave-shaped ulna.
• Also at the elbow is the radioulnar joint, which as
a Pivot joint, demonstrates another type of
uniaxial motion.
63

Cont.
64

Cont.
• Biaxial joint motion, such as that found at the
wrist, occurs in two different directions.
• Flexion and extension occur around the frontal
axis, and radial and ulnar deviation occur around
the sagittal axis.
• The bones fit together like a horseback rider in a
saddle, which is why this joint is also
descriptively called a Saddle joint.
65

Cont.
66

Cont.
• A Cartilaginous joint has either hyaline cartilage or
fibrocartilage between the two bones.
• The vertebral joints are examples of joints in which
disks of fibrocartilage are directly connecting the
bones.
• A Synovial joint has no direct union between the
bone ends. Instead, there is a cavity filled with
synovial fluid contained within a sleeve like capsule.
The outer layer of the capsule is made up of a strong
fibrous tissue that holds the joint together.
67

Cont.
68

Cont.
• The tri axial joint is also referred to as a ball-
and-socket joint because in the hip, for
example, the ball-shaped femoral head fits into
the concave socket of the acetabulum.
69

Cont.
70

Planes and Axes
• Planes of action are fixed lines of reference along
which the body is divided.
• There are three planes, and each plane is at right
angles, or perpendicular, to the other two planes.
• The sagittal plane passes through the body from
front to back and divides the body into right and left
parts.
• Think of it as a vertical wall that the extremity moves
along.
• Motions occurring in this plane are flexion and
extension.
72

Cont.
• The Frontal plane passes through the body from
side to side and divides the body into front and
back parts. It is also called the coronal plane.
• Motions occurring in this plane are abduction and
adduction.
• The Transverse plane passes through the body
horizontally and divides the body into top and
bottom parts. It is also called the horizontal plane.
Rotation occurs in this plane.
73

Axes
• The Sagittal axis is a point that runs through a
joint from front to back.
• The Frontal axis runs through a joint from side to
side.
• The Vertical axis, also called the longitudinal
axis, runs through a joint from top to bottom.
75

76

77

Degrees of Freedom
• Joints can also be described by the degrees of
freedom, or number of planes, in which they can
move. For example, a uniaxial joint has motion
around one axis and in one plane.
• The entire limb from the finger to the shoulder
would have 11 degrees of freedom.
78

Common Pathological Terms
• Dislocation refers to the complete separation of the
two articular surfaces of a joint. A portion of the joint
capsule surrounding the joint will be torn.
• Subluxation, a partial dislocation of a joint, usually
occurs over a period of time.
• Sprains are a partial or complete tearing of ligament
fibers. A mild sprain involves the tearing of a few
fibers with no loss of function.
• Strain refers to the overstretching of muscle fibers.
As with sprains, strains are graded depending on
severity.
79

2.2. Mechanics of muscle-skeletal
system
• Muscles are responsible for all types of body
movement
• Three basic muscle types are found in the body
– Skeletal muscle
– Cardiac muscle
– Smooth muscle
80

Skeletal Muscle Characteristics
• Most are attached by tendons to bones
• Cells are multinucleate
• Striated – have visible banding
• Voluntary – subject to conscious control
• Cells are surrounded and bundled by
connective tissue
Woldiya university Department of
Sport Science Kinesiology ppt
81

Connective Tissue Wrappings of Skeletal
Muscle
• Endomysium – around
single muscle fiber
• Perimysium – around a
fascicle (bundle) of fibers
• Epimysium – covers the
entire skeletal muscle
• Fascia – on the outside of
the epimysium
Figure 6.1
82

Muscle Attachments
• When a muscle contracts, it knows no direction—it simply
shortens.
• If a muscle were unattached at both ends and stimulated,
the two ends would move toward the middle. However,
muscles are attached to bones and cross at least one joint,
so when a muscle contracts, one end of the joint moves
toward the other.
• The more movable bone, often referred to as the
insertion, moves toward the more stable bone, called the
origin.
• For example, when the biceps brachii muscle contracts,
the forearm moves toward the humerus, as when bringing
a glass toward your mouth (Fig. 5-1A).
83

Muscles and Body Movements
• Movement is attained
due to a muscle
moving an attached
bone
Figure 6.12
84

Muscles and Body Movements
• Muscles are attached
to at least two points
– Origin – attachment
to a moveable bone
– Insertion –
attachment to an
immovable bone
Figure 6.12
85

Origin and insertion
86

Muscle Names
• The name of a muscle can often tell you a great deal
about that muscle. Muscle names tend to fall into
one or more of the following categories:
1. Location
2. Shape
3. Action
4. Number of heads or divisions
5. Attachments = origin/insertion
6. Direction of the fibers
7. Size of the muscle
87

Naming of Skeletal Muscles
• Direction of muscle fibers
– Example: rectus (straight)
• Relative size of the muscle
– Example: maximus (largest)
88

• Location of the muscle
– Example: many muscles are named for bones (e.g.,
temporalis)
• Number of origins
– Example: triceps (three heads)
89

• Location of muscle’s origin and insertion
– Example: sterno (on the sternum)
• Shape of the muscle
– Example: deltoid (triangular)
• Action of the muscle
– Example: flexor and extensor (flexes or extends a
bone)
90

Muscle Fiber Arrangement
• Muscle fibers are arranged within the muscle in a
direction that is either parallel or oblique to the
muscle’s long axis.
• Parallel muscle fibers tend to be longer and thus
have a greater range of motion potential.
• Oblique muscle fibers tend to be shorter but are
more numerous per given area than parallel fibers.
• Which means that oblique-fibered muscles tend to
have a greater strength potential but a smaller
range-of motion potential than parallel-fibered
muscles. Woldiya university Department of Sport
91

Type of muscle fiber arrangement
• Parallel-fibered muscles can be strap, fusiform,
rhomboidal (rectangular), or triangular in shape.
• The different types of oblique-fibered muscles
are unipennate, bipennate, and multipennate.
• Strap muscles are those that are long and thin
with fibers running the entire length of the
muscle.
• eg. lower extremity, the rectus abdominis in the
trunk,
92

Cont.
• A Fusiform muscle has a shape similar to that of a
spindle. It is wider in the middle and tapers at both
ends where it attaches to tendons
• e.g in the elbow flexors; that is, the biceps,
brachialis,
• The muscle may be any length or size, from long to
short or large to small.
93

Cont.
• A Rhomboidal muscle is four-sided, usually flat,
with broad attachments at each end.
• Examples of this muscle shape are the pronator
quadratus in the forearm, the rhomboids in the
shoulder girdle, and the gluteus maximus in the
hip region.
• Triangular muscles are flat and fan-shaped, with
fibers radiating from a narrow attachment at one
end to a broad attachment at the other.
• An example of this type of muscle is the pectoralis
major in the chest.
94

Cont.
• Uni pennate muscles look like one side of a
feather. There are a series of short fibers attaching
diagonally along the length of a central tendon.
• E.g the hip and knee, and the flexor pollicis longus
muscle of the hand.
• The bi pennate muscle pattern looks like that of a
common feather. Its fibers are obliquely attached
to both sides of a central tendon.
• E.g The rectus femoris muscle of the hip
95

Cont.
• Multipennate muscles have many tendons with
oblique fibers in between.
• The deltoid and subscapularis muscles at the
shoulder demonstrate this pattern.
96

Head and Neck Muscles
Figure 6.15
98

Trunk Muscles
Figure 6.16
99

Deep Trunk and Arm Muscles
Figure 6.17
100

Pelvis, Hip, and Thigh Muscles
Figure 6.19c
101

Muscles of the Lower Leg
Figure 6.20
102

Superficial
Muscles:
Anterior
103

Superficial
Muscles:
Posterior
Figure 6.22
104

Functional Characteristics of Muscle
Tissue
• Muscle tissue has the properties of irritability,
contractility, extensibility, and elasticity.
• To better understand these properties, you might
find it helpful to know that muscles have a
normal resting length.
105

Skeletal muscle property
• Extensibility: ability to stretch without damaging
tissue
• Elasticity: ability to return to original shape after
stretching or shortening
• Excitability: ability to respond to stimulus by
producing electrical signals
• Conductivity: ability to propagate an electrical
signal
• Contractility: ability to shorten and thicken in
response to a stimulus
106

Irritability
• Is the ability to respond to a stimulus.
• A muscle contracts when stimulated.
• This can be a natural stimulus from a motor nerve
or an artificial stimulus such as from an electrical
current.
• Contractility is the muscle’s ability to shorten
or contract when it receives adequate stimulation.
This may result in the muscle shortening, staying
the same, or lengthening.
107

Extensibility
• Extensibility is the muscle’s ability to stretch or
lengthen when a force is applied.
• Elasticity is the muscle’s ability to recoil or return
to normal resting length when the stretching or
shortening force is removed.
• Saltwater taffy has extensibility but not elasticity.
You can stretch it, but once the force is removed,
the taffy will remain stretched.
108

Types of Muscle Contraction
• There are three basic types of muscle contraction:
isometric, isotonic, and isokinetic.
• Isometric contraction occurs when a muscle
contracts, producing force without changing the length
of muscle (Fig. 5-10A).
• The term isometric originates from the Greek word
meaning “same length.”
• To demonstrate this action, get in a sitting position and
place your right hand under your thigh and place your
left hand on your right biceps muscle.
109

Cont.
• Now, pull up with your right hand—in other words,
attempt to flex your right elbow.
• Note that there was no real motion at the elbow
joint, but you did feel the muscle contract.
110

Types of Muscle Contractions
• Isotonic contractions
– Myofilaments are able to slide past each other during
contractions
– Tension in the muscles increases
– The muscle shortens
• Isometric contractions
– Tension in the muscles increases
– The muscle is unable to shorten
111

Cont.
• Isotonic contraction, which occurs when a
muscle contracts and the muscle length and joint
angle changes.
• Occasionally you will read a text that describes an
isometric contraction as a static, or tonic,
contraction and an isotonic contraction as phasic.
The term isotonic originates from the Greek word
meaning “same tone or tension.”
112

Cont.
• An isotonic contraction can be subdivided into
concentric and eccentric contractions.
• A concentric contraction occurs when there is joint
movement, the muscles shorten, and the muscle
attachments (O and I) move toward each other (Fig.
5-10B).
• It is sometimes referred to as a shortening
contraction. Picking up the weight, as described
earlier, is an example of a concentric contraction of
the biceps muscle.
• Eccentric contractions are sometimes referred to as
lengthening contractions.
113

114

Summery
 Anatomical descriptions of motion and its limitation
What is the need of learning anatomical description of
motion?
 Anatomical descriptions of motion are essential for
understanding of biomechanics and it is important that
many of the terms that are used in both the study of
anatomy and biomechanics are explained in more detail.
 A, Anatomical Description
- Superficial (close to surface), deep (away from surface),
- anterior (front), posterior (rear),
- medial (near mid-line), lateral (away from mid-line),
- superior (relative highest position), inferior (relative lowest
position),
- proximal (near point of attachment to body), distal
Woldiya university Department of Sport Science
Kinesiology ppt
115

B, Joint movement
 Abduction (take away from mid-line), adduction
(bring towards mid-line) abduction-
adduction_medical512.jpg
 internal–external rotation (lower leg inward and
outward rotation about long axis),
 plantar- and dorsi flexion (pointing toes or bringing
toes towards the shin), extension-flexion-
dorsiflexion-plantar_medical512.jpg
 extension and flexion (straightening or bringing
segments closer together),extension-flexion-
dorsiflexion-plantar_medical512.jpg
 hyper-extension (excessive extension).
 Inversion and eversion (heel rolling outwards or
inwards), inversion-eversion_medical512.jpg
 pronation (complex tri-planar movement in foot
involving eversion, abduction and dorsi flexion),
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C, Special joint movement
 Valgus (lower limb segment rotated about anterior–
posterior axis through knee away from mid-line of
body),
 varus (as for valgus but rotation towards mid-line),
horizontal abduction and adduction (arm held out in
front in transverse plane and then abducted or
adducted),
 circumduction (rotation of a part or segment in a
circular manner). circumduction-illustration-diagram-
movements-anatomy_medical512.jpg
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D, General movement
 Parallel (equidistant and never intersecting),
 degrees of freedom (method used to describe movement
or position),
 diagonal plane (a surface that is slanted),
 tension (to stretch or pull apart),
 compression (to squeeze together),
 elevate and depress (to rise up or push down).
 Origin (starting or beginning point),
 insertion (anatomical attachment point),
 coordinate/s (a number or set of numbers corresponding
to a system of reference),
 perpendicular (at 90 degree).
 Translate (change in position but without rotation),
 rotate (move through an angle),
 vertical and horizontal (in a two-dimensional space
usually upwards (in the y direction) and along (in the x
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 E, Plane and axis of motion
 Anatomical position (facing forwards, arms by side,
feet forwards and parallel, palms forward and fingers
extended), planes-coronal-transverse-sagittal-
anatomy-en_medical512.jpg
 cardinal plane (plane passing through center of mass),
 sagittal plane (divides body or part into left and right
portions),
 transverse axis (perpendicular to sagittal plane),
 frontal plane (divides into front and rear portions),
 anterior–posterior axis(perpendicular to frontal plane),
 transverse plane (divides into upper and lower
portions),
 longitudinal axis (perpendicular to transverse plane).
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F, Coordinates
 Abscissa (often the x axis),
 ordinate (often the y axis),
 intersect (cross each other).
 The x axis is often termed the abscissa and the y
axis the ordinate.
 The point at which the two axes intersect (cross) is
called the origin and
 it is important to point out that these two axes would
always be expressed perpendicular (at 90 degree) to
each other
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 The limitations of anatomical description
 Anatomy classifies muscles into functional groups
(flexors/extensors, abductors/adductors, etc.) based on
hypothesized actions.
 These muscle groups Are useful general classifications
and are commonly used in fitness education, weight
training, and rehabilitation.
 These hypothesized muscle Actions in movements and
exercises are used to judge the relevance of various
exercise training or rehabilitation programs.
 This section will show that such qualitative estimations
of muscle actions are often incorrect.
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 Functional anatomy classifies muscles actions based on
the mechanical method of muscle action analysis.
 This method essentially examines one muscle's line of
action relative to one joint axis of rotation, and infers a
joint action based on orientation and pulls of the muscle
in the anatomical position.
 Biomechanical data and analysis are necessary to
determine the actual actions of muscles in movement.
 There are even cases where muscles accelerate a joint
in the opposite direction to that inferred by functional
anatomy.
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Mechanics of muscle-skeletal system
 This chapter will provide an overview of the mechanical properties of
materials, specifically muscles, tendons, ligaments, and bone.
 The deformations of muscles, tendons, and bones created by external
forces, as well as the internal forces created by these same
structures, are relevant to understanding human movement or injury.
Tissue loads
 When forces are applied to a material, like human musculoskeletal
tissues, they create loads.
 Engineers use various names to describe how loads tend to change
the shape of a material.
 These include the principal or axial loadings of compression, tension,
torsion and shear
 Compression is when an external force tends to squeeze the
molecules of a material together.
 Tension Is when the load acts to stretch or pull apart the material.
 Torsion When many forces are acting on a body they can combine to
create combined loads called Torsion and bending.
 Shear is a right-angle loading acting in opposite directions.
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 Tissue loads and deformations
Compression Tension shear Torsion
Shear
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 Biological tissue, including the human body, is by nature,
deformable.
 It can absorb forces, it can stretch, bend, compress.
 With regards to gross human movement, these deformations
are relatively small, and
for the sake of simplicity.
 Each segment of the body is considered as a rigid body linked
together by joints.
 The mechanical properties of a material are determined by the
way it reacts to a load.
 The applied load can be categorized as a force or a torque
(or twisting moment) or a combination of these.
 The applied load can either be gradual (such as when lifting a
barbell), or impulsive (such as heel strike impact in running).
 The applied load can either be applied once (acute loading) or
several times (repetitive loading).
 These latter two load characteristics are useful when
considering the injury effects of loading, as an acute load can
lead to a fracture of the bones or a torn tendon, while a
repetitive load can lead to an overuse injury.
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Stress and strain
 Stress is defined as the force per unit area(Stress=F/A) and describes
the way the force is distributed through the material.
 Strain is defined as the increase in length divided by the original
length(Strain=IL/OL) and is often expressed as a percentage.
 For many materials, stress is linearly related to strain, and this
relationship is known as Hooke’s law.
 This relationship holds until a material reaches its elastic limit or yield
point where the material begins to disintegrate.
stress.docx
 The linear region of Hooke’s law the above graph implies that as the
force (or stress) increases the deformation (or strain) increases in the
same proportion and so the force-to-deformation ratio and the stress-
to-strain ratio are constant. This constant is known as the stiffness.
Stiffness and modulus of elasticity
 The elasticity of a material can be computed from the way it deforms
under load.
 If the force which causes a deformation is used, their ratio is the
stiffness.
 If the stress (force per unit area) and strain (percentage length
change) are used, their ratio is called the modulus of elasticity.
 The stiffness is more widely used in sport and exercise biomechanics.
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 when the force and deformation are used to describe the
behavior of the material and the modulus of elasticity the
stress and strain are used.
 In sport and exercise science it is more common to measure
force (F) and deformation (d) so the term, stiffness (k) is often
used and is expressed as:
 Force (Forw▲L) = stiffness (k). Deformation (d) F = k. d
 As the force is applied it moves its point of application and The
work done on the material is stored as elastic energy (EES)
given by equation EES= 1/2 k . d2
Elasticity
 Elasticity describes the way in which a material deforms and
then returns to its original shape. Materials that do this well
are called elastic (e.g., an elastic band or spring). Materials that
do this poorly are called inelastic
Viscoelastic
 Means that the stress and strain in a material are dependent on
the rate of loading, so the timing of the force application affects
the strain response of the material
Hysteresis
 When an object is deformed and then allowed to return to its
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Point and area elastic
 A special note should be given to sports surfaces.
 In sports like gymnastics and tumbling the surfaces are
described as area elastic
 that is they deform over a large area when jumped on and have
good elasticity to aid the performer.
 Wooden gymnasium floors that are “sprung” are also area
elastic. Surfaces like real or artificial turf are considered point
elastic
 that is they deform in a localized region when jumped on.
 Generally point elastic surfaces have poor elasticity.
 Permanent deformations are referred to as set, and describe
the plastic behavior of materials.
 Set can be important in some sport materials, for example those
used in the midsoles of running shoes.
 The expanded foam material that is used to provide cushioning
as the foot makes contact with the ground gradually
permanently deforms through use.
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Biomechanics of the passive muscle–tendon unit (MTU)
 The mechanical response of the MTU to passive
stretching is viscoelastic, so the response of the tissue
depends on the time or rate of stretch.
 At a high rate of passive stretch the MTU is stiffer than
when it is slowly stretched.
 This is the primary reason why slow, static stretching
exercises are preferred over ballistic stretching
techniques.
 Slow stretch results in less passive tension in the muscle
for a given amount of elongation compared to a faster
stretch.
 The load in an MTU during other movement conditions is
even more complicated because the load can vary widely
with activation, previous muscle action and kind of muscle
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 Tendon is the connective tissue that links muscle to bone
and strongly affects how muscles are used or injured in
movement.
 Tendon is a well-vascularized tissue whose mechanical
response is primarily related to the protein fiber collagen.
 The parallel arrangement of collagen fibers in tendon and
cross-links between fibers makes tendon about three times
stronger in tension than muscle.
 The ultimate strength of tendon is usually about 100 MPa
(megapascals)
 Even though the diameter of tendons is often smaller than
the associated muscle belly, their great tensile strength
makes tendon rupture injuries rare.
 Acute Overloading of the MTU usually results in strains
(sports medicine term for overstretched muscle, not
mechanical strain) and failures at the muscle tendon
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 In creating movement, a long tendon can act as an
efficient spring in fast bouncing movements because the
stiffness of the muscle belly can exceed tendon stiffness
in high states of activation.
 A muscle with a short tendon transfers force to the bone
more quickly because there is less slack to be taken out
of the tendon.
 The intrinsic muscles of the hand are well suited to the
fast finger movements of a violinist because of their short
tendons.
 The Achilles tendon provides shock absorption and
compliance to smooth out the forces of the large calf
muscle group (soleus and gastrocnemius).
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Biomechanics of bone
 Unlike muscle, the primary loads experienced by most bones
are compressive.
 The mechanical response of bone to compression, tension, and
other complex loads depends on the complex structure of
bones.
 Remember that bones are living tissues with blood supplies,
made of a high percentage of water (25% of bone mass), and
having considerable deposits of calcium salts and other
minerals.
 The strength of bone depends strongly on its density of mineral
deposits and collagen fibers, and is also strongly related to
dietary habits and physical activity.
 The loading of bones in physical activity results in greater
osteoblast activity, laying down bone.
 Immobilization or inactivity will result in dramatic decreases in
bone density, stiffness, and mechanical strength.
 A German scientist is credited with the discovery that bones
remodel (lay down greater mineral deposits) according to the
mechanical stress in that area of bone.
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 The macroscopic structure of bone shows a dense,
external layer called cortical (compact) bone and the less-
dense internal cancellous (spongy) bone.
 The mechanical response of bone is dependent on this
“sandwich” construction of cortical and cancellous bone.
 This design of a strong and stiff material with a weaker and
more flexible interior (like fiberglass) results in a composite
material that is strong for a given weight.
 This is much like a surf board constructed of fiberglass
bonded over a foam core.
 Cortical bone is stiffer (maximum strain about 2%), while
cancellous bone is less stiff and can withstand greater
strain (7%) before failure.
 In general, this design results In ultimate strengths of bone
of about 200 Mpa in compression, 125 Mpa in tension, and
65 Mpa in shear
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 It is also important to understand that the ultimate strength
of bone depends on nutritional, hormonal, and physical
activity factors.
 Research done with an elite power lifter found that the
ultimate compressive strength of a lumbar vertebral body
(more than 36,000 N or 4 tons) estimated from bone
mineral measurements was twice that of the previous
maximal value.
 More recent studies of drop jump training in prepubescent
children has demonstrated that bone density can be
increased, but it is unclear if peak forces, rates of loading,
or repetitions are the training stimulus for the increases in
bone mass.
 More research on the osteogenic effects of various kinds of
loading and exercise programs could help physical
educators design programs that help school children build
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Biomechanics of ligaments
 Ligaments are tough connective tissues that connect
bones to guide and limit joint motion, as well as provide
important Proprioceptive and kinesthetic afferent signals.
 Most joints are not perfect hinges with a constant axis of
rotation, so they tend to have small accessory motions and
moving axes of rotation that stress ligaments in several
directions.
 The collagen fibers within ligaments are not arranged in
parallel like tendons, but in a variety of directions.
 Normal physiological loading of most ligaments is 2–5% of
tensile strain, which corresponds to a load of 500 N in the
human anterior cruciate ligament except for “spring”
ligaments that have a large percentage of elastin fibers
(ligamentum flavum in the spine), which can stretch more
than 50% of their resting length.
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 Like bone, ligaments and tendons remodel according to the
stresses they are subjected to.
 A long-term increase in the mechanical strength of articular
cartilage with the loads of regular physical activity has also been
observed.
 Inactivity, however, results in major decreases in the
mechanical strength of ligaments and tendon, with
reconditioning to regain this strength taking longer than
deconditioning.
 The ability of the musculoskeletal system to adapt tissue
mechanical properties to the loads of physical activity does not
guarantee a low risk of injury.
 There is likely a higher risk of tissue overload when
deconditioned individuals participate in vigorous activity or when
trained individuals push the envelope, training beyond the
tissue's ability to adapt during the rest periods between training
bouts.
138

Force–Velocity Relationship
 The Force–Velocity Relationship explains how the force
of fully activated muscle varies with velocity.
 This may be the most important mechanical characteristic
since all three muscle actions (eccentric, isometric,
concentric) are applied.
 In Force–Velocity Relationship of skeletal muscle, the
Force–Velocity curve essentially states that the force the
muscle can create decreases with increasing velocity of
shortening (concentric actions), while the force the muscle
can resist increases with increasing velocity of lengthening
(eccentric actions).
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 The force in isometric conditions is labeled P in Hill's equation.
 The right side of the graph corresponds to how the tension
potential of the muscle rapidly decreases with increases in
speed of concentric shortening.
 Also note, however, that increasing negative velocities (to the
left of isometric) show how muscle tension rises in faster
eccentric muscle actions.
 In isolated muscle preparations the forces that the muscle can
resist in fast eccentric actions can be almost twice the maximum
isometric force
Force–Length Relationship
 The length of a muscle also affects the ability of the muscle to
create tension.
 The Force–Length Relationship Documents how muscle
tension varies at different muscle lengths.
 The variation in potential muscle tension at different muscle
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Force–Time Relationship
 Another important mechanical characteristic of muscle is
related to the temporal delay in the development of tension.
 The Force–Time Relationship refers to the delay in the
development of muscle tension of the whole MTU and can be
expressed as the time from the motor action potential
(electrical signal of depolarization of the fiber that makes of
the electromyographic or EMG signal) to the rise or peak in
muscle tension.
 The time delay that represents the Force–Time Relationship
can be split into two parts.
 The first part of the delay is related to the rise in muscle
stimulation some-times called active state or excitation
dynamics.
 In fast and high-force movements the neuromuscular system
can be trained to rapidly increase (down to about 20 ms)
muscle stimulation.
 The second part of the delay involves the actual build-up of
tension that is sometimes called contraction dynamics.
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CHAPTER THREE
FORMS OF MOTION
There are two forms of motion. These are:
 Translation (linear motion)- a straight line path
called translatory. Because all moving body travel
in the same distance, direction and time.
Example: 100m dash
 Rotation (angular motion)- a circular path or
rotatory, curvelinear, parabolic movement.
Example: projectile bodies like shot put, javelin,
discus, hammer, etc.
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3.2 Types of Motion
• Linear motion, also called translatory motion,
occurs in a more or less straight line from one
location to another.
• All the parts of the object move the same
distance, in the same direction, and at the same
time.
143

Cont.
• Movement that occurs in a straight line is called
Rectilinear motion, such as the motion of a
child sledding down a hill
144

Cont.
• If movement occurs in a curved path that isn’t
necessarily circular, it is called Curvilinear
motion. The path a diver takes after leaving the
diving board until entering the water is curvilinear
motion.
145

Cont.
• Movement of an object around a fixed point is
called Angular motion, also known as rotary
motion. All the parts of the object move through
the same angle, in the same direction, and at the
same time, but they do not move the same
distance.
146

Forms of motion…cont’d
 What is human movement?
Human movement is defined as the change in
position of the body or body segments in space
and time through the application of varying
amounts of force or it can be described as either
linear or angular types.
 The movement of human body through their
various enviroments can be studied from three
basic points of view.
1. Psychological kinsiology- the movement of
nerve inputs started from central nervous system
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Forms of motion… Cont’d
2. Physiological kinsiology- ATP——> ADP + Pi +
Energy
Chemical energy into mechanical energy
3. Mechanical Kinsiology- is the study of human
motion or a person in motion
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Chapter Four
Kinetics
Linear kinetics
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Forces & Torques
Force – a push or pull; exerted by one object on another; come in
pairs (Newton’s 3rd Law); creates acceleration or deformation
(Newton’s 2nd Law); causes an object to start, stop, change
direction, speed up or slow down (Newton’s 1st Law).
SI Unit of Force is the Newton (N) = force required to accelerate a
1 kg of mass 1 meter per second squared.
Force is described by its size (magnitude) and direction.
The angular equivalent of F is Torque (T); a Torque rotates an
object about an axis at a distance r.
T = F x moment arm
Resultant Force – the summation of all forces acting on a body;
determines the direction of motion of a body.
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Forces (cont.)
Internal Forces and Torques – forces or torques that act within
the studied object; i.e. the human body, or the object being
manipulated by the human; pole vault, soccer ball, etc.
Internal forces can cause movement of body segments at a joint
but cannot produce a change in the motion of a body’s center of
mass.
Muscular force is the primary internal force examined in
biomechanics. As the overwhelming majority of motion in the
human body is angular, torque is more applicable in
biomechanics.
The terms Force and Torque will be used interchangeably
throughout this course. Essentially, if the term “Force” is used
to describe angular motion, "Torque” is implied.
151

Forces (cont.)
External Forces – forces that act on an object as a result of its
interaction with the environment surrounding it.
Most External Forces are contact forces, requiring interaction
with another object, body or fluid.
Some External Forces are non-contact forces; including
gravitational, magnetic and electrical force.
The science of biomechanics largely deals with contact
forces and gravity (weight), which accelerates objects at 9.8
m/s.
Contact forces can be sub-divided into normal reaction force
and friction.
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Contact Forces
Normal Reaction Force – line of
action of the force is
perpendicular to the surfaces in
Contact
Friction Force – line of action
of the force is parallel to the
surfaces in contact
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Newton’s Laws of Motion
• Newton’s Laws help to explain the relationship between
forces and their impact on individual joints, as well as on total
body motion.
• Knowledge of these concepts can help one understand athletic
movement, improve athletic function, understand mechanisms
of injury, treat and prevent injury
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Newton’s Laws (cont.)
Newton’s 1st Law – Law of Inertia
 A body remains at rest or in a motion except when compelled by
an external force to change its state. A force is required to start,
stop, or alter motion.
Inertia – the tendency of a body to remain at rest or resist a change
in velocity
 Inertia is directly proportional to its mass
 The angular equivalent is Mass Moment of Inertia
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Newton’s 2nd Law – Law of Acceleration
The acceleration of a body is directly proportional to the F causing it,
takes place in the same direction in which the F acts, and is inversely
proportional to the mass of the body
 a = change in velocity / time
 F = ma (Force = mass x acceleration) (linear)
Angular equivalent of F is Torque (T)
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Newton’s 2nd Laws (cont.)
Impulse-Momentum Relationship;
from F=ma, we can derive
Momentum (p) and Impulse
Impulse = Force x time (Ft)
Momentum = mass x velocity (mv)
Ft= mv (impulse = momentum) If
Ft increases, mv increases
Mass is considered constant within
biomechanics, therefore, an
increase in impulse implies an
increase in velocity
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Newton’s 2nd (cont.) Impulse-Momentum
Because Mass is constant, and because external
forces are largely non-modifiable, in the world of
sports and exercise, the duration of force application
is the most modifiable.
If the Force is not constant, impulse is the avg. force
times the duration of that average force.
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Impulse-Momentum (cont.)
Conversely, if the application of Force happens more
rapidly (decreased time), there will be a higher Force
(avg. & peak) in order to maintain impulse
 Eample If a foot ball kicked with1000N force and 0.01s
calculate the impulse comes from the leg of the player,
momentum of the ball and final velocity of the ball. Assume
mass of the ball is 450gm.
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Newton’s 2nd Laws (cont.)
 Work-Energy Relationship -- from
F=ma, we can also derive Work (W)
 Work = Force x Distance (W = FD)
(linear)
 Angular equivalent = Torque x Angular
displacement (T x degrees)
Measured in Newton meters (Nm)
 Work is a measure of strength
measured by the extent to which a force
moves a body over a distance without
regard to time
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Power (P) – the rate of work; W/time; W/t = F x D/t = F x V
(W=FV)
Training power in an athlete requires doing work quickly, or
explosively
How is Power measured and trained in sport and exercise?
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Measuring and Training Power in the Athlete
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Power in Sport
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Newton’s 3rd Law: - – Law of Action-Reaction
For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction The two
bodies react at the same time, according to F = ma; each body
experiences a different acceleration effect which is dependent on
its mass
Examples in swimming, jumping, and starting sprints used
reaction force to initiate acceleration in sport world.
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Class of Lever
Lever can be classified according to the relative
positions of the axis, motive force and resistive force.
ARM
1st class Axis is between resistance and motive force.
2nd class Resistance force is in between the axis and the
motive force.
3rd class Motive force is in between the axis and the
resistance force.
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1st Class Lever
 Axis in the middle e.g. see-saw
 most versatile lever because it can be used for any type
of mechanical advantage.
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Lever… Cont’d
2nd Class Lever
 Resistance in middle
 force advantage usually exists for motive force e.g.
push-up
 body is lever, feet are axis, resistance is weight of body and
motive is arms
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Lever…Cont’d
3rd class lever
 Motive force in middle
 most musculoskeletal arrangements are 3rd class levers
 muscle is motive force
 advantage in ROM and speed but disadvantage in F
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4.1. Linear kinematic motion
 Mechanics is the study of forces and the effects of these
forces on living things.
 A subdivision of mechanics that is concerned with
displacement, velocity and acceleration is kinematics and
forces that cause or result from motion is kinetics.
 Linear motion (translatory motion) is concerned with
movement along a line that is either straight or curved and
where there is no rotation and all body parts move in the
same direction at the same speed.
 Angular motion involves movement around an axis of
rotation.
 Scalar quantity: - A quantity that is represented by
magnitude (size) only.
 Vector quantity: - A quantity that is represented by both
magnitude and direction.
169

Kinesiology ppt
170
CHAPTER FIVE
KINEMATICS

 Displacement is the vector quantity and is expressed with both
magnitude and direction (i.e., 14 miles north-east).
 Speed is the scalar quantity that is used to describe the motion
of an object.
 It is calculated as distance divided by time taken.
 Velocity is the vector quantity and it is used to also describe the
motion of an object.
 It is calculated as displacement divided by time taken.
 Acceleration is defined as the change in velocity per unit of time.
 Average and instantaneous velocity: - Average is the usual term
for the arithmetic mean. The sample mean is derived by
summing all the known observed values and dividing by their
number
 For example over a 26 mile race the average speed of the
athlete was 14 miles per hour (mph). Instantaneous refers to
smaller increments of time in which the velocity or
acceleration calculations are made.
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Kinematics and kinetics
 Linear kinematics is concerned with the quantities that
describe the motion of bodies such as distance, displacement,
speed, velocity, and acceleration.
 These quantities can be classified as either scalar or vector
quantities.
 Scalar quantities are represented by magnitude (size) only,
whereas
 vector quantities are represented by both magnitude and
direction.
 Hence, vector quantities can be presented mathematically or
graphically on paper by scaled straight lines or arrows. For
example, speed is defined as the distance traveled per unit of
time and as such it is a scalar quantity (i.e., no direction is
specified). Speed = Distance traveled V = S
Time taken
T
 Ex 1. If an athlete ran 14 miles in 1 hour and 15 minutes what
was the athlete’s average speed?
1 mile = 1609.344 meters
1 hour = 60 minutes = 60 · 60 minutes = 3600 seconds
172

 In this example we can see that the athlete covered a
distance of 14 miles but we do not know whether this was
in a straight line, in a series of curves, or indeed in a circle
starting and finishing at the same point.
 In this context the term speed is used because there is no
directional component specified.
 However, if we now re-word this example it is possible to
express the solution as a vector quantity such as
velocity.
 Vector quantities are expressed with reference to both
magnitude and direction and in the case of the runner can
be restated as follows.
 Ex 2 If an athlete covered a displacement of 20 km to finish
a marathon race of 2 hours and 5 minutes, what would be
the athlete’s average velocity and speed over this time
period?
Kinesiology ppt
173

Kinesiology ppt
174

 Often within biomechanics it is useful to be able to express
both speed and velocity components.
 Sometimes it is only the average speed that is of interest
(such as, for example, when an athlete runs a marathon
race (26.2 miles or 26 miles 385 yards) and the coach is
interested in getting a quick and simple measure of how
the race was performed overall).
 As this average speed would be presented over a 26 mile
running distance it does not really describe the specific
details of the race but it may be useful for training.
 Similarly, during the long jump take-off phase it is
interesting to be able to know exactly what the vertical and
horizontal velocities are at the point of take-off.
 Such information would allow the coach or scientist to be
able to work out the angle of take-off and observe whether
the athlete jumped with a ,long trajectory or a high, shorter
one.
 Both these aspects (speed and velocity) are equally
175

 Linear velocity and acceleration are important
quantities within biomechanics that are used to
describe and analyse the motion of human bodies.
 The following table illustrates a series of 100 m sprint
data from a university level athlete.
 it is possible to see that the athlete covered the 100
m displacement (horizontal displacement in a straight
line along a track) and that this 100 m displacement is
divided into 10 m sections or intervals.
 For example, the first 10 m was covered in 1.66
seconds and the second 10 m in 1.18 seconds (or 20
m in 2.84 seconds (cumulative time)).
 It is possible to see from this table bellow
Kinesiology ppt
176

Kinesiology ppt
177

Addition, subtraction and
Multiplication of vectors
Kinesiology ppt
178

Projectile Motion
 Concerns the flight of an object or body after it is
free of support. (This includes objects that are
dropped.)
 The flight path of a projectile is called the
trajectory.
 Objects that are continuously being propelled
(such as airplanes) aren’t considered projectiles.
Kinesiology ppt
179

Examples of Projectiles
 Football
 Javelin
 Discus
 Long jumper
 Diver
Kinesiology ppt
180

A human in flight obeys the same
projectile laws as any other object.
Kinesiology ppt
181

Factors Affecting the Trajectory of a
Projectile
 The relative height of projection
 The angle of projection (the initial angle of the
trajectory relative to horizontal)
 The speed of projection (the velocity of the object
when it is first released)
 Air resistance and wind
Kinesiology ppt
182

Trajectory and range relation for different angle to the
horizontal with 25m/s initial velocity
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
0 20 40 60 80
15 deg
30 deg
45 deg
60 deg
75 deg
Kinesiology ppt
183

Relative Projection Height
 This is the release height compared to the final
landing height of the projectile
Kinesiology ppt
184

 This is the release height compared to the final
landing height of the projectile
 Relative projection height = 0
Kinesiology ppt
185

 Relative projection height = 2 m
2 m
Kinesiology ppt
186

 Relative projection height = -1.5 m
3 m
1.5 m
Kinesiology ppt
187

Optimum Angle of Projection
(assuming there is no air resistance)
 If Relative Projection Height = 0, the optimum
angle = 450
 If Relative Projection Height > 0 , the optimum
angle < 450
 If Relative Projection Height < 0 , the optimum
angle > 450
Kinesiology ppt
188

Optimum Angle of Projection
Text page 340
Relative Projection Height = 0
Relative Projection Height = 2
m
2 m
1.5
m
3 m
Relative Projection Height = - 1.5 m
Kinesiology ppt
189

The Components of Speed Of
Projection
The velocity at any instant in the trajectory of a projectile can be
represented as a vector that is tangent to the trajectory.
Kinesiology ppt
190

The Components of Speed Of
Projection
By finding the vertical and horizontal components for the
instantaneous velocity vectors, you can find the instantaneous
vertical and horizontal velocities.
Kinesiology ppt
191

The Components of Speed Of Projection
EXAMPLE: A ball is thrown upward with a speed of projection of 20 m/s. If the
angle of projection is 400, calculate the horizontal and vertical components of
the speed of projection.
400
S = Speed of projection = 20 m/s
SH = Horizontal component
SH = (S)(cos 400) = (20 m/s)(cos 400)
SH = 15.32 m/s
SV = Vertical component
SV = (S)(sin 400) = (20 m/s)(sin 400)
SV = 12.86 m/s
SV
SH
Kinesiology ppt
192

Perpendicular Vectors Don’t Directly
Affect Each Other
 For example, if the projection angle of a projectile
is horizontal (the vertical component of the
projection speed is 0), it will fall as quickly as if it
is dropped with a projection speed of 0.
Kinesiology ppt
193

Perpendicular Vectors Don’t Directly
Affect Each Other
Because the pull of gravity is unaffected by horizontal velocity, a projectile
thrown horizontally has the same vertical velocity as an object dropped
straight down. If the objects are released from the same height they will hit the
ground at the same time (neglecting the effects of air resistance).
Kinesiology ppt
194

Acceleration Due to Gravity in Projectile
Motion
g (or ag) has the value of –9.81 m/s2 (metric units) or –
32 ft/s2 (English units) when used in projectile motion
calculations.
Because the horizontal and vertical
components of a trajectory don’t affect
each other, if air resistance is
neglected horizontal acceleration = 0
and vertical acceleration = g (or ag).
Kinesiology ppt
195

If Relative Projection Height = 0, the
final angle and velocity of a projectile
are equal in magnitude and opposite
in direction to those of the projectile
when it is released or launched (if air
resistance is neglected).
Kinesiology ppt
196

q q
If air resistance is neglected, the initial angle and final angle of
the trajectory are the same.
Kinesiology ppt
197

Equations of Constant
Acceleration
 Formulas applied when acceleration is
unchanging (as in the case of the
acceleration due to gravity)
1) v2 = v1 + at [This is derived from the basic
formula: a = v/t = (v2 – v1)/t ]
2) d = v1t + (1/2)at2
3) v2
2 = v1
2 + 2ad
These formulas assume that:
d= displacement, v1 = initial velocity,
v2 = final velocity, a = acceleration, and t =
time
Kinesiology ppt
198

PROJECTILE RANGE
Assuming an object is released and lands at the same height and
there is no air resistance:
V
VH
VV1
Range
q
t
V = Initial projectile
velocity
VV1 = Initial vertical
velocity
VH = Horizontal Velocity
Hmax= maximum hight
VV2 = 0
VV2 = Vertical velocity at peak
t = Time to reach peak
ttotal = Total flight time = 2t
q= Angle of projection
aV = Vertical Acceleration = -
ag
aV
Kinesiology ppt
199

Equations of Projectile for Relative
Projection Height = 0
VH = Vcos q VV1 = Vsin q aV = -ag = (VV2 – VV1)/t
t = (VV2 – VV1)/ -ag = (0 – VV1)/ -ag = VV1/ ag = Vsin q / ag
ttotal = 2t = 2(Vsin q / ag)
Range = (VH)(ttotal) = 2(Vcos q)(Vsin q)/ag) = 2(V2cos qsin q)/ag
Hmax = vi t sin Θ + ½ g t2
Hmax = vi
2 sin2 Θ/(-g) + ½ g(vi
2 sin2 Θ)/g2
Hmax = vi
2 sin2 Θ/2(-g)
V
VH
VV1
Range
q
t
VV2 = 0
aV
Kinesiology ppt
200

Air Resistance and Projectile Motion
Air resistance (or air drag) will tend to affect the velocity
of a projectile.
It tends to slow down the horizontal component of
velocity so that the path of a projectile (if the initial
horizontal component  0) will tend to have a steeper
(vertical) angle at the end than when the projectile is
launched.
Kinesiology ppt
201

Air Resistance and Projectile Motion
Air resistance will tend to cause a projectile to fall shorter
than it would if there were no air resistance.
With Air Resistance
Without Air Resistance
Kinesiology ppt
202

CHAPTER SIX
Temperature, Heat and
Thermodynamics
Concepts of heat and Temperature
1. Temperature
 A degree of hotness or coldness of the
body or environment
 A measure of the warmth or coldness of an
object or substance with reference to some
standard value.
 Measured by using thermometer,
Expressed in degree Celsius, Fahrenheit or
kelvin
Kinesiology ppt
203

Thermodynamics… Cont’d
2. Heat
 Heat can be defined as the transfer of
energy.
 Heat is the flow of energy from a high
temperature location to a low temperature
location.
 The higher the temperature of an object is
the greater the tendency of that object to
transfer heat.
 The lower the temperature of an object is
the greater the tendency of the receiving
Kinesiology ppt
204

 Heat is transferred through
 Conduction:- is the transfer of heat as a
result of the direct contact of rapidly
moving atoms through a medium or from
one medium to an other without movement
of them media.
 Heat moves directly from one item to
something touching it.
 Convection :-is the transfer of heat by
physical movement of the heated medium
itself.
 Heat is spread by the movement of air
steam or liquids.
Kinesiology ppt
205

 Radiation:- is the transfer of heat in the
form of waves through space(vacuum).
 It opreates by the hot object emitting
electromagnetic radiation.
 The amount molecules are vibrating,
rotating or moving is a direct function of
the heat content.
 Measured in calorie
 One calorie can be defined as the
amount of energy transfer required to
raise the temperature of 1ml of water by
Kinesiology ppt
206

The difference between temperature &
heat
There is a fundamental difference between
temperature and heat.
Heat is not temperature.
Often the concepts of heat and temperature
are thought to be the same, but they are not.
Heat is the amount of energy in a system.
The SI unit of heat are Joules.
A Joule is a Newton times a meter.
A Newton is a kilogram-meter per second
Kinesiology ppt
207

But temperature is a number. That number
is related to energy, but it is not energy itself.
temperature is the measure of the average
molecular motions in a system.
Simply has units of degrees F, degrees C,
or K.
Kinesiology ppt
208

Temperature scale
Kelvin which is one of the seven standard
units, is used to measure temperature.
It’s conversion to other measurements is
described as follows
0 Kelvin= -273.15 Celsius /c=k-
273.15/c+273.15
= -459.67 Fahrenheit
Kinesiology ppt
209

Temperature Conversion
Formulas
To convert a Fahrenheit measurement to a
Celsius measurement, use this formula.
To convert a Celsius measurement to a
Fahrenheit measurement, use this formula.
Kinesiology ppt
210

How were these formulas developed?
 They came from comparing the two scales.
 Since the freezing point is 0° in the Celsius
scale and 32° on the Fahrenheit scale,
 we subtract 32 when converting from
Fahrenheit to Celsius,
and add 32 when converting from Celsius to
Fahrenheit.
Kinesiology ppt
211

There is a reason for the fractions and,
also.
 There are 100 degrees between the
freezing (0°) and boiling points (100°) of
water on the Celsius scale
 and 180 degrees between the similar
points (32° and 212°) on the
Fahrenheit scale.
Writing these two scales as a ratio, , gives .
If you flip the ratio to be , you get .
Kinesiology ppt
212

Celsius/C Fahrenheit/
F
Kelvin/K
a 0 32 273
b 100 212 373
c -273 -459 0
d 26 78 299
e -11 12 267
Kinesiology ppt
213

T
Thermal expansion
 The increase in the size of the material
due to the rise of temperature.
 The bonding forces of different materials is
different. The solidity or fluidity of a
material affects it’s thermal expansion.
 Thermal expansion depends of the
strength of the bonding force of atoms in a
substance.
 As the temperature of a substance
Kinesiology ppt
214

 Atoms are separated from each other by
some distance.
 As the temperature increases, this
separation increases.
 Thus the whole object expands as
temperature increases.
 In the human body which organ is more
responsive to thermal expansion and
which one is not?
Kinesiology ppt
215

Heat exchange and change of
phase
process Change of state
melting Solid to liquid
freezing Liquid to solid
vaporization Liquid to gas
Condensation Gas to liquid
sublimation Solid to gas
deposition Gas to solid
Kinesiology ppt
216

The specific latent heat of fusion is defined
as the heat energy required changing unit
mass of a substance from the solid to the
liquid state at its melting point.
Symbol l f
The specific latent heat of vaporization is
defined as the quantity of heat required to
change unit mass of a substance from the
liquid to the vapors state without a change in
temperature i.e. at the boiling point
Symbol l
Kinesiology ppt
217

1
.
kg
Joules
Units
S.I.
substance
the
of
mass
substance
the
of
state
the
change
to
required
Heat
heat
latent
Specific




kg
J
m
Q
l
Kinesiology ppt
218

Rearranging the equation gives Q=m.l(heat
required to change the state of the
substance=mass of the substance*specific
latent heat).
The equation for heat energy required to
change the state of m kg of the substance at
a constant temperature.
Q=m.lf Solid to Liquid at m.p
Q=m.lv Liquid to gas at b.p
Kinesiology ppt
219

Thermodynamics
• Thermodynamics is the study of the effects
of work heat and energy on a system.
• It relates heat and temperature with energy
and work
The study of energy
First law of thermodynamics
oThis law also known as law of conservation
of energy
o Energy can be changed from one form to
another, but it cannot be created or
Kinesiology ppt
220

o The total amount of energy and matter in
the Universe remains constant, merely
changing from one form to another.
o In this law energy conversion from one form
to the other is possible, whereas new
energy can’t be produced. E=Q +W=E=internal
energy, Q=heat that flows across its boundaries, W=work done on the
system by the surrounding
Second law of thermodynamics
In all energy exchanges, if no energy enters
or leaves the system, the potential energy of
the state will always be less than that of the
221

The 2nd law of thermodynamics states that
the entropy of any isolated system always
increases
Entropy is the quantitative measure of
disorder in a system. The concept comes out
of thermodynamics, which deals with the
transfer of heat energy within a system.
Each time a system goes through a
thermodynamic process, the system can
never completely return to precisely the
same state it was in before.
Kinesiology ppt
222

CHAPTER SEVEN:
FLUID MECHANIC
First, What is a fluid?
Three common states of matter are solid,
liquid, and gas. There for, a fluid is either a
liquid or a gas.
What is mechanics?
mechanics is “the application of the laws of
force and motion. then when you combine the
word fluid and mechanics we can get the
phrase of fluid mechanics. What is Fluid
Mechanics?
Fluid mechanics deals with the study of all
Kinesiology ppt
223

FLUID MECHANICS ------Cont’d
Fluid mechanics is a branch of
continuous mechanics which deals with a
relationship between forces, motions, and
statical conditions in a continuous
material.
There are two branches of fluid
mechanics:
They are Fluid Statics or hydrostatics
and Fluid Dynamics
Fluid Statics is the study of fluids at
Kinesiology ppt
224

This study area deals with many and
diversified problems such as surface
tension, fluid statics, flow in enclose
bodies, or flow round bodies (solid or
otherwise), flow stability, etc. In fact,
almost any action a person is doing
involves some kind of a fluid mechanics
problem.
Kinesiology ppt
225

FLUID MECHANICS… Cont’d
The boundary between the solid
mechanics and ﬂuid mechanics is some
kind of gray shed and not a sharp
distinction
The liquid will change its shape to
conform to that of the container and will
take on the same boundaries as the
container up to the maximum depth of the
liquid
Fluid mechanics: the behavior of fluids at
rest and in motion
Kinesiology ppt
226

Fluid mechanics… Cont’d
Air Resistance is a major concern in
outdoor sports. It has been described in
chapter 5 of this course that projectile
motions highly affected by the resistance
from air.
So, it should be highly considered during
training and exercise. All in all, as a
coach you should work to create
adaptation of different environments by
your athletes.
Kinesiology ppt
227

Fluid mechanics… Cont’d
On the other side, the other fluid, namely,
water has a great relationship with the
sport. Swimming sport is totally performed
in immersion into water.
So, the pressure, the temperature and the
density level of the water highly affects the
performance of a swimmer.
Creating adaptation to adverse conditions
while maintain homeostasis is mandatory
if we are working to improve the
Kinesiology ppt
228

THE END
Kinesiology ppt
229

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