UncoverLng_Week4.pdf

Rethinking language structures Composition and constituency
探索語言
Forming sentences
chenhaochiu@ntu.edu.tw
Mar. 8, 2022
1 / 87

Outlines
In today’s lecture, we will be talking about:
1 Rethinking language structures
2 Composition and constituency
2 / 87

I. Rethinking language structures
3 / 87

Rethinking language structures
我在街上看見一個殺了殺了殺了人的人的人的人。
I saw a person who killed a person who killed a person
who killed a person who killed a person on the street.
4 / 87

Buffalo buffalo Buffalo buffalo buffalo buffalo Buffalo
buffalo.
5 / 87

buffalo.
(The) Buffalo buffalo (that) Buffalo buffalo (often)
buffalo (in turn) buffalo (other) Buffalo buffalo.（時常
被水牛城水牛恫嚇的水牛城水牛於是恫嚇其他水牛城
水牛）。
[(Buffalonian bison) (that) (Buffalonian bison
intimidate)] intimidate (Buffalonian bison)
6 / 87

Architecture
7 / 87

Architecture
Defining characters:
Greek: triangular roof, pillars
8 / 87

Architecture
9 / 87

Architecture
Roman Greek + arch
10 / 87

Architecture
Byzantine: onion head
11 / 87

Architecture
Gothic: tall, mosaic glasses
12 / 87

Architecture
Renaissance: symmetric
13 / 87

Architecture
Renaissance: symmetric
Baroque: contrast; “rich” surface
14 / 87

The composition
“Words” are (relatively) easy to identify. And they are
very important for language use. But, these basic units
(elements) do not just occur randomly or arbitrarily.
15 / 87

The composition
Random piles of rocks or stones don’t make
“buildings.” (i.e., they don’t serve any functions.)
16 / 87

The composition
“Words” are combined in a systematic way to make a
larger, more complicated structure. These structures
thus convey meanings for communication.
17 / 87

The composition
“Words” are combined in a systematic way to make a
larger, more complicated structure. These structures
thus convey meanings for communication.
18 / 87

The composition
There are just too many sentences to list.
Speakers know more than lists.
The way words are organized into sentences is not
random. There are patterns.
19 / 87

The composition
There are just too many sentences to list.
Speakers know more than lists.
The way words are organized into sentences is not
random. There are patterns.
⇒ Syntax
20 / 87

Languages are not buildings?
https://youtu.be/7 ToAF46GPQ
21 / 87

22 / 87

23 / 87

B-line buses in Vancouver
24 / 87

25 / 87

B for Broadway?
26 / 87

B for Broadway?
If there is B-line, then where is A-line (bus)?
27 / 87

B for bee?
28 / 87

B for bee?
29 / 87

B for bee?
Wiki: a bee line is the shortest route or a straight line
between two points.
30 / 87

Language structures are like architecture, but they are
expressed linearly/sequentially.
How do we break sentences into pieces
“systematically?”
buffalo.
31 / 87

II. Composition and constituency
32 / 87

Languages as bee line?
How do we break sentences into pieces “systematically?”
羅馬人對建築工程的重大貢獻，是發明了一種被稱為
「黏漿」(Caementum) 的萬用材料，這是一種用火山
灰岩、石灰和水拌成的石漿，再加上碎石或碎磚，用
之於建築業，非常堅固，又增添色彩。這就是世界上
第一種足以支撐大跨度建築的混凝土。羅馬人發明了
混凝土，從此大拱門、大圓頂、大拱頂就都能獨立，
而無需像古希臘建築那樣靠許多柱子來支撐了，從而
成為世界建築史上劃時代的創舉。
(原文網址: https://kknews.cc/travel/oegga5.html)
33 / 87

n-gram?
羅馬人對建築工程的重大貢獻，是發明了一種被稱
為「黏漿」(Caementum) 的萬用材料，這是一種用火
山灰岩、石灰和水拌成的石漿，再加上碎石或碎
磚，用之於建築業，非常堅固，又增添色彩。這就
是世界上第一種足以支撐大跨度建築的混凝土。羅馬
人發明了混凝土，從此大拱門、大圓頂、大拱頂就都
能獨立，而無需像古希臘建築那樣靠許多柱子來支撐
了，從而成為世界建築史上劃時代的創舉。
34 / 87

Positions?
「黏漿」(Caementum) 的萬用材料，這是一種用火山
灰岩、石灰和水拌成的石漿，再加上碎石或碎磚，用
之於建築業，非常堅固，又增添色彩。這就是世界上
第一種足以支撐大跨度建築的混凝土。羅馬人發明了
混凝土，從此大拱門、大圓頂、大拱頂就都能獨
立，而無需像古希臘建築那樣靠許多柱子來支撐
了，從而成為世界建築史上劃時代的創舉。
35 / 87

Parts of speech?
「黏漿」(Caementum) 的萬用材料，這是一種用火
磚，用之於建築業，非常堅固，又增添色彩。這
就是世界上第一種足以支撐大跨度建築的混凝土。羅
馬人發明了混凝土，從此大拱門、大圓頂、大拱頂就
都能獨立，而無需像古希臘建築那樣靠許多柱子來支
撐了，從而成為世界建築史上劃時代的創舉。
36 / 87

Parts of speech?
「黏漿」(Caementum) 的萬用材料，這是一種用火
磚，用之於建築業，非常堅固，又增添色彩。這
就是世界上第一種足以支撐大跨度建築的混凝土。羅
馬人發明了混凝土，從此大拱門、大圓頂、大拱頂就
都能獨立，而無需像古希臘建築那樣靠許多柱子來支
撐了，從而成為世界建築史上劃時代的創舉。
Do you find any patterns?
37 / 87

Parts of speech
As in architecture, buildings are composed of different
“elements” and “parts” that serve different functions.
38 / 87

Parts of speech
Speech, too! What are the “parts of speech?”
39 / 87

Parts of speech
Some lexical categories: noun, verb, participle,
interjection, pronoun, preposition, adverb,
and conjunction.
40 / 87

Parts of speech
Some lexical categories: noun, verb, participle,
interjection, pronoun, preposition, adverb,
and conjunction.
Parts of speech are also called lexical categories,
word classes.
41 / 87

Testing for categories
1 Affixation: walk, walks, walked vs. Fred, yellow
42 / 87

2 Distribution:
apple fell straight to the ground.
An apple straight to the ground.
43 / 87

2 Distribution:
apple fell straight to the ground.
An apple straight to the ground.
3 Meaning: Doraemon, the moon, ... etc.
⇒ Both names are directly referring to (specific)
individuals in the world. (But this test doesn’t always
capture all the words that actually go in the category.)
44 / 87

Generative rules
How are these categories organized in sentences?
Alice sighed.
N V
45 / 87

Generative rules
Alice sighed.
N V
The rabbit sighed.
DET N V
The rabbit saw Alice.
DET N V N
The girl saw the rabbit.
DET N V DET N
46 / 87

Generative rules
Alice sighed.
N V
The rabbit sighed.
DET N V
The rabbit saw Alice.
DET N V N
The girl saw the rabbit.
DET N V DET N
The white rabbit left.
DET ADJ N V
The white rabbit saw Alice.
DET ADJ N V N
The girl saw the white rabbit.
DET N V DET ADJ N
(DET = determiner)
47 / 87

Generative rules
The sentences structures from the previous slide:
S → N V
S → DET N V
S → DET N V N
S → DET N V DET N
S → DET ADJ N V
S → DET ADJ N V N
S → DET N V DET ADJ N
48 / 87

Generative rules
The sentences structures from the previous slide:
S → N V
S → DET N V
S → DET N V N
S → DET N V DET N
S → DET ADJ N V
S → DET ADJ N V N
Listing all possible structures appears a little redundant.
Can we make them more generalized and comprehensive?
49 / 87

Generative rules
S → N V
S → DET N V
S → DET N V N
S → DET N V DET N
50 / 87

Generative rules
S → N V
S → DET N V
S → DET N V N
S → DET N V DET N
⇒ N can be either N or DET
N.
51 / 87

Generative rules
S → N V
S → DET N V
S → DET N V N
S → DET N V DET N
N.
⇒ (DET) N
52 / 87

Generative rules
S → N V
S → DET N V
S → DET N V N
S → DET N V DET N
N.
⇒ (DET) N
S → DET ADJ N V
S → DET ADJ N V N
53 / 87

Generative rules
S → N V
S → DET N V
S → DET N V N
S → DET N V DET N
N.
⇒ (DET) N
S → DET ADJ N V
S → DET ADJ N V N
⇒ N can be N, DET N, or
DET ADJ N.
54 / 87

Generative rules
S → N V
S → DET N V
S → DET N V N
S → DET N V DET N
N.
⇒ (DET) N
S → DET ADJ N V
S → DET ADJ N V N
DET ADJ N.
⇒ (DET) (ADJ) N
55 / 87

Generative rules
S → N V
S → DET N V
S → DET N V N
S → DET N V DET N
N.
⇒ (DET) N
S → DET ADJ N V
S → DET ADJ N V N
DET ADJ N.
⇒ (DET) (ADJ) N
So far: S → (DET) (ADJ) N V ((DET) (ADJ) N)
56 / 87

Generative rules
What about “Mary knows that Alice sighed”?
57 / 87

Generative rules
A sentence can be embedded within another sentence!
58 / 87

Generative rules
Shall we revise our sentence structure?
59 / 87

Generative rules
How about S → (DET) (ADJ) N V (that) (S)?
60 / 87

Generative rules
What does that predict?
61 / 87

Generative rules
What does that predict?
⇒ Recursiveness
62 / 87

Word order
Different languages may have different word orders.
(cf. the architectural styles)
SVO: English, Mandarin, ... etc.
SOV: Korean, Japanese, Turkish, ... etc.
VSO: Arabic, Irish, ... etc.
63 / 87

Word order
About 35% of the world’s languages have the order of
SVO.
64 / 87

Word order
SVO.
What about SOV?
65 / 87

Word order
SVO.
What about SOV? 44%
66 / 87

Word order
SVO.
What about SOV? 44%
About 19% of languages, including Arabic and Irish,
have VSO word order.
67 / 87

Word order
The remaining patterns, VOS, OVS, and OSV, are
quite rare. Below is an example of Malagasy, a VOS
Austronesian language spoken in Madagascar.
Manasa lamba amin’ny savony ny lehilahy
washes clothes with-the soap the man
‘The man washes clothes with the soap.’
68 / 87

Word order
While it may be convenient to label a language as
being VOS, SOV, etc., such labels can be misleading.
Consider the following German examples.
1 Karl kocht die Suppe.
Karl cooks the soup
‘Karl is cooking the soup.’
69 / 87

Word order
Karl cooks the soup
⇒ SVO
70 / 87

Word order
Karl cooks the soup
⇒ SVO
2 Magda ist froh, dass Karl die Suppe kocht.
Magda is happy that Karl the soup cooks
‘Magda is happy that Karl is cooking the soup.’
71 / 87

Word order
Karl cooks the soup
⇒ SVO
2 Magda ist froh, dass Karl die Suppe kocht.
Magda is happy that Karl the soup cooks
‘Magda is happy that Karl is cooking the soup.’
⇒ The subordinate clause has an SOV order.
72 / 87

Word order
Word orders are not only restricted to Subjects (S),
Verbs (V), and Objects (O). Compare the following
examples, comparing the order between the noun and
the determiner.
1 [English]: these books. *books these
2 [Malay]: buku-buku ini
books these
‘these books’
*ini buku-buku
73 / 87

Word order
Constraints for prepositions:
Sally finally met with that person.
*Sally finally met that person with.
74 / 87

Word order
Now consider Japanese:
kono kodomo to
this child with
‘with this child’
*to kono kodomo
75 / 87

Word order
Now consider Japanese:
kono kodomo to
this child with
‘with this child’
*to kono kodomo
⇒ Postposition
76 / 87

Constituents
OK. It looks like these generative rules work just fine,
though this linear combination (sort of) hints that
stronger relationships should lie between neighbours.
77 / 87

Constituents
Consider: The child found a puppy.
78 / 87

Constituents
Consider: The child found a puppy.
Do you think “a puppy” (DET N) has a stronger
relationship than “found a” (V DET)?
(NB: The generative rules either suggest that DET-N
and V-DET should be equal in terms of relationship,
or fail to reveal that there is a difference between these
neighbouring units!)
79 / 87

Constituents
So things that bear a stronger relationship should be
grouped together, at least structurally.
80 / 87

Constituents
The child found a puppy.
81 / 87

Constituents
⇒ [The child] [found] [a puppy].
82 / 87

Constituents
⇒ [The child] [found] [a puppy].
In linguistics, we call these grouping “constituents.”
(This term is more straightforward in a tree-like
structure, which we will come back to in a few slides.)
83 / 87

Constituents
How do we know if a group is a true constituent? There are
some tests.
1 Stand alone: If a group of words can stand alone
(usually in answering a question), they form a
constituent. For example,
“What did the child find?” “A puppy.”
84 / 87

Constituents
some tests.
2 Replacement: Natural groups can be substituted by a
pronoun or a word like “do.” For example,
“Where did the child find a puppy?” “He found it in
the park.”
85 / 87

Constituents
some tests.
2 Replacement: Natural groups can be substituted by a
pronoun or a word like “do.” For example,
“Where did the child find a puppy?” “He found it in
the park.”
3 Movement: If a group of words can be moved together
and remain grammatical, they form a constituent. For
example,
“A puppy was found by the child.”
86 / 87

Constituents
YOUR CONTRIBUTION
• Give some examples (in any language you know) showing
where the constituency may (seemingly) fail. For example,
你在家嗎？
⇒ 「在！」
天能你看了嗎？
⇒ 「看了。」
「我咖啡、他可樂」
[Japanese] Hoshii! (meaning “(I) want (this).”)
87 / 87

UncoverLng_Week4.pdf

Recommended

Recommended

More Related Content

Recently uploaded

Recently uploaded (10)

Featured

Featured (20)

UncoverLng_Week4.pdf