Investigating Science for Course HSC exams 2023

1. Teaching Investigating Science
Module 6 Technologies
Science statewide staffroom meeting 16 March 2023
NSW Department of Education

2. 2
Module 6 Inquiry Question 1
Resources developed by Investigating Science
Teachers:
Scientific Investigation and Technology.docx
This document contains some investigations ideas
that can be adapted for inquiry question 1.

3. The rapid development of new technologies has enhanced industrial and agricultural processes,
medical applications and communications. Students explore the dynamic relationship between
science and technology where the continuing advancement of science is dependent on the
development of new tools and materials. They also examine how advances in science inform the
development of new technologies and so reflect the interdependence of science and technology.
Students consider experimental risks as they engage with the skills of Working Scientifically.
They investigate the appropriateness of using a range of technologies in conducting practical
investigations, including those that provide accurate measurement.
Module 6: Technologies
3
Content focus

4. Module 6: Technologies
4
Working Scientifically
In this module, students
focus on developing hypotheses and questions.
process appropriate qualitative and quantitative data.
demonstrate how science drives demand for the development of further technologies.

5. Module 6: Technologies
5
Scientific Investigation and Technology
Inquiry question: How does technology enhance and/or limit scientific investigation?
Students:
design a practical investigation that uses available technologies to measure both the independent and
dependent variables that produce quantitative data to measure the effect of changes of, including but not
limited to:
• temperature on reaction rate
• temperature on volume of gas
• speed on distance travelled
• pressure on volume of gas
conduct the practical investigation to obtain relevant data and evaluate the limitations of the technologies
used
investigate the range of measuring devices used in the practical investigation and assess the likelihood of
random and systematic errors and the devices' degree of accuracy
using specific examples, compare the accuracy of analogue and digital technologies in making observations
assess the safety of technologies selected for the practical investigation by using chemical safety data and

6. Module 6: Technologies
6
A Continuous Cycle
Inquiry question: How have developments in technology led to advances in scientific theories and laws that, in turn, drive the need for further developments in
technology?
Students:
using examples, assess the impact that developments in technologies have had on the accumulation of evidence for scientific theories, laws and models, including
but not limited to:
• computerised simulations and models of the Earth’s geological history
• X-ray diffraction and the discovery of the structure of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
• technology to detect radioactivity and the development of atomic theory
• the Hadron collider and discovery of the Higgs boson
using examples, assess the impact that developments in scientific theories, laws and models have had on the development of new technologies, including but not
limited to:
• the laws of refraction and reflection on the development of microscopes and telescopes
• radioactivity and radioactive decay on the development of radiotherapy and nuclear bombs
• the discovery of the structure of DNA and the development of biotechnologies to genetically modify organisms
• Newton’s laws and the technology required to build buildings capable of withstanding earthquakes
investigate scientists’ increasing awareness of the value of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples’ knowledge and understanding of the medicinal and
material uses of plants and, in partnership with communities, investigate the potential for ethical development of new drug treatments and synthetic chemicals
through the bioharvesting of plants from Country and Place

7. Module 5: Scientific investigations
7
Content Focus
Students explore the importance of accuracy, validity and reliability in relation to the
investigative work of a scientist.

8. Science fuels technology
8
The notion of technology includes any sort of designed innovation. Some examples include:
High-tech machines
Vaccine technology
Surgical procedures
Crop rotation

9. The Science-Technology cycle
9

10. NSW Department of Education
Cycles of science and
technology
Outcome
describes and explains how science drives the
development of technologies INS12-13

11. Big ideas: Technology
It is called ‘science and technology’ for a reason
The gathering of experimental evidence is supported or limited by the availability of
technology.
New technology allows us to observe phenomena that was previously unseen,
challenges our understanding of the world and catalyses the discovery of new
theories and models.
11
Science
Technology
Inquiry question: How have developments in technology led
to advances in scientific theories and laws that, in turn, drive
the need for further developments in technology?

12. Technology and modern science co-exist in a
continuous cycle
12
Science
Technology
Technologies help us gather, process, model
and analyse data. The gathering of
experimental evidence is supported or limited
by the availability of technology.
Observation
and evidence
Constructing evidence-based
explanations is central to
advancing scientific understanding
Application
Scientific understanding
can be applied to develop
new technologies.
The need to test or validate scientific
theories, models and laws drives the need
for further developments in technology to
support the collection of evidence

13. A continuous cycle – part 1
Inquiry question: How have developments in technology led to advances in scientific theories
and laws that, in turn, drive the need for further developments in technology?
using examples, assess the impact that developments in technologies have had on the
accumulation of evidence for scientific theories, laws and models, including but not limited to:
• computerised simulations and models of the Earth’s geological history
• X-ray diffraction and the discovery of the structure of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
• technology to detect radioactivity and the development of atomic theory
• the Hadron collider and discovery of the Higgs boson
13

14. Radioactivity
14
using examples, assess the impact that developments in technologies have
had on the accumulation of evidence for scientific theories, laws and models
technology to detect
radioactivity
Evidence
development of
atomic theory
(radioactivity)
using examples, assess the impact that developments in scientific theories,
laws and models have had on the development of new technologies
Radiotherapy
Nuclear bombs

15. The discovery of radioactivity
15
using examples, assess the impact that developments in technologies have
had on the accumulation of evidence for scientific theories, laws and models
Geiger counter,
scintillation screen
or photographic film
Photographic plates were a technology that had a
significant impact on the development of atomic
theory. By isolating the plates from light sources that
could expose them it was observed that:
• uranium ores caused them to be fogged,
suggesting that they emitted rays
• there were other radioactive elements including
polonium and radium.
Plates continued to be used to study radioactivity and
to track the motion of subatomic particles in cloud and
bubble chambers
Discovery of
radioactivity and
radioactive decay
This led to the discovery of radioactivity which
demonstrated that atoms could be made up of
smaller particles.
This was a significant development in atomic
theory.
The types of radiation along with their penetrating
power and other properties were able to be
determined using evidence generated from this
technology

16. A continuous cycle – part 2
Inquiry question: How have developments in technology led to advances in scientific theories
and laws that, in turn, drive the need for further developments in technology?
16
using examples, assess the impact that developments in scientific theories, laws and
models have had on the development of new technologies, including but not limited to:
• the laws of refraction and reflection on the development of microscopes and
telescopes
• radioactivity and radioactive decay on the development of radiotherapy and
nuclear bombs
• the discovery of the structure of DNA and the development of biotechnologies
to genetically modify organisms
• Newton’s laws and the technology required to build buildings capable of withstanding
earthquakes

17. Use of radioactivity
17
using examples, assess the impact that developments in scientific theories,
laws and models have had on the development of new technologies
Geiger counter,
scintillation screen
or photographic film
Discovery of
radioactivity and
radioactive decay
Radiotherapy
Nuclear bombs
Application

18. Use of radioactivity (cont.)
18
Discovery of
radioactivity and
radioactive decay
Early observations of radioactivity led to several
important discoveries about the behaviour of atoms
and the nature of radiation.
For example:
• Radioactivity is a natural phenomenon: Certain
materials, such as uranium, emit radiation without
any external influence.
• Radioactivity involves the emission of particles
and energy: Radiation comes in different forms,
including particles and gamma rays.
• Radioactive decay is a random process: but the
half-life model can predict the behaviour of large
groups of radioactive atoms.
• Radioactivity can cause harm: Early
observations revealed that exposure to high levels
of radiation can be harmful to living organisms.
Radiotherapy
Radiotherapy is a medical treatment that uses radiation to kill
cancer cells. This treatment was made possible by our
understanding of the way that radiation interacts with living tissue.
We learned that radiation damages the DNA of cancer cells,
causing them to die off. At the same time, we also learned how to
use shielding to protect healthy tissue from the radiation. This
knowledge allowed us to develop techniques and technologies for
delivering precise doses of radiation to cancerous tumours
while minimising the damage to surrounding tissue.
Nuclear bombs
Our understanding of nuclear physics and radioactive decay also
led to the development of nuclear bombs. By understanding the
behaviour of atoms and their unstable nuclei, we were able to
develop methods to split atoms and release vast amounts of
energy in the form of a nuclear explosion. The first nuclear bombs
were developed during World War II and were used to devastating
effect on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki.

19. Discovery and use of DNA
19
X-ray diffraction
Crystallography
Discovery of DNA
structure
Biotechnologies to
genetically modify
organisms
X-ray diffraction is a way to figure out
what the shape of a chemical substance
looks like in 3D.
• Scientists use a special machine to
shoot X-rays at a crystal made of the
substance.
• The X-rays bounce off the crystal and
create a pattern on a detector.
• By looking at the pattern, scientists can
figure out what the substance looks
like.
This helped us understand more about
how DNA is put together.
DNA is a long molecule that carries
genetic information.
• It is made up of four different types of
building blocks called nucleotides,
which are abbreviated as A, T, C, and
G.
• These nucleotides link together in a
specific order to create a double-
stranded helix structure.
• The A nucleotide always pairs with T,
and the C nucleotide always pairs with
G. This pairing allows the two strands
of DNA to twist around each other and
form a stable structure.
Scientists have discovered how to use this
structure to modify the genetic information
in an organism.
• By selectively adding, removing, or
changing the nucleotides in DNA, they
can alter the genetic instructions that
the DNA carries.
• It can be used to create new traits in
organisms, such as making crops
more resistant to diseases, or creating
medicines to target specific diseases.
This process is known as genetic
modification, and it has the potential to
revolutionize the way we live and work.
However, it also raises ethical and safety
concerns, and scientists are working to
ensure that any modifications are done in
a responsible and safe manner.

20. Discovery and use of DNA (cont.)
20
X-ray diffraction
Crystallography
Discovery of DNA
structure
Biotechnologies to
genetically modify
organisms
Completing the loop
Another example is in the field of genetics. The development of new
technologies such as CRISPR-Cas9 gene editing has allowed scientists to
manipulate DNA with unprecedented precision. This has led to new discoveries
about the genetic basis of disease and has opened up new avenues for medical
research and treatment.

21. Technology and modern science co-exist in a
continuous cycle – basic
21
Science
Technology

22. Technology and modern science co-exist in a continuous cycle – DNA
22
Start
here
Technology
X-ray crystallography
Enables double-
helix structure
to be observed
Science
Provides evidence for
discovery of DNA and its
role in reproduction
Technology Development of
biotechnologies
including CRISPR-Cas9
This gene editing
tech has allowed
scientists to
manipulate DNA
with
unprecedented
precision.
Science…
Led to new discoveries about the genetic
basis of disease and has opened up new
avenues for medical research and treatment.

23. Technology and modern science co-exist in a continuous cycle –
radioactivity
23
Start
here
Technology
Photographic plate
Enables
detection of
radiation
Science
Leads to discovery of
radioactivity
Technology Enables use of
radioactive sources to
probe matter
Used by
Rutherford to
detect the
nucleus and
show that most
of the atom is
empty space
Science…
Led to new discoveries about the
fundamental nature of matter. Essentially the
same approach is used in modern particle
accelerators.

24. Assessing the impact
Assess the impact that developments in
technology to detect radioactivity have had on
the accumulation of evidence for the
development of atomic theory
using examples, assess the impact that
developments in scientific theories, laws and
models have had on the development of new
technologies
Identify
a technology
Identify
a scientific theory, law or model
Describe
the key features of the technology
Describe
the key development in the theory, law or model
Explain
What evidence did this technology allow us to collect that
we couldn’t do before?
Explain
How did this development led to the development of a new
technology?
Analyse
What are the implications of this evidence on the
development of the theory?
Analyse
What are the implications of this technology?
Assess the impact
Make a judgment of the value of the technology to
development of theory
Assess the impact
Make a judgment of the value of the development in theory,
law or model to the development of technology 24

25. 2022 HSC – question 30
Explain how ONE technological development contributed to the discovery of the Higgs boson. Refer to
the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) in your response. (4 marks)
25
Criteria Marks
• Demonstrates thorough knowledge of a technological
development to the LHC
• Relates development to the discovery of the Higgs boson
4
• Demonstrates sound knowledge of a technological
development to the LHC
• Relates development to the discovery of the Higgs boson
3
• Demonstrates some knowledge of a development to the
LHC
OR
• Relates development to the discovery of the Higgs Boson
2
• Identifies a relevant development 1
Sample answer:
The original super-conducting magnets of
the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) were
improved, which allowed their strength to be
increased. This increased collision energy of
the particles being accelerated. During
experiments in 2012, the LHC allowed for
the observation of a particle in the same
mass region consistent with the Higgs
boson particle.
Answers could include
References to:
• Detection of particles with short half-life
• Increased sensitivity of instruments.

26. 2022 HSC – question 6
26
What was the scientific advancement made possible by the interpretation of the
photograph taken by Rosalind Franklin in 1952 using X-ray diffraction?
A. Evidence of the structure of the DNA molecule
B. Understanding the pathway of X-rays through DNA
C. The pattern of radiation given off by a DNA molecule
D. Understanding the reflection and refraction of X-rays through DNA

27. 2020 HSC Question 26a (3 marks)
(a) Describe how a technology has had a significant impact on the development of atomic theory.
27
Sample answer:
Photographic plates were a technology that had a significant impact on the development of atomic
theory. Exposure of photographic plates by uranium ores led to the discovery of radioactivity which
showed that atoms could be made up of smaller particles. This was a significant development in
atomic theory.

28. 2020 HSC Question 26b (4 marks)
(a) How has our understanding of radioactivity affected the development of radiotherapy?
28
Sample answer:
Radioactive decay produces highly penetrating gamma rays. In radiotherapy treatment for
cancer, a beam of gamma rays is directed at cancer cells, which kills them. However, gamma
rays are also harmful to healthy cells.

29. 2020 HSC Question 28a (2 marks)
How did the use of X-ray diffraction lead to an understanding of the structure of
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)?
29
Sample answer:
Passing X-rays through DNA produced a distinctive diffraction pattern. Analysis of
this pattern provided evidence for the correct positioning of the bases.

30. 2020 HSC Question 28b (4 marks)
Explain how knowledge of the structure of DNA has led to the development of TWO technologies.
30
Sample answer:
In transgenic technology, knowledge that DNA contains genes (a specific sequence of bases) has allowed
technology to be developed that can be used to cut a gene out of one organism and insert it into the genome
of another species eg Bt cotton.
In forensic technology, knowledge that DNA contains a unique base sequence has allowed technology to be
developed that can be used to take samples of DNA from a crime scene and match it against the DNA of
suspects.
Answers could include:
• Human genome project
• Cloning
• CRISPR
• GMO

31. NSW Department of Education
education.nsw.gov.au
Understanding accuracy, precision, reliability and validity
Evaluating data

32. Everyday vs. scientific usage
“She has a valid point”
“My car is unreliable”
“That's precisely what I meant”
“The polls were not accurate”

33. Quantitative data in science
33
Quantification
Count Measure
“How many?” “How much?”
“How many students in Year 7?”
“How many planets in the solar system?”
“What is the speed of light?”
“What is the magnitude of the earthquake?”
Number of elements of a set
Quantification of attributes of an
object or event

34. Influences on measurement quality
Uncertainty & Errors

35. NSW Department of Education
education.nsw.gov.au
Uncertainty

36. Uncertainty
36
Digital & some analogue devices: uncertainty is
indicated on equipment as “± …”
https://bit.ly/3ctl2Gd
Definition: the range of possible values
within which the true value of the
measurement lies
pH
meter
It is due to the limitations of measuring devices
Volume = 500.0 ± 0.5 mL
Or
Volume = 499.5 – 500.5 mL

37. Uncertainty
37
Analogue devices: ½ of the smallest
interval (division) on the scale
Open Stax College CC BY 4.0
Scale interval = 1 mL
Thus, uncertainty = 0.5 x 1 mL = 0.5 mL
Volume = 21.5 ± 0.5 mL
20 21 22 23
24

38. Compare the pair (digital vs. analogue)
38
VS
VS
VS
Features Digital devices Analog devices
Readouts Easy
Can be complex and
subject to error (e.g.
parallax)
Construction
Few moving parts –
contributes to the
accuracy of measurement
Many moving parts – more
opportunities for errors of
measurements
Cost
(comparatively)
Cheap – electronic parts
are less costly. However,
digital devices are
expensive to repair
Expensive – many working
parts to be assembled.
Repair costs are relatively
cheap
Recording
Data can be
recorded/stored for later
use
Data recording/storage is
not possible
Data analysis
Data may be fed from the
device to a computer
directly for subsequent
analysis with analytical
software
The direct transfer of data
to a computer is not
possible

39. NSW Department of Education
education.nsw.gov.au
Random and systematic errors
Errors of measurement

40. Random errors of measurement
40
Unpredictable or indeterminate errors
Results in variation in
• Magnitude (measured quantity varies by
unpredictable amounts)
• Direction (measured quantity will vary in
both direction: greater AND less than the
true value)
Random errors reduce precision
Random errors cause this

41. Random errors of measurement
41
Controlled variables – a source of random errors
Parallax errors (may also be systematic error)
Equipment – e.g. dirty glassware, frayed insulation on cables,
contaminated chemicals, mechanical vibrations, etc.
May be reduced by:
• Repeating measurements
• Increased sample size
• Better quality equipment and reagents
Parallax errors
glossary.periodni.com

42. Random errors of measurement
42
Averaging measurements is
one approach to dealing with
random errors

43. NSW Department of Education
education.nsw.gov.au
Systematic errors

44. Systematic errors of measurement
44
Determinate error or bias
Also referred to as bias
Results in variation in
• Magnitude (measured quantity varies
by a constant amount)
• Direction (measured quantity will vary
only in one direction: greater OR less
than the true value)
Systematic errors affect accuracy,
not precision
Systematic errors cause this

45. Systematic errors of measurement
45
Generally caused by instrument errors:
• Non-zeroing of instruments
• Poor calibration
• Instrument drift
Parallax errors (may also be random error)
May be reduced by:
• Zeroing or recalibrating instruments

46. Systematic errors of measurement
46
Note: increasing the number
of measurements will not
overcome systematic errors
Averaging measurements
does not address systematic
errors

47. Significant figures
47
Measurement confidence
Significant figures are the number of digits in a
measurement, that contribute to the precision of the value.
The greater the number of significant figures, the better its
precision
Rules
1. ALL non-zero numbers (1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9) are ALWAYS
significant.
2. ALL zeroes between non-zero numbers are ALWAYS significant.
3. ALL zeroes which are SIMULTANEOUSLY to the right of the
decimal point AND at the end of the number are ALWAYS
significant.
4. ALL zeroes which are to the left of a written decimal point and
are in a number >= 10 are ALWAYS significant.
Number
Sig.
Fig.
Rule
48,923 5 1
3.967 4 1
900.06 5
1,2,4
0.0004 (= 4 x 10-4) 1 1,4
8.1000 5 1,3
501.040 6
1,2,3,4
3,000,000 (= 3 x 106) 1 1
10.0 (= 1.00 x 101) 3 1,3,4
Flinders University

48. NSW Department of Education
education.nsw.gov.au
Accuracy, Precision,
Reliability & Validity

49. Evaluating data – an overview
Term
Definition(s)
Notes
Working NESA JCGM
Accuracy
(exactness)
The extent to which a measured
value agrees with its true value (i.e.
reference value).
Accuracy estimated taking into
consideration the evident
sources of error and the
limitations of the instruments
used in making the
measurements
The closeness of agreement
between a measured quantity value
and a true quantity value of the
measurand**
Requires prior knowledge about
the measurand (e.g. reference
values)
Precision
(agreement)
The extent to which multiple
measurements, made under
identical or similar conditions,
agree with each other.
Not defined (except for Science
Extension syllabus Module 3)
The closeness of agreement
between measured quantity values
obtained by replicate
measurements on the same or
similar objects under specified
conditions
Measurement precision: applied
to repeated measurements in a
single experiment.
Instrument precision: the
precision of measuring devices
(analogue and digital)
Reliability
(stability)
The extent to which the findings of
repeated experiments, conducted
under identical or similar
conditions, agree with each other.
An extent to which repeated
observations and/or
measurements taken under
identical circumstances will
yield similar results.
Not defined (instead, the term
reproducibility is used)
The stability of measurements
across multiple experiments.
Validity
(meaning)
The extent to which an experiment
addresses the question under
investigation.
The extent to which tests
measure what was intended,
and to which data, inferences,
and actions produced from tests
and other processes are
accurate.
Where the specified requirements
[of an experiment or instrument] are
adequate for its intended use
Relates to the design of the
investigations that generated
the data & conclusions
Evaluating scientific data Stages 4 to 6 Evaluating scientific data abridged

50. NSW Department of Education
education.nsw.gov.au
Emphasis on exactness
Accuracy

51. Exactness
Accuracy
Prior knowledge of true value is required.
How close are the observed values to the
expected/reference values?
Includes error of measurement (deviation from true
value)
• Systematic errors
Summary
• Average (observed values) ≠ expected or
reference value: not accurate

52. Example
Accuracy
A pH meter records the pH of a 0.1 M HCl
(hydrochloric acid) solution to be 1.5. Is this reading
accurate?
Uncertainty of pH meter: ± 0.2
Expected value: pH = -log10[0.1] = 1
Therefore, range of acceptable pH values: 0.8 – 1.2.
Since the observed pH measurement is outside the
range of acceptable value, the reading is not accurate.

53. Accuracy
53
Improving accuracy
• Accuracy may be improved by reducing errors (difference between observed and expected
measurements)
• Improved sensitivity
• Improved instrumentation
– Digitisation (e.g. litmus paper > universal indicator > pH probe)

54. Evaluating errors
The acceptable range of measurement for the pH of
0.1M HCl: 0.8 – 1.2
Observed pH: 1.5
Inference: measurement is inaccurate
Cause: random or systematic errors
0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4

55. Reliability
Improving reliability – similar to precision
If the unreliability was
due to …
Then, repeating the experiment ..
Random errors Could improve its reliability
Systematic Will not improve its reliability
“Repeating for reliability” is not
always true.
Check experimental design
• Controlled variables
• Sample sizes
• # data points
• Equipment
• Reducing/eliminating errors y = 0.0295x + 6.2968
R² = 0.0818
0.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
8.0
9.0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
PERIOD
OF
OSCILLATION/S
TRIALS

56. Validity
56
A holistic evaluation of data quality and investigation methods
A measurement is ‘valid’ if it measures what it claims to be measuring.
Avoid cliches such as ‘variables for validity’.
All aspects of experimental design are important for validity assessment:
• Is the inquiry question/hypothesis valid (independent & dependent variables)?
• Are controlled variables kept constant?
• Is the change in the dependant variable solely due to changes the independent variable?
• Is the methodology appropriate?
• Are the best equipment and analytical methods used?
• Are the assumptions (if any) employed valid?
• Is the conclusion supported by the evidence collected in the investigation?

57. References
57
Except as otherwise noted, all material is © State of New South Wales (Department of Education), 2021 and
licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. All other material (third-party
material) is used with permission or under licence. Where the copyright owner of third-party material has not
licensed their material under a Creative Commons or similar licence, you should contact them directly for
permission to reuse their material.
NSW Investigating Science Syllabus © 2017 NSW Education Standards Authority (NESA) for and on behalf of
the Crown in right of the State of New South Wales.
Investigating Science 2022 HSC exam pack © 2022 NSW Education Standards Authority (NESA) for and on
behalf of the Crown in right of the State of New South Wales.
Investigating Science 2020 HSC exam pack © 2020 NSW Education Standards Authority (NESA) for and on
behalf of the Crown in right of the State of New South Wales.