A Powerpoint detailing some aspects of the history of the Roman Army from the beginning of Rome through the early Empire.

1. Roman Army
Basics

2. Organization
Legion (legio, legionis) – largest division of a Roman army; 3600-4800 (6000 max.)
Cohort (cohors, cohortis) – subdivision of a legion; 1/10 of legion (600)
subdivided into three maniples
Maniple (manipulus, -i) – 1/3 of a cohort (200)
Century (centuria, -ae) – smallest unit; ½ of a maniple (100)
Contubernia [tent mates] – subdivision of a century 1/10 of a century

3. Auxilia
- Conscripted from provinces [non-Roman]
- Would receive citizenship after a term of service [~25 years]
Pedites [infantry foot soldiers]
- Sagitarii (archers) mainly from Crete and Numidia
- Funditores (slinger) from the Balearic
- Levis armaturae pedites [light infantry] from Gaul and Germany
Equites [cavalry]
Recruited from local populations; Numidian, Germans, Gauls
Organization
Ala (wings) – 300 cavalry
Turma – 1/10 of a ala
Decuria – 1/3 of a turma [Decurion is a leader]

4. Non-Combatants
Calones – camp servants
Mercatores – merchants / traders
Muliones – muleteers – mule drivers -> mules carried the baggage/supplies
Fabri – engineers / mechanics
Exploratores / speculatores – scouts/spies, recruited from local populations

5. Officers
Dux – commanding officer / general
could be given the title of imperator after a major victory
Legati (staff officers) – could command parts of a legion; served as ambassadors;
usually were patrician class members looking to gain political office.
Quaestores (quartermasters) – patrician rank; in charge of pay, equipment, and
food supply.
Tribuni militum (military tribunes) – lowest ranked commissioned officers
Centuriones (centurions) – noncommissioned officers; most experienced soldiers
commanded a century
Primus Pilus (1st centurion of the 1st cohort) – head centurion
Praefecti (prefects) – command the auxilia
Decuriones (decurions) – command a decuria [cavalry centurion]

6. Clothing and equipment
Clothing
tunica – normal tunic
sagum – woolen cloak
caligae – boots
braccae – pants
Defensive
lorica – body armor
hamata
squamata
segmentata
galea - helmet
scutum – shield

7. Offensive Gear
pilum – javelin; 6’ long, made of two parts, a wooden pole (4’) and a iron
spear point (2’)
gladius – short sword (2’ long)
hasta – heavy spear
pugio – dagger/knife
Provisions and Pay
Each soldiers was allotted 2 pound of frumentum (grain [wheat, barley]) per day
Also received a salary of 225 denarii per annum
money was taken out to pay for gear
Could supplement this with gifts (donativa) and booty (praeda)

8. Military Standards
Aquila (eagle) – the standard of the legion, made of silver or bronze, mounted on
a pole. Carried by the aquilifer (eagle bearer). The loss of a eagle was
catastrophic.
Signum – the standard of a cohort or maniple, mounted on a pole, carried by a
signifer
Vexillum – a rectangular banner or flag, attached to a staff. Served as a standard
for the auxilia. A red vexillum over the commanders tent was the signal to
prepare for battle.

9. Battle Formation
The usual battle formation of a Roman legion (10 cohorts) was the acies triplex
(triple line)
prima acies (first line), 4 cohorts of experienced soldiers – engages enemy
first
secunda acies (second line), 3 cohorts, stationed 150 feet behind the first.
Duty was to relieve the first line
tertia acies (third line), 3 cohorts, used as a reserve, and as a defense from
attacks to the rear of the formation.

10. To give signals in battle …
Tuba – (trumpet) a straight instrument, 3’ long
Cornu – (horn) curved instrument
Marching formation – three sections
Primum agmen – the vanguard; consisting of scouts, cavalry, and light-armed
infantry
Agmen – the main column of the legio
Novissimum agmen – rear guard, consisting of the least experienced legionary
troops
Following each legion was the impedimenta (baggage) – carried on pack animals
or in wagons; contained extra weapons, food, clothing, artillery, tools, tents, etc.
Each soldier carried a sarcina (personal pack) over the left soldier on a forked
pole.
When carrying the pack they were referred to as impeditus (incumbered),
without expeditus (unencumbered)

12. The average days march (iter), from sunrise to noon, covered about 15 miles. An
iter magnum (forced march) covered approximately 25 miles.
After each days march, the legion would construct a camp as a protection and a
place of retreat.
The camp was place preferably on the slope of a hill near sufficient supplies of
wood and water.
The camp was usually in the shape of a rectangle.
There were two main streets (viae principales) at right angles to each other, and
four gates at the end of each main street.
The camp was guarded by sentries day and night.
The night was divided into four watches (vigilae) , each lasting four hours from 6
p.m. to 6 a.m. [prima, secunda, tertia, quarta viliga]
An officer (the tesserarius) was in charge of giving the password for each day.

13. In the fortification of the camp …
Fossa – ditch/trench surrounding the camp; 7-10’ deep and 12-18’ wide
Agger – a wall made from the earth from the fossa; 10’ high and wide,
surrounding the camp
Vallum – a defensive wall made of wooden stakes at the top of the agger
Praetorium – tent of the general/commander, near the middle of the camp
Tabernacula – the tents of the soldiers
The word castra is preserved in English in town names that have the ending –
chester, -cester
e.g. Manchester, Lancaster, etc.

15. Military Operation
Oppugnatio / obsidio – siege
Agger – ramp, made of earth,wood, stones, etc, built to get to the top of the
fortification
Aries – battering ram, to break the wall/gate of a town
Pluteus – movable screen
Scala – ladder
Testudo – formation of soldiers with their shields overlapping
Turris ambulatoria – siege tower (50-150’ tall)
Tormenta – artillery
ballista – stone thrower
catapulta – arrow/javeling shooters (scorpio light catapult)