Minnesota - Effects of Rain Gardens on Water Quality
`
For more information, Please see websites below:
`
Organic Edible Schoolyards & Gardening with Children =
http://scribd.com/doc/239851214 ~
`
Double Food Production from your School Garden with Organic Tech =
http://scribd.com/doc/239851079 ~
`
Free School Gardening Art Posters =
http://scribd.com/doc/239851159 ~
`
Increase Food Production with Companion Planting in your School Garden =
http://scribd.com/doc/239851159 ~
`
Healthy Foods Dramatically Improves Student Academic Success =
http://scribd.com/doc/239851348 ~
`
City Chickens for your Organic School Garden =
http://scribd.com/doc/239850440 ~
`
Simple Square Foot Gardening for Schools - Teacher Guide =
http://scribd.com/doc/239851110 ~
Salt Management Guide for Landscape Irrigation with Recycled Water in Coastal...Fiona9864
This document provides a summary of a literature review on salt management practices for using recycled water to irrigate landscapes in coastal Southern California. It discusses California regulations for recycled water use, current recycled water usage, significant constituents in recycled water that can impact plants, guidelines for selecting plants suitable for the climate zones, and over 300 trees and shrubs appropriate for the regions. The review is intended to provide landscape professionals guidance on evaluating water quality, controlling salinity in soil, determining plant tolerance, and addressing any issues that may arise from irrigating with recycled water.
Minnesota: Effects of Rain Gardens on Water QualitySotirakou964
This document describes a study of 5 rain garden sites in the Minneapolis-St. Paul metropolitan area from 2002-2004. The study aimed to evaluate how rain gardens affect the quality of surface and subsurface water. Samples were collected and analyzed for parameters like suspended solids, nutrients, and ions to understand how concentrations changed as runoff moved through the rain gardens. Preliminary results indicated that properly designed rain gardens can enhance infiltration and reduce dissolved ion concentrations compared to background levels. However, long-term data on rain garden effectiveness is still limited given that most were recently constructed.
1) The study examines how forest stand age and structure impact water yield by measuring the components of the water cycle across five forest stands ranging from 2 to 200 years old in Western North Carolina.
2) Preliminary results show that canopy interception, the amount of rainfall intercepted by the forest canopy, increases with stand age and is better correlated with age than other stand characteristics like basal area or leaf area index.
3) Litter interception, the amount of rainfall intercepted by leaf litter on the forest floor, varies minimally across stand ages.
This document discusses the development of an interactive web map to assess anthropogenic wastewater generation in the Tierra Blanca watershed using GIS data. The map aggregates spatial data on wastewater sources like feed yards and municipalities. Assessment techniques were used to improve Cropland Data Layer accuracy including pixel counting, Bayesian probability, and linear regression. Future plans include layers on additional wastewater sources and quality, water availability/quality in aquifers, and playas. The map will help decision-makers understand water resources and conservation options in the watershed.
ANALYSIS OF DROUGHT ASSOCIATED IMPACTS ON THE CITY OF SAN BERNARDAnthony Budicin
This document analyzes the impacts of drought on wastewater flow rates and constituent concentrations at the City of San Bernardino Municipal Water Department's wastewater treatment plant. It examines data from 2007 to 2015 on monthly flow rates and concentrations of ammonia, BOD, TSS, TIN, and TDS in wastewater influent and effluent. The study aims to determine if mandatory water use reductions related to California's 20x2020 Water Conservation Plan have affected the wastewater stream. Understanding these impacts is important as changes in flow rates or higher concentrations could impact plant operations and require upgrades. The findings will help inform water resource management during drought conditions.
Waterwise Florida Landscapes: Landscaping to Promote Water Conservation Using...Kaila694m
Florida's water management districts produced this guide to promote waterwise landscaping using Xeriscape principles. The guide outlines the seven principles of Xeriscape - plan and design, soil analysis, proper plant selection, efficient turf and plant placement, irrigation, mulching, and maintenance. It provides details on each principle and plant lists to help homeowners choose drought-tolerant plants suited to their landscape conditions that require minimal water and care. The goal is to conserve Florida's water resources and protect water quality by establishing landscapes that thrive with little supplemental water or chemicals once established.
Waterwise Florida Landscapes: Landscaping to Promote Water Conservation Using...Eric832w
This document discusses the principles of Xeriscape landscaping to promote water conservation in Florida. It provides an overview of the seven principles: 1) Plan and Design, 2) Obtain a Soil Analysis, 3) Choose Proper Plants, 4) Use Turf Wisely, 5) Irrigate Efficiently, 6) Use Mulches, and 7) Perform Proper Maintenance. The document emphasizes matching plants to existing site conditions to minimize water, fertilizer and pesticide needs once established. It encourages planning landscapes based on growing conditions, soil analysis, functional uses and conservation of water resources.
Salt Management Guide for Landscape Irrigation with Recycled Water in Coastal...Fiona9864
This document provides a summary of a literature review on salt management practices for using recycled water to irrigate landscapes in coastal Southern California. It discusses California regulations for recycled water use, current recycled water usage, significant constituents in recycled water that can impact plants, guidelines for selecting plants suitable for the climate zones, and over 300 trees and shrubs appropriate for the regions. The review is intended to provide landscape professionals guidance on evaluating water quality, controlling salinity in soil, determining plant tolerance, and addressing any issues that may arise from irrigating with recycled water.
Minnesota: Effects of Rain Gardens on Water QualitySotirakou964
This document describes a study of 5 rain garden sites in the Minneapolis-St. Paul metropolitan area from 2002-2004. The study aimed to evaluate how rain gardens affect the quality of surface and subsurface water. Samples were collected and analyzed for parameters like suspended solids, nutrients, and ions to understand how concentrations changed as runoff moved through the rain gardens. Preliminary results indicated that properly designed rain gardens can enhance infiltration and reduce dissolved ion concentrations compared to background levels. However, long-term data on rain garden effectiveness is still limited given that most were recently constructed.
1) The study examines how forest stand age and structure impact water yield by measuring the components of the water cycle across five forest stands ranging from 2 to 200 years old in Western North Carolina.
2) Preliminary results show that canopy interception, the amount of rainfall intercepted by the forest canopy, increases with stand age and is better correlated with age than other stand characteristics like basal area or leaf area index.
3) Litter interception, the amount of rainfall intercepted by leaf litter on the forest floor, varies minimally across stand ages.
This document discusses the development of an interactive web map to assess anthropogenic wastewater generation in the Tierra Blanca watershed using GIS data. The map aggregates spatial data on wastewater sources like feed yards and municipalities. Assessment techniques were used to improve Cropland Data Layer accuracy including pixel counting, Bayesian probability, and linear regression. Future plans include layers on additional wastewater sources and quality, water availability/quality in aquifers, and playas. The map will help decision-makers understand water resources and conservation options in the watershed.
ANALYSIS OF DROUGHT ASSOCIATED IMPACTS ON THE CITY OF SAN BERNARDAnthony Budicin
This document analyzes the impacts of drought on wastewater flow rates and constituent concentrations at the City of San Bernardino Municipal Water Department's wastewater treatment plant. It examines data from 2007 to 2015 on monthly flow rates and concentrations of ammonia, BOD, TSS, TIN, and TDS in wastewater influent and effluent. The study aims to determine if mandatory water use reductions related to California's 20x2020 Water Conservation Plan have affected the wastewater stream. Understanding these impacts is important as changes in flow rates or higher concentrations could impact plant operations and require upgrades. The findings will help inform water resource management during drought conditions.
Waterwise Florida Landscapes: Landscaping to Promote Water Conservation Using...Kaila694m
Florida's water management districts produced this guide to promote waterwise landscaping using Xeriscape principles. The guide outlines the seven principles of Xeriscape - plan and design, soil analysis, proper plant selection, efficient turf and plant placement, irrigation, mulching, and maintenance. It provides details on each principle and plant lists to help homeowners choose drought-tolerant plants suited to their landscape conditions that require minimal water and care. The goal is to conserve Florida's water resources and protect water quality by establishing landscapes that thrive with little supplemental water or chemicals once established.
Waterwise Florida Landscapes: Landscaping to Promote Water Conservation Using...Eric832w
This document discusses the principles of Xeriscape landscaping to promote water conservation in Florida. It provides an overview of the seven principles: 1) Plan and Design, 2) Obtain a Soil Analysis, 3) Choose Proper Plants, 4) Use Turf Wisely, 5) Irrigate Efficiently, 6) Use Mulches, and 7) Perform Proper Maintenance. The document emphasizes matching plants to existing site conditions to minimize water, fertilizer and pesticide needs once established. It encourages planning landscapes based on growing conditions, soil analysis, functional uses and conservation of water resources.
This document is a report from the Texas Comptroller of Public Accounts discussing water issues facing Texas. It notes that while the Earth has abundant water, only a small portion is fresh water available for human use. Texas is experiencing drought that is straining its water supplies as the population grows. The report examines different sources of Texas' water and funding for water projects. It discusses new technologies that could help maximize existing supplies and the potential for desalination to provide new sources of water. The report makes recommendations for the Texas Legislature to help ensure adequate water supplies for the state's continued growth.
Calidad del agua para agricultura fao 29-ayers y westcot 1985-okiPIEDRON
This document provides guidelines for evaluating water quality for agricultural irrigation. It discusses four main water quality problems: salinity, infiltration rate, toxicity, and miscellaneous other issues. For each problem, the document describes guidelines for interpreting water quality data, potential impacts on crops, and management options. It provides water quality guidelines in tables and discusses experiences using various water qualities from different locations worldwide.
Landscaping for Water Quality: Concepts and Garden Designs for Homeowners, Ad...Farica46m
This document provides information and guidance for homeowners on landscaping to improve water quality in Maryland. It discusses why landscaping for water quality is important, including to capture rainwater, stabilize soil, increase water infiltration and filtration, provide wildlife habitat and more.
It then provides steps for designing a water-quality friendly landscape, including evaluating your property, planning your garden layout, selecting appropriate plants, and installing your garden. Specific techniques discussed include adding swales, berms, rain gardens and modifying existing landscaping.
Sample garden designs and extensive plant lists are also included to help homeowners select suitable native plants for their water-quality gardens. Additional resources are referenced for more information.
This presentation was given at the EPA’s National Water Event 2019, which took place on 29 and 30 May 2019 in Galway. This presentation by Gary Free from the EPA is on measuring the environment from space using satellite images.
This document summarizes a USDA-NIFA funded project studying fluvial geomorphology and agricultural resilience in the Deerfield River Watershed in Western Massachusetts. The project goals are to: 1) conduct fluvial geomorphic assessments; 2) implement outreach and education initiatives; 3) hold agrarian resilience roundtables; and 4) support institutional infrastructure for fluvial geomorphology. The project aims to help farms and communities manage rivers and floods following damaging events like Hurricane Irene in 2011 through scientific assessments, education resources, and stakeholder engagement.
This study analyzed macroinvertebrate diversity in the Susquehanna River near Byers Island from 2009-2012. Artificial substrates were used to collect macroinvertebrates at 5 sites along the river. Diversity declined at some sites in dry years of 2010 and 2012 as pollution-intolerant species like mayflies, crayfish, and amphipods decreased. Overall, pollution-tolerant species became more dominant over time, though differences were likely linked to variable summer river flows. The results underscore the need for more biological assessments covering a range of hydrologic conditions.
Temporal and spatial assessment of evaporation transpiration anAhmed Alzubaidi
This thesis examines evaporation, transpiration, and soil moisture redistribution in a native stand of creosote bush (Larrea tridentata) in North Las Vegas over 12 months. Rainfall simulation was conducted using four treatments of 0, 15, 30, and 60 cm, approximately 0, 1.5, 3.0, and 6.0 times natural rainfall. Soil evaporation was measured using a custom chamber, while transpiration was estimated from stem flow gauges scaled to canopy leaf area. Soil moisture was assessed using time domain reflectometry and probes. Results showed evaporation dominated under higher precipitation, while transpiration was minimal. Soil moisture redistribution was greater under lower demand, changing water storage season
The document recommends building solar-powered desalination plants in the San Francisco Bay Area to address the region's freshwater needs. It analyzed the area's water usage, identified suitable plant locations near Half Moon Bay, and designed a system using concentrated solar stills and solar desalination units. The proposed 500-unit system in Half Moon Bay could supply much of San Francisco's freshwater needs at a lower cost than alternatives. The report concludes by recommending the project's implementation.
This study aims to develop guidelines for drought preparedness and mitigation in the Skunk Creek Watershed in South Dakota. Researchers used the SWAT model to simulate water levels and identify drought triggers. Sensors were installed to monitor soil moisture, temperature, and tension. The SWAT model was calibrated and validated against historical stream discharge data. Preliminary results found the model simulated discharge reasonably well. Future work will use the model to estimate climate change impacts on water balance and identify drought-prone areas to inform water management practices and conservation. The overall goal is to develop a watershed-based plan to ameliorate impacts of drought on agriculture.
This document discusses desalination and membrane technologies in the United States. It provides background on desalination processes and issues, outlines the federal role in research and adoption, and examines energy, environmental, and cost concerns constraining wider adoption. The federal government primarily supports desalination research and development, while local governments are responsible for building and operating facilities. Key issues for Congress include the appropriate federal role and how to balance supporting research while protecting public health and the environment.
This document provides a summary of key concepts in three sentences:
This manual from the Bureau of Reclamation discusses water measurement practices to improve water management. It provides guidance on selecting, operating, and maintaining water measurement devices and describes common open channel measurement methods such as weirs and flumes. The manual is intended to help water users and districts implement better water measurement programs that can lead to benefits like equitable water allocation, reduced losses, and improved conservation.
This document investigates co-locating a desalination plant with the Joslin Steam Electric Station in Point Comfort, Texas to provide a drought-proof water supply for regions L and N. A reverse osmosis desalination plant is proposed that would treat 180 million gallons per day of seawater to produce 90 million gallons per day of drinking water and reject hypersaline water. Reject water and solids from pretreatment would be returned through the existing plant discharge. Environmental impacts were found to be minimal. The estimated cost of the desalinated water is $1.75 per 1000 gallons. Combining this supply with 100,000 acre-feet of existing surface water supply would provide 200,000 acre-feet
Effect of Salt and Water Stresses on Jujube Trees under Ras Sudr Conditionsiosrjce
This investigation was carried out during two successive seasons (2010 and 2011) on 5 years old
Nabq (Zizyphus spina christi) trees at Ras Suder Research Station, Desert Research Center- South Sinai
Governorate, Egypt. This investigation aimed to study the effect of saline water treatments, water regulation
and water irrigation levels on vegetative growth, some fruit parameters, leaf mineral contents, yield and fruit
quality. The treatments contained the combination of three main factors: The first factor: two wells as a saline
water source (well I and well II with EC values 3.68 and 6.80 dS/m, respectively). The second factor: water
regulation method (WR): DI= deficit irrigation and RDI = regulated deficit irrigation by partial root zone
drying (PRD). The third factor: irrigation levels of ETc = crop evapotranspiration 50, 75 and 100% (IL)). The
obtained results showed that well I X deficit irrigation (DI) & regulated deficit irrigation (RDI) X 100% gave
the highest values of tree circumference, Number shoots/tree, leaf area, yield/tree, fruit length, fruit diameter,
fruit weight, fruit volume, fruit flesh weight, fruit moisture% and leaf contents of N, P, Mg beside TSS and total
sugars. Moreover, treatments with well I X deficit irrigation (DI) recorded the highest values of shoot length,
shoot diameter, fruit set, fruit retention, K and Fe. We can be recommended by treatment of trees with well I
under stresses with regulated deficit irrigation under 100 % ETc to get the best results of fruit quality
This document summarizes a study that assessed the vulnerability of Lake Mead's raw water intakes in Las Vegas Valley, Nevada to potential sources of contamination from the surrounding area. The study utilized geographic information systems (GIS) to delineate the watershed boundary and protection areas, identify land uses and soil characteristics, and locate potential contaminating activities. GIS tools were then used to analyze drainage networks, flow paths, and assign vulnerability ratings based on factors like contaminant travel time and risk. The results showed the highest vulnerability sources included septic systems, golf courses, storm channels, gas stations, auto shops, construction sites, and wastewater treatment plant discharges. The intakes were deemed at moderate risk for some contaminants and
This project aims to develop a decision support system (DSS) to help water resource managers and agricultural producers manage water resources under increasing climate variability and growing food demand. The DSS will integrate hydrologic models, tools, and data to enable consideration of current and future water use and climate impacts. It will provide maps and analyses of water resources in southwest Michigan under different climate scenarios. Outreach will train stakeholders on using the DSS to inform local water management decisions.
This document summarizes a presentation on a cross-disciplinary watershed management project. The project aims to integrate biophysical and social factors to better target management practices. It develops a diagnostic decision support system to identify areas exporting high pollutant levels ("critical source areas") and prescribe targeted best management practices (BMPs). Modeling evaluates how climate change may increase polluted areas and impact BMP effectiveness. Interviews identify competing views between scientists and farmers on water issues. The work seeks to overcome divergent stakeholder perspectives and better engage communities in watershed management.
The document summarizes the role and work of Environment and Resource Sciences (ERS) which provides scientific support to the Department of Environment and Resource Management (DERM) and Queensland Government. ERS conducts applied science using innovative techniques across areas such as water quality, ecosystems, coal seam gas impacts, vegetation management, air quality, and more. Key current projects include monitoring floods/cyclones, land management impacts on the Great Barrier Reef, remote sensing of vegetation, interactions of land condition and water quality, and monitoring of iconic species. Future work focuses on developing evidence for policy using integrated and innovative approaches across landscapes.
This document provides information about groundwater contamination at the Massachusetts Military Reservation (MMR) in Cape Cod, Massachusetts. It discusses the Air Force's efforts to investigate and treat 11 groundwater plumes and monitor additional areas through its Installation Restoration Program. While some exposure pathways have been eliminated by connecting residences to municipal water, the Air Force also tests private wells and ponds in the area for contamination. The primary health risk is from ingesting contaminated groundwater, but as long as exposure pathways are addressed, there is no risk to human health.
This project aims to (1) evaluate transport processes of sediment, nutrients, and bacteria using hydrologic and water quality models, (2) evaluate the sensitivity of conservation practices on downstream water quality and quantity under climate change, and (3) develop extension programs to educate watershed stakeholders. The project uses models to simulate streamflow, crop yields, and water tables, which are calibrated and validated against field data from the Big Sunflower River watershed in Mississippi. Preliminary results show the impacts of crop rotations and tillage practices on groundwater and the potential effects of climate change on yields.
IRJET- Eutrophication Assessment of the Kelegeri Lake using GIS TechniqueIRJET Journal
This document summarizes a study assessing the eutrophication level of Kelegeri Lake in India using GIS techniques. Water samples were collected monthly from 7 locations around the lake from February to April 2019. The samples were analyzed to determine physico-chemical parameters like temperature, transparency, pH, COD, BOD, DO, nitrates and phosphates. Carlson's Trophic State Index was calculated based on secchi depth, total phosphorus and total nitrogen to classify the trophic state. Spatial distribution maps of parameters were developed using GIS. The results found the lake to be oligotrophic in February and April, mesotrophic in March, and in the moderately upper mesotrophic range overall during
Improving Vegetable Productivity in a Variable Climate and Global Warming
`
For more information, Please see websites below:
`
Organic Edible Schoolyards & Gardening with Children
http://scribd.com/doc/239851214
`
Double Food Production from your School Garden with Organic Tech
http://scribd.com/doc/239851079
`
Free School Gardening Art Posters
http://scribd.com/doc/239851159`
`
Increase Food Production with Companion Planting in your School Garden
http://scribd.com/doc/239851159
`
Healthy Foods Dramatically Improves Student Academic Success
http://scribd.com/doc/239851348
`
City Chickens for your Organic School Garden
http://scribd.com/doc/239850440
`
Simple Square Foot Gardening for Schools - Teacher Guide
http://scribd.com/doc/239851110
This document provides guidance on planning a successful vegetable garden. It emphasizes the importance of planning what to grow based on personal and family preferences, climate, available space, and how the crop will be used. Careful planning of what vegetables to grow, how much of each, and how any excess will be preserved or stored is necessary to make the best use of space and time and ensure a productive harvest. Advance planning can help avoid over-planting of crops and having more vegetables than can be eaten fresh.
This document is a report from the Texas Comptroller of Public Accounts discussing water issues facing Texas. It notes that while the Earth has abundant water, only a small portion is fresh water available for human use. Texas is experiencing drought that is straining its water supplies as the population grows. The report examines different sources of Texas' water and funding for water projects. It discusses new technologies that could help maximize existing supplies and the potential for desalination to provide new sources of water. The report makes recommendations for the Texas Legislature to help ensure adequate water supplies for the state's continued growth.
Calidad del agua para agricultura fao 29-ayers y westcot 1985-okiPIEDRON
This document provides guidelines for evaluating water quality for agricultural irrigation. It discusses four main water quality problems: salinity, infiltration rate, toxicity, and miscellaneous other issues. For each problem, the document describes guidelines for interpreting water quality data, potential impacts on crops, and management options. It provides water quality guidelines in tables and discusses experiences using various water qualities from different locations worldwide.
Landscaping for Water Quality: Concepts and Garden Designs for Homeowners, Ad...Farica46m
This document provides information and guidance for homeowners on landscaping to improve water quality in Maryland. It discusses why landscaping for water quality is important, including to capture rainwater, stabilize soil, increase water infiltration and filtration, provide wildlife habitat and more.
It then provides steps for designing a water-quality friendly landscape, including evaluating your property, planning your garden layout, selecting appropriate plants, and installing your garden. Specific techniques discussed include adding swales, berms, rain gardens and modifying existing landscaping.
Sample garden designs and extensive plant lists are also included to help homeowners select suitable native plants for their water-quality gardens. Additional resources are referenced for more information.
This presentation was given at the EPA’s National Water Event 2019, which took place on 29 and 30 May 2019 in Galway. This presentation by Gary Free from the EPA is on measuring the environment from space using satellite images.
This document summarizes a USDA-NIFA funded project studying fluvial geomorphology and agricultural resilience in the Deerfield River Watershed in Western Massachusetts. The project goals are to: 1) conduct fluvial geomorphic assessments; 2) implement outreach and education initiatives; 3) hold agrarian resilience roundtables; and 4) support institutional infrastructure for fluvial geomorphology. The project aims to help farms and communities manage rivers and floods following damaging events like Hurricane Irene in 2011 through scientific assessments, education resources, and stakeholder engagement.
This study analyzed macroinvertebrate diversity in the Susquehanna River near Byers Island from 2009-2012. Artificial substrates were used to collect macroinvertebrates at 5 sites along the river. Diversity declined at some sites in dry years of 2010 and 2012 as pollution-intolerant species like mayflies, crayfish, and amphipods decreased. Overall, pollution-tolerant species became more dominant over time, though differences were likely linked to variable summer river flows. The results underscore the need for more biological assessments covering a range of hydrologic conditions.
Temporal and spatial assessment of evaporation transpiration anAhmed Alzubaidi
This thesis examines evaporation, transpiration, and soil moisture redistribution in a native stand of creosote bush (Larrea tridentata) in North Las Vegas over 12 months. Rainfall simulation was conducted using four treatments of 0, 15, 30, and 60 cm, approximately 0, 1.5, 3.0, and 6.0 times natural rainfall. Soil evaporation was measured using a custom chamber, while transpiration was estimated from stem flow gauges scaled to canopy leaf area. Soil moisture was assessed using time domain reflectometry and probes. Results showed evaporation dominated under higher precipitation, while transpiration was minimal. Soil moisture redistribution was greater under lower demand, changing water storage season
The document recommends building solar-powered desalination plants in the San Francisco Bay Area to address the region's freshwater needs. It analyzed the area's water usage, identified suitable plant locations near Half Moon Bay, and designed a system using concentrated solar stills and solar desalination units. The proposed 500-unit system in Half Moon Bay could supply much of San Francisco's freshwater needs at a lower cost than alternatives. The report concludes by recommending the project's implementation.
This study aims to develop guidelines for drought preparedness and mitigation in the Skunk Creek Watershed in South Dakota. Researchers used the SWAT model to simulate water levels and identify drought triggers. Sensors were installed to monitor soil moisture, temperature, and tension. The SWAT model was calibrated and validated against historical stream discharge data. Preliminary results found the model simulated discharge reasonably well. Future work will use the model to estimate climate change impacts on water balance and identify drought-prone areas to inform water management practices and conservation. The overall goal is to develop a watershed-based plan to ameliorate impacts of drought on agriculture.
This document discusses desalination and membrane technologies in the United States. It provides background on desalination processes and issues, outlines the federal role in research and adoption, and examines energy, environmental, and cost concerns constraining wider adoption. The federal government primarily supports desalination research and development, while local governments are responsible for building and operating facilities. Key issues for Congress include the appropriate federal role and how to balance supporting research while protecting public health and the environment.
This document provides a summary of key concepts in three sentences:
This manual from the Bureau of Reclamation discusses water measurement practices to improve water management. It provides guidance on selecting, operating, and maintaining water measurement devices and describes common open channel measurement methods such as weirs and flumes. The manual is intended to help water users and districts implement better water measurement programs that can lead to benefits like equitable water allocation, reduced losses, and improved conservation.
This document investigates co-locating a desalination plant with the Joslin Steam Electric Station in Point Comfort, Texas to provide a drought-proof water supply for regions L and N. A reverse osmosis desalination plant is proposed that would treat 180 million gallons per day of seawater to produce 90 million gallons per day of drinking water and reject hypersaline water. Reject water and solids from pretreatment would be returned through the existing plant discharge. Environmental impacts were found to be minimal. The estimated cost of the desalinated water is $1.75 per 1000 gallons. Combining this supply with 100,000 acre-feet of existing surface water supply would provide 200,000 acre-feet
Effect of Salt and Water Stresses on Jujube Trees under Ras Sudr Conditionsiosrjce
This investigation was carried out during two successive seasons (2010 and 2011) on 5 years old
Nabq (Zizyphus spina christi) trees at Ras Suder Research Station, Desert Research Center- South Sinai
Governorate, Egypt. This investigation aimed to study the effect of saline water treatments, water regulation
and water irrigation levels on vegetative growth, some fruit parameters, leaf mineral contents, yield and fruit
quality. The treatments contained the combination of three main factors: The first factor: two wells as a saline
water source (well I and well II with EC values 3.68 and 6.80 dS/m, respectively). The second factor: water
regulation method (WR): DI= deficit irrigation and RDI = regulated deficit irrigation by partial root zone
drying (PRD). The third factor: irrigation levels of ETc = crop evapotranspiration 50, 75 and 100% (IL)). The
obtained results showed that well I X deficit irrigation (DI) & regulated deficit irrigation (RDI) X 100% gave
the highest values of tree circumference, Number shoots/tree, leaf area, yield/tree, fruit length, fruit diameter,
fruit weight, fruit volume, fruit flesh weight, fruit moisture% and leaf contents of N, P, Mg beside TSS and total
sugars. Moreover, treatments with well I X deficit irrigation (DI) recorded the highest values of shoot length,
shoot diameter, fruit set, fruit retention, K and Fe. We can be recommended by treatment of trees with well I
under stresses with regulated deficit irrigation under 100 % ETc to get the best results of fruit quality
This document summarizes a study that assessed the vulnerability of Lake Mead's raw water intakes in Las Vegas Valley, Nevada to potential sources of contamination from the surrounding area. The study utilized geographic information systems (GIS) to delineate the watershed boundary and protection areas, identify land uses and soil characteristics, and locate potential contaminating activities. GIS tools were then used to analyze drainage networks, flow paths, and assign vulnerability ratings based on factors like contaminant travel time and risk. The results showed the highest vulnerability sources included septic systems, golf courses, storm channels, gas stations, auto shops, construction sites, and wastewater treatment plant discharges. The intakes were deemed at moderate risk for some contaminants and
This project aims to develop a decision support system (DSS) to help water resource managers and agricultural producers manage water resources under increasing climate variability and growing food demand. The DSS will integrate hydrologic models, tools, and data to enable consideration of current and future water use and climate impacts. It will provide maps and analyses of water resources in southwest Michigan under different climate scenarios. Outreach will train stakeholders on using the DSS to inform local water management decisions.
This document summarizes a presentation on a cross-disciplinary watershed management project. The project aims to integrate biophysical and social factors to better target management practices. It develops a diagnostic decision support system to identify areas exporting high pollutant levels ("critical source areas") and prescribe targeted best management practices (BMPs). Modeling evaluates how climate change may increase polluted areas and impact BMP effectiveness. Interviews identify competing views between scientists and farmers on water issues. The work seeks to overcome divergent stakeholder perspectives and better engage communities in watershed management.
The document summarizes the role and work of Environment and Resource Sciences (ERS) which provides scientific support to the Department of Environment and Resource Management (DERM) and Queensland Government. ERS conducts applied science using innovative techniques across areas such as water quality, ecosystems, coal seam gas impacts, vegetation management, air quality, and more. Key current projects include monitoring floods/cyclones, land management impacts on the Great Barrier Reef, remote sensing of vegetation, interactions of land condition and water quality, and monitoring of iconic species. Future work focuses on developing evidence for policy using integrated and innovative approaches across landscapes.
This document provides information about groundwater contamination at the Massachusetts Military Reservation (MMR) in Cape Cod, Massachusetts. It discusses the Air Force's efforts to investigate and treat 11 groundwater plumes and monitor additional areas through its Installation Restoration Program. While some exposure pathways have been eliminated by connecting residences to municipal water, the Air Force also tests private wells and ponds in the area for contamination. The primary health risk is from ingesting contaminated groundwater, but as long as exposure pathways are addressed, there is no risk to human health.
This project aims to (1) evaluate transport processes of sediment, nutrients, and bacteria using hydrologic and water quality models, (2) evaluate the sensitivity of conservation practices on downstream water quality and quantity under climate change, and (3) develop extension programs to educate watershed stakeholders. The project uses models to simulate streamflow, crop yields, and water tables, which are calibrated and validated against field data from the Big Sunflower River watershed in Mississippi. Preliminary results show the impacts of crop rotations and tillage practices on groundwater and the potential effects of climate change on yields.
IRJET- Eutrophication Assessment of the Kelegeri Lake using GIS TechniqueIRJET Journal
This document summarizes a study assessing the eutrophication level of Kelegeri Lake in India using GIS techniques. Water samples were collected monthly from 7 locations around the lake from February to April 2019. The samples were analyzed to determine physico-chemical parameters like temperature, transparency, pH, COD, BOD, DO, nitrates and phosphates. Carlson's Trophic State Index was calculated based on secchi depth, total phosphorus and total nitrogen to classify the trophic state. Spatial distribution maps of parameters were developed using GIS. The results found the lake to be oligotrophic in February and April, mesotrophic in March, and in the moderately upper mesotrophic range overall during
Improving Vegetable Productivity in a Variable Climate and Global Warming
`
For more information, Please see websites below:
`
Organic Edible Schoolyards & Gardening with Children
http://scribd.com/doc/239851214
`
Double Food Production from your School Garden with Organic Tech
http://scribd.com/doc/239851079
`
Free School Gardening Art Posters
http://scribd.com/doc/239851159`
`
Increase Food Production with Companion Planting in your School Garden
http://scribd.com/doc/239851159
`
Healthy Foods Dramatically Improves Student Academic Success
http://scribd.com/doc/239851348
`
City Chickens for your Organic School Garden
http://scribd.com/doc/239850440
`
Simple Square Foot Gardening for Schools - Teacher Guide
http://scribd.com/doc/239851110
This document provides guidance on planning a successful vegetable garden. It emphasizes the importance of planning what to grow based on personal and family preferences, climate, available space, and how the crop will be used. Careful planning of what vegetables to grow, how much of each, and how any excess will be preserved or stored is necessary to make the best use of space and time and ensure a productive harvest. Advance planning can help avoid over-planting of crops and having more vegetables than can be eaten fresh.
Vegetable Production under Changing Climate Scenario; Gardening Guidebook for India ~ Dr. Yashwant Singh Parmar University~ For more information, Please see websites below:
`
Organic Edible Schoolyards & Gardening with Children =
http://scribd.com/doc/239851214 ~
`
Double Food Production from your School Garden with Organic Tech =
http://scribd.com/doc/239851079 ~
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Free School Gardening Art Posters =
http://scribd.com/doc/239851159 ~
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Increase Food Production with Companion Planting in your School Garden =
http://scribd.com/doc/239851159 ~
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Healthy Foods Dramatically Improves Student Academic Success =
http://scribd.com/doc/239851348 ~
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City Chickens for your Organic School Garden =
http://scribd.com/doc/239850440 ~
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Huerto Ecológico, Tecnologías Sostenibles, Agricultura Organica
http://scribd.com/doc/239850233
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Simple Square Foot Gardening for Schools - Teacher Guide =
http://scribd.com/doc/239851110
The Effect of Mulching & Row Covers on Vegetable Production; Gardening Guidebook for Japan ~ Chugoku National Agricultural Experiment Station, Japan ~ For more information, Please see websites below:
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Organic Edible Schoolyards & Gardening with Children =
http://scribd.com/doc/239851214 ~
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Double Food Production from your School Garden with Organic Tech =
http://scribd.com/doc/239851079 ~
`
Free School Gardening Art Posters =
http://scribd.com/doc/239851159 ~
`
Increase Food Production with Companion Planting in your School Garden =
http://scribd.com/doc/239851159 ~
`
Healthy Foods Dramatically Improves Student Academic Success =
http://scribd.com/doc/239851348 ~
`
City Chickens for your Organic School Garden =
http://scribd.com/doc/239850440 ~
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Huerto Ecológico, Tecnologías Sostenibles, Agricultura Organica
http://scribd.com/doc/239850233
`
Simple Square Foot Gardening for Schools - Teacher Guide =
http://scribd.com/doc/239851110
Irrigation & Water Requirements of Vegetable Crops munishsharma0255
This document discusses irrigation and water requirements for vegetable crops. It begins by explaining that crop water requirements depend on evapotranspiration and climatic factors, while irrigation requirements also consider the irrigation system and soil characteristics. It then discusses different irrigation methods like surface, drip, sprinkler and central pivot irrigation. It explains that the choice of irrigation method depends on natural conditions, crop type, experience, labor and costs/benefits. The document also provides details on water demands based on crop type, growth stage, soil and season. It outlines critical moisture periods and drought tolerance for various crops.
- Coconut oil may help slow or prevent Alzheimer's disease in some people by providing an alternative fuel for brain cells in the form of ketones. Dr. Mary Newport put her husband Steve, who had Alzheimer's, on a diet supplemented with coconut oil, which led to improvements in his symptoms and cognitive abilities.
- Researchers have developed a ketone ester that is more potent than coconut oil, but it is very expensive to produce. Coconut oil remains a viable alternative source of ketones. Taking coconut oil may also help with other neurological diseases due to its ability to increase ketone levels and good cholesterol while reducing bad bacteria.
Ruth Jones, a Christian teacher without a master's degree or administrative experience, was unexpectedly named principal of a struggling inner city elementary school in Grand Rapids, Michigan that was on the verge of closure due to poor academic performance. Through prayer, addressing students' practical needs, and recruiting volunteers, Jones led a dramatic turnaround of the school over 20 years. Test scores and graduation rates increased sharply, and the school now has a waiting list despite originally facing closure. Jones attributes the school's success to aligning herself with God.
This document provides links to resources about organic gardening techniques, urban farming, rainwater harvesting, green roofs, straight vegetable oil vehicles, garden therapy, volunteering on organic farms in Europe, solar energy training, and eco-friendly coffee beans. It discusses how organic gardening technologies can increase plant yields by 400% and provides catalogs and manuals about topics such as city farming, backyard farming, rain gardens, and aquaponics systems. The links provide free information for organic and sustainable living practices.
Marthe Cohn was a Jewish French spy who risked her life to gather intelligence for the French resistance during WWII. She infiltrated Nazi Germany using her fluent German and managed to discover key military information. As a result, the French army was able to achieve an important victory. Cohn went on to have a long career as a nurse and nurse anesthetist. She has received numerous honors for her wartime heroism and courageously fights to keep the memory of the Holocaust alive.
Protective structures provide protection for off-season vegetable production from environmental stresses. Common types include greenhouses, plastic houses, screen houses, and tunnels. They benefit production by protecting crops from rain, temperature extremes, and pests. Yield is higher for crops like tomatoes under protective structures compared to open field production. Proper design, orientation, cooling systems, and integrated pest management are important for optimizing vegetable yields year-round.
Okanagan Waterwise: A Soft Path for Water Sustainability Case Study, Town of ...Fiona9864
This document provides context about water management in the Okanagan Basin region of British Columbia and proposes applying a "soft path" approach to water sustainability planning for the town of Oliver. It discusses the traditional supply-focused water management approach in the basin and introduces the soft path framework, which shifts the focus to water conservation and efficiency. The document then provides background on water issues in the Okanagan region and town of Oliver to set up analyzing potential soft path scenarios for Oliver's future water use and conservation opportunities. The soft path scenarios illustrate how a commitment to conservation and efficiency could help Oliver achieve its water needs with minimal new infrastructure by 2050.
Quantified Conservation can be applied to a variety of ecosystem services and restoration actions.
By quantifying the benefit of conservation projects, we can measure baseline ecosystem conditions, predict the water quality benefit associated with the restored conditions and monitor environmental gain over time. That’s the primary thing we’re after, and the tracking and publishing of our metrics is what helps us to get there.
We hope to inspire others to take a similar approach with data to their conservation projects, so that together we can smartly target our investments in nature and fix more rivers faster.
In this report, you'll find examples of:
- Reducing inputs of phosphorus and nitrogen from livestock on the Sprague River using the Nutrient Tracking Tool
- Providing shade, stabilizing streambanks and limiting nutrient and sediment runoff on the Little Butte Creek using Shade-a-Lator and the Nutrient Tracking Tool
- Reducing high water temperature and restore habitat on Rudio Creek using the Water Temperature Transaction Tool
- Improving habitat for wild fish and other aquatic species on Still Creek using the Stream Function Assessment Methodology
- Plus, uplift data from all flow and habitat restoration projects in 2014
Water Quality Monitoring Assessment - Mudgeeraba Catchment - August 2013Markus Race
This document summarizes a water quality monitoring assessment of the Mudgeeraba Catchment conducted in August 2015. A team of 4 environmental scientists monitored various parameters at multiple sites to analyze the physical, chemical and ecological conditions. The results showed the highest concentrations of nutrient parameters at the upstream sites Mud 1-3. Mud 4 recorded the highest ammonia levels across all sites over the assessment period, indicating it was the most affected area. Further study is needed to determine appropriate mitigation measures to rehabilitate the degraded catchment system.
Catching the Rain - A Great Lakes Resource Guide
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For more information, Please see websites below:
`
Organic Edible Schoolyards & Gardening with Children =
http://scribd.com/doc/239851214 ~
`
Double Food Production from your School Garden with Organic Tech =
http://scribd.com/doc/239851079 ~
`
Free School Gardening Art Posters =
http://scribd.com/doc/239851159 ~
`
Increase Food Production with Companion Planting in your School Garden =
http://scribd.com/doc/239851159 ~
`
Healthy Foods Dramatically Improves Student Academic Success =
http://scribd.com/doc/239851348 ~
`
City Chickens for your Organic School Garden =
http://scribd.com/doc/239850440 ~
`
Simple Square Foot Gardening for Schools - Teacher Guide =
http://scribd.com/doc/239851110 ~
Virginia Rain Gardens Technical Guide
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For more information, Please see websites below:
`
Organic Edible Schoolyards & Gardening with Children =
http://scribd.com/doc/239851214 ~
`
Double Food Production from your School Garden with Organic Tech =
http://scribd.com/doc/239851079 ~
`
Free School Gardening Art Posters =
http://scribd.com/doc/239851159 ~
`
Increase Food Production with Companion Planting in your School Garden =
http://scribd.com/doc/239851159 ~
`
Healthy Foods Dramatically Improves Student Academic Success =
http://scribd.com/doc/239851348 ~
`
City Chickens for your Organic School Garden =
http://scribd.com/doc/239850440 ~
`
Simple Square Foot Gardening for Schools - Teacher Guide =
http://scribd.com/doc/239851110 ~
Water Wise: Residential Landscape and Irrigation Guide for Western ColoradoKaila694m
This guide provides best practices for residential water conservation and irrigation in western Colorado. It discusses the importance of being good water stewards given the region's arid climate and finite water resources. The guide covers topics like understanding local soil types, selecting drought-tolerant plants, designing efficient irrigation systems, and using evapotranspiration data to determine optimal watering amounts to prevent overwatering and the pollution of local waterways. The overall goal is to educate residents on landscape and watering practices that save both water and money while preserving the environment.
Rainwater Harvesting for Developing Countries - Michigan Technological Univer...D4Z
This document is a report on rainwater harvesting systems for communities in developing countries submitted in partial fulfillment of a Master of Science in Civil Engineering degree. It contains an abstract, table of contents, and several sections evaluating the feasibility of rainwater harvesting systems. The document provides background on rainwater harvesting, defines criteria for assessing feasibility, and applies these criteria to an analysis of the water crisis and potential for rainwater harvesting systems in Mali, West Africa. Figures and appendices provide additional technical details and examples to support the analysis.
A report that examines the activities of the Commission surrounding its management of water use by the natural gas industry from 2008-2013. The primary objectives of the report are to 1) summarize the regulatory responses taken by the Commission to address this new and previously unfamiliar water use activity; 2) identify the water use characteristics of the industry operating within the Basin; and 3) assess how the Commission’s programs are influencing natural gas industry water use. The report finds that shale drilling uses of water within the SRBC's area has not strained water resources.
The document summarizes a stakeholder workshop that discussed studies on climate variability, water scarcity, and local adaptation strategies in the Kapingazi Catchment in Kenya. Several presentations were made: 1) on climate change impacts on the basin based on historical data analysis; 2) survey results on local adaptation strategies; and 3) potential institutional approaches like payments for environmental services. Participants engaged in discussions and provided feedback. Key issues raised included perceptions of changing rainfall patterns not captured by data, the role of abstraction in river drying, and high evapotranspiration rates. Farmers were adapting crops and diversifying livelihoods like livestock but not fully applying climate knowledge.
A study of water wells in Pike County, PA by the USGS. The study, titled "A Reconnaissance Spatial and Temporal Baseline Assessment of Methane and Inorganic Constituents in Groundwater in Bedrock Aquifers, Pike County, Pennsylvania, 2012–13," shows that an average 80% (!) of the water wells in the county have detectable amounts of naturally-occurring methane. No shale drilling is allowed in the county, so anti-drillers can't blame shale drilling for the presence of methane in the water.
USGS Survey of Water Wells in Pike County, PA Prior to Marcellus DrillingMarcellus Drilling News
This U.S. Geological Survey report, titled "A Reconnaissance Spatial and Temporal Baseline Assessment of Methane and Inorganic Constituents in Groundwater in Bedrock Aquifers, Pike County, Pennsylvania, 2012–13" was published in July 2014. It is the result of a multi-year study of 20 water wells in Pike County, PA to provide baseline measurements prior to any shale drilling in the area. The study shows that 80% of the water wells tested have detectable methane already, with 10% at high levels. It also shows that 85% of the wells tested have radon levels that exceed safe standards. And yet, no drilling of any kind in the area. It's all naturally occurring.
Catching the Rain: A Great Lakes Resource GuideSotirakou964
This document provides an overview of natural stormwater management techniques as an alternative to traditional stormwater control methods. It begins with background on how conventional stormwater management has treated water as a waste product, exacerbating water pollution and flooding issues. The document then outlines different low-impact development and "green infrastructure" approaches that aim to manage stormwater as a resource. The bulk of the document consists of a matrix and descriptions of various natural stormwater techniques, including bioretention cells, rain gardens, swales, buffers, trees, infiltration basins, constructed wetlands, green roofs, rain barrels, porous pavement and more. It provides basic information on uses, space needs, costs considerations for each method.
Results from the study identified areas across Summit County sensitive to ground water. Using this information, Environmental Health staff can ensure septic systems are appropriately suited to the area where they are installed, ultimately increasing the life of the system and its ability to protect the environment. The end goal is to prevent future septic system failure due to growth and protect overall water quality throughout the county.
Sampling was done in both Snyderville Basin and parts of Eastern Summit County to determine sensitive areas optimal for sewer or septic upgrades. Water samples were taken during peak runoff (spring) and baseflow conditions (summer) to test for Escherichia coli (E. coli), nitrates, general bacteria and human-associated bacteria.
USGS Report: Water Quality in Mon River Basin Shows No Harm from Marcellus Sh...Marcellus Drilling News
A report by the U.S. Geological Survey titled "Water Quality of Groundwater and Stream Base Flow in the Marcellus Shale Gas Field of the Monongahela River Basin, West Virginia". The report compares water samples taken before shale fracking in WV and then again recently. When comparing the samples, the USGS has found fracking hasn't affected water quality--at all.
Water quality modeling of an agricultural watershed with best management prac...eSAT Publishing House
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology
Water quality modeling of an agricultural watershed with best management prac...eSAT Journals
Abstract Simulation of Best Management Practices (BMPs) affecting water quality is necessary while modeling the water quality of agricultural watersheds with BMPs in place to mitigate pollution of river. Previous studies explored methods to represent some of the water quality BMPs. However, there are still gaps in the research to represent some other BMPs such as constructed wetlands, wastewater reuse, residue management and nutrient management. This paper focuses on modeling of BMPs affecting water quality. The study area is a 1692 Km2 cultivated watershed in South Texas, USA where water quality is impaired for dissolved oxygen (DO). The water quality constituents analyzed for the study are sediment, nitrogen, phosphorus, water temperature and dissolved oxygen. Apart from identification of methodology to simulate BMPs, this study estimated extent of pollution mitigation by each type of BMP. Binomial method of water quality analysis was used to judge the compliance of river reach for meeting DO criterion. This manuscript will discuss modeling of water quality constituents and the BMPs that affect water quality. In addition, the estimation of dissolved oxygen compliance of the watershed is also discussed. The results from the study indicate that the agricultural BMPs implemented in the watershed and establishment of stringer water quality criteria have in fact improved the DO trends in the tidal section of the river, which did not meet the stipulated DO criterion before. Index Terms: Arroyo, BMP, dissolved oxygen, residue management, nutrient management, water quality
Our project will study the effects of stream restoration practices, J hook and cross vane, on polluted rivers and streams in the Great Lakes Basin area of Wisconsin. Specifically, we will implement these practices on the Oconto, Peshtigo, and Menominee rivers and study their impact on fish populations like trout. The methodology involves initial studies of water pollution and fish, applying the restoration structures, further evaluation, and a final report. The goal is to better understand how these techniques affect habitats and wildlife in order to inform future conservation efforts.
This document provides guidance on creating and maintaining rain gardens. Rain gardens are landscape features that intercept stormwater runoff from impervious surfaces and allow it to soak into the ground, reducing pollution and flooding. The document discusses site selection, design, plant selection, construction, and maintenance of rain gardens. It aims to promote rain gardens as a way to improve water quality and habitat while solving drainage problems.
Water quality can be assessed through various physical, chemical, and biological indicators. It depends on factors like geology, ecosystem, and human activities. Standards are set based on intended uses like drinking, industrial, or environmental. Water is sampled and tested using on-site or laboratory methods to monitor these indicators. Maintaining adequate water quality is important for public health and ecosystem protection.
This booklet is designed to act as a resource booklet for a field trip into the Gunbower forest, however, it should also be useful for schools studying environmental watering and wetlands in other areas. I have also uploaded a second booklet, a field work booklet, which contains student tasks. Not working properly? Try this link: https://drive.google.com/file/d/0B11DeM9q7KJCaF9mMDFwWUF2NTg/edit?usp=sharing
Similar to Minnesota - Effects of Rain Gardens on Water Quality (20)
A teacher in Baltimore transformed the lives of students from the slums. In the 1920s, college students evaluated 200 boys from the slums and said they had no chance of success. Twenty-five years later, it was found that 176 of the 180 boys who could be located had achieved success as lawyers, doctors, and businessmen. The professor interviewed each man and they all credited their success to a teacher who had loved and believed in them. When interviewed, the elderly teacher said her simple method was that she loved those boys.
Robert Raikes witnessed the poor conditions of children in Gloucester, England in the late 18th century due to the Industrial Revolution. This inspired him to create the first Sunday school to educate and reform street children. The Sunday school used the Bible as its textbook and proved hugely successful in improving behavior and civic responsibility. Raikes' idea then spread across Britain and to other parts of Europe and America, revolutionizing religious education of children and community outreach efforts of churches. Late in life, Raikes had a profound spiritual experience witnessing a young girl reading the Bible that gave him a new understanding of faith.
The document discusses using Groasis Waterboxx devices to help plant and grow trees in dry environments like the Sahara Desert. It describes how the author and a colleague tried using 10 Waterboxx devices to plant trees in M'hamid, Morocco but their luggage containing the devices was initially lost. They were eventually found and the devices were used to plant tamarisk trees to compare growth with traditional planting methods. The document provides details on how the Waterboxx works, collecting condensation and directing water to tree roots, and hopes the experiment will help increase tree survival rates in the dry climate.
The Groasis Waterboxx is a low-tech device that helps seeds and saplings grow into strong trees in dry environments. It collects and stores rainwater and condensation to slowly water the roots daily. In tests, 88% of trees grown with the Waterboxx survived compared to only 10.5% without it. The inventor believes using this technology could reforest billions of acres and offset humanity's carbon emissions by capturing CO2 in new tree growth.
The document discusses the Groasis Technology, a planting method that uses a Waterboxx and other techniques to plant trees in dry areas with 90% less water. It summarizes that the technology (1) improves soil, maps planting areas, harvests rainfall, and uses the right planting techniques to help trees grow deep roots in the first year to survive independently. It also describes how the technology terraces slopes to harvest and direct rainfall to trees, uses 3D imaging to map ideal planting lines, and a capillary drill to quickly plant thousands of trees per day.
The document describes the Agua, Vida y Naturaleza Project (AVNP) that started in Ecuador in 2012. It is funded by the Dutch COmON Foundation to help small farmers in dry areas by introducing the Groasis Technology, which allows planting in deserts and eroded lands. The technology mimics nature by improving soil, maintaining capillary structures, and using a waterboxx device. The project aims to address issues small farmers face like lack of water, capital, and farming knowledge, in order to help alleviate world hunger and prevent farmers from migrating to cities due to lack of income from farming dry areas.
The document provides planting instructions for using a Waterboxx planting device. It outlines 6 main steps:
1. Preparing the soil by digging holes and adding compost/fertilizer or just watering.
2. Assembling the Waterboxx by placing the wick, mid-plate, lid, and siphons.
3. Preparing plants by pruning roots to encourage deep growth.
4. Planting in holes aligned east-west within the Waterboxx hole.
5. Placing the assembled Waterboxx over the planted area.
6. Watering the plants and filling the Waterboxx for the first time.
This document provides instructions for growing vegetables using the Groasis Waterboxx system. It details recommendations for greenhouse design, soil preparation, planting methods, plant spacing, watering schedules, and pest and disease management. Proper installation and maintenance of the Waterboxx system is emphasized to ensure healthy plant growth and high crop yields. Close monitoring of climate conditions and plant needs is also advised.
The document is a report on the Groasis waterboxx, a device that aims to allow farming without irrigation. It provides an overview of the waterboxx's history and development, describes its components and how it works, reviews testing that has been done, and evaluates its suitability for organic farming. In the conclusion, the report recommends that the cooperative discussed in the document not use the waterboxx yet, as more data is still needed, but could consider conducting their own tests with support from their technical services.
The document summarizes an invention called the Groasis that helps plants survive in arid climates by collecting and storing rainfall to provide steady watering to seedlings. It notes that most rainfall in deserts occurs within one week but is then unavailable, and that the Groasis uses evaporation-proof containers and wicking to deliver water to young plants over longer periods, allowing their roots to develop and access deeper groundwater reserves. Large-scale projects have used the Groasis in countries like Kenya to aid reforestation efforts and combat desertification.
The document summarizes the work of the Sahara Roots Foundation in Morocco and their use of the Groasis Waterboxx to help plant trees and reduce desertification. The Sahara Roots Foundation was established to implement development projects to conserve the Moroccan Sahara through activities like tree planting, irrigation, education, and desert cleaning. They have started using the Groasis Waterboxx, an "intelligent water battery" developed by AquaPro, to improve the survival rate of newly planted trees. The Waterboxx produces and captures water through condensation and rain, allowing trees to be planted in dry areas like rocks and deserts with a 100% success rate.
The document describes the Agua, Vida y Naturaleza Project (AVNP) that started in Ecuador in 2012. It is funded by the Dutch COmON Foundation to help small farmers in dry areas by introducing the Groasis Technology, which allows planting in deserts and eroded lands. The technology mimics nature by improving soil, maintaining capillary structures, and using a waterboxx device. The project aims to address issues small farmers face like lack of water, capital, and farming knowledge, in order to help alleviate world hunger and prevent farmers from migrating to cities.
Groasis Technology is compared to drip irrigation over a 50-year project for a 500-hectare tree plantation. Key financial indicators show that using Groasis Waterboxes results in a higher net present value (NPV) of €26.62 million compared to €21.15 million for drip irrigation, and a slightly higher internal rate of return (IRR) of 22.1% versus 23.4% for drip irrigation. Waterboxx also has a longer payback period of 7 years compared to 5 years for drip irrigation. The document provides assumptions and calculations for costs and revenues for both systems over the 50-year period.
A new technology called the Groasis Waterboxx shows promise for reclaiming desert landscapes and increasing plant survival rates. The simple device regulates temperature and moisture levels around young plants, allowing trees and crops to grow with little watering even in dry conditions. Initial trials in Africa found tree survival rates increased to 88% with the Waterboxx compared to only 10% without it. Researchers in Kenya are optimistic this technology could significantly reduce desertification and help transform the country's deserts into productive, economic areas through increased vegetation.
The document summarizes an experiment using Groasis Waterboxx devices to establish tree seedlings at nine bus stops in North Central Austin. It provides updates on the condition of the trees over time, noting that as of late August all trees remained alive with varying health. Challenges included heat waves, lack of rain, and competition between trees and grass. The Waterboxx devices appeared to successfully provide water through condensation.
A prototype device called the Groasis Waterboxx aims to help farmers grow crops in arid areas by collecting and directing water to plant roots. The box is modeled after how bird droppings protect seeds, providing humidity and shelter. It surrounds young plants, collects water through condensation and from rain, and deposits small amounts to roots daily. Tests in the Sahara found 90% of trees planted with the box survived when removed, compared to only 10% without the box. The inventor now plans to test the Groasis in other dry regions to help farmers deal with unpredictable weather.
Este artículo describe un plan piloto lanzado en Pujilí, Ecuador para preservar la naturaleza utilizando una nueva técnica llamada "Incubadora de agua". El científico holandés Pieter Hoff y empresarios locales trabajan con la municipalidad de Pujilí y una escuela para enseñar esta técnica, que usa macetas especiales para ayudar a las plantas a crecer en zonas áridas sin riego. El plan piloto comenzó con demostraciones y siembra de plantas en la escuela Manuel E
A Dutch inventor has developed a planting technology called Groasis that allows trees to be grown in deserts without irrigation. The technology, called a waterboxx, mimics nature by assisting young trees through the planting period until their roots can reach underground water sources on their own. A presentation was given in Oman about a successful experiment using this system in Sohar Free Zone, with the potential benefits being reduced water usage, reforestation, increased food production, and lower carbon emissions. The system appears affordable and could help address problems of water scarcity and depletion of groundwater.
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How to Manage Your Lost Opportunities in Odoo 17 CRMCeline George
Odoo 17 CRM allows us to track why we lose sales opportunities with "Lost Reasons." This helps analyze our sales process and identify areas for improvement. Here's how to configure lost reasons in Odoo 17 CRM
Walmart Business+ and Spark Good for Nonprofits.pdfTechSoup
"Learn about all the ways Walmart supports nonprofit organizations.
You will hear from Liz Willett, the Head of Nonprofits, and hear about what Walmart is doing to help nonprofits, including Walmart Business and Spark Good. Walmart Business+ is a new offer for nonprofits that offers discounts and also streamlines nonprofits order and expense tracking, saving time and money.
The webinar may also give some examples on how nonprofits can best leverage Walmart Business+.
The event will cover the following::
Walmart Business + (https://business.walmart.com/plus) is a new shopping experience for nonprofits, schools, and local business customers that connects an exclusive online shopping experience to stores. Benefits include free delivery and shipping, a 'Spend Analytics” feature, special discounts, deals and tax-exempt shopping.
Special TechSoup offer for a free 180 days membership, and up to $150 in discounts on eligible orders.
Spark Good (walmart.com/sparkgood) is a charitable platform that enables nonprofits to receive donations directly from customers and associates.
Answers about how you can do more with Walmart!"
How to Setup Warehouse & Location in Odoo 17 InventoryCeline George
In this slide, we'll explore how to set up warehouses and locations in Odoo 17 Inventory. This will help us manage our stock effectively, track inventory levels, and streamline warehouse operations.
A review of the growth of the Israel Genealogy Research Association Database Collection for the last 12 months. Our collection is now passed the 3 million mark and still growing. See which archives have contributed the most. See the different types of records we have, and which years have had records added. You can also see what we have for the future.
Strategies for Effective Upskilling is a presentation by Chinwendu Peace in a Your Skill Boost Masterclass organisation by the Excellence Foundation for South Sudan on 08th and 09th June 2024 from 1 PM to 3 PM on each day.
How to Fix the Import Error in the Odoo 17Celine George
An import error occurs when a program fails to import a module or library, disrupting its execution. In languages like Python, this issue arises when the specified module cannot be found or accessed, hindering the program's functionality. Resolving import errors is crucial for maintaining smooth software operation and uninterrupted development processes.
What is Digital Literacy? A guest blog from Andy McLaughlin, University of Ab...
Minnesota - Effects of Rain Gardens on Water Quality
1. Scientific Investigations Report 2005-5189
U.S. Department of the Interior
U.S. Geological Survey
Prepared in cooperation with the Metropolitan Council of the Twin Cities
Effects of Rain Gardens on the Quality of Water in
the Minneapolis–St. Paul Metropolitan Area of
Minnesota, 2002-04
2. Cover: Photograph showing rain-garden site at Lakeville, Minnesota, September 2004.
(All photographs in this report were taken by U.S. Geological Survey employees.)
3. Effects of Rain Gardens on the Quality of
Water in the Minneapolis–St. Paul
Metropolitan Area of Minnesota, 2002-04
By Lan H. Tornes
Scientific Investigations Report 2005-5189
U.S. Department of the Interior
U.S. Geological Survey
Prepared in cooperation with the Metropolitan Council of the Twin Cities
4. U.S. Department of the InteriorGale A. Norton, SecretaryU.S. Geological SurveyP. Patrick Leahy, Acting DirectorUse of trade, product, or firm names in this report is for identification purposes only and does not constitute endorsement by the U.S. Geological Survey. Mounds View, Minnesota, 2005For additional information write to:
U.S. Geological Survey
Director, USGS Water Science Center of Minnesota
2280 Woodale Drive
Mounds View, MN 55112
http://mn.water.usgs.gov/ For more information about the USGS and its products:
Telephone: 1-888-ASK-USGS
World Wide Web: http://www.usgs.gov/ Although this report is in the public domain, permission must be secured from the individual copyright owners to reproduce any copyrighted materials contained within this report. Scientific Investigations Report 2005-5189
5. iii
Contents
Abstract........................................................................................................................................................................1
Introduction.................................................................................................................................................................1
Purpose and Scope.........................................................................................................................................2
Acknowledgments...........................................................................................................................................3
Description of Study Sites..............................................................................................................................3
Methods...........................................................................................................................................................10
Water Quality at Rain-Garden Sites.......................................................................................................................11
Chanhassen....................................................................................................................................................12
Hugo .................................................................................................................................................................12
Lakeville...........................................................................................................................................................13
Minnetonka.....................................................................................................................................................13
Woodbury........................................................................................................................................................15
Effects of Rain Gardens on Water Quality............................................................................................................15
Implications of Results.............................................................................................................................................18
Summary....................................................................................................................................................................21
Selected References................................................................................................................................................22
Figures
Figure 1. Schematic diagram of expected processes and monitoring points of a rain garden......................2
Figure 2. Location of rain-garden sampling sites and percentage of clay in soils in the Minneapolis-
St. Paul metropolitan area of Minnesota..................................................................................................4
Figure 3. Rain-garden configuration at Chanhassen, Minnesota.........................................................................6
Figure 4. Rain-garden configuration at Hugo, Minnesota. ..................................................................................8
Figure 5. Rain-garden configuration at Lakeville, Minnesota. .............................................................................9
Figure 6. Rain-garden configuration at Minnetonka, Minnesota.......................................................................10
Figure 7. Rain-garden configuration at Woodbury, Minnesota. .........................................................................11
Figure 8. Distribution of specific conductance and phosphorus, chloride, and suspended-solids
concentration at each of the five rain-garden sites sampled in the Minneapolis-St. Paul
metropolitan area of Minnesota, 2004-04...............................................................................................16
Figure 9. Distribution of specific conductance of water samples collected from inflow and rain-
garden lysimeter and well at each of the five sites sampled in the Minneapolis-St. Paul
metropolitan area of Minnesota, 2002-04...............................................................................................19
Figure 10. Change in chloride, nitrite plus nitrate nitrogen filtered, and total phosphorus concentration
at the Hugo and Woodbury rain-garden sites in the Minneapolis-St. Paul metropolitan
area of Minnesota, 2002-04.......................................................................................................................20
6. iv
Tables
Table 1. Rain-garden sites sampled in the Minneapolis - St. Paul metropolitan area of Minnesota............5
Table 2. Lithologic log of wells installed at rain-garden sites in the Minneapolis - St. Paul
metropolitan area of Minnesota................................................................................................................7
Table 3. Median values of selected physical properties, chemical constituents, and nutrient
species of water from the rain-garden site in Chanhassen, Minnesota, 2002-04...........................12
Table 4. Median values of selected physical properties, chemical constituents, and nutrient
species of water from the rain-garden site in Hugo, Minnesota, 2002-04........................................13
Table 5. Median values of selected physical properties, chemical constituents, and nutrient
species of water from the rain-garden site in Lakeville, Minnesota, 2002-04 ................................14
Table 6. Median values of selected physical properties, chemical constituents, and nutrient
species of water from the rain-garden site in Minnetonka, Minnesota, 2002-04............................14
Table 7. Median values of selected physical properties, chemical constituents, and nutrient
species of water from the rain-garden site in Woodbury, Minnesota, 2002-04...............................15
Table 8. Median specific-conductance value and chloride concentration at each of the five
rain-garden sites in the Minneapolis-St. Paul metropolitan area of Minnesota, 2004 ..................18
Conversion Factors, Datums, and Abbreviated Water-Quality Units
Multiply
By
To obtain
inch (in.)
2.54
centimeter (cm)
foot (ft)
0.3048
meter (m)
mile (mi)
1.609
kilometer (km)
square mile (mi2)
2.590
square kilometer (km2)
Water temperature is reported in degrees Celsius (°C), which can be converted to degrees Fahrenheit (°F) by using the following equation:
°F=(1.8×°C)+32.
Vertical coordinate information is referenced to the North American Vertical Datum of 1988 (NAVD 88). Horizontal coordinate information is referenced to the North American Datum of 1927 (NAD 27).
Chemical concentration is reported only in metric units. Chemical concentration is reported in milligrams per liter (mg/L), which is a unit expressing the mass of solute (milligrams) per unit volume (liter) of water. For concentrations less than 7,000 milligrams per liter, the numerical value is about the same as for concentrations in parts per million. Specific conductance is reported in microsiemens per centimeter at 25 degrees Celsius (μS/cm).
7. Abstract
Rain gardens are a popular method of managing runoff while attempting to provide aesthetic and environmental benefits. Five rain-garden sites in the Minneapolis – Saint Paul metropolitan area of Minnesota were instrumented to evaluate the effects of this water-management system on surface and subsurface water quality. Most of these sites were in suburban locations and frequently in newer developments. Because of this they were affected by changing hydrology during the course of this study.
Less-than-normal precipitation during much of the study may have resulted in samples that may not be representative of normal conditions. However, the resulting data indicate that properly designed rain gardens enhance infiltration and can reduce concentrations of dissolved ions relative to background conditions.
The runoff events in one rain garden and several runoff events in the other rain gardens produced no sampled overflow during this study because the gardens captured all of the inflow, which subsequently infiltrated beneath the land surface, evaporated, or transpired through garden vegetation. Where measured, overflow had reduced concentrations of suspended solids and most nutrient species associated with particulate material, as compared to inflow. Many of these materials settle to the bottom of the rain garden, and some nutrients may be assimilated by the plant community.
Site design, including capacity relative to drainage area and soil permeability, is an important consideration in the efficiency of rain-garden operation. Vegetation type likely affects the infiltration capacity, nutrient uptake, and evapotranspiration of a rain garden and probably the resulting water quality. The long-term efficiency of rain gardens is difficult to determine from the results of this study because most are still evolving and maturing in relation to their hydrologic, biologic, and chemical setting. Many resource managers have questioned what long-term maintenance will be needed to keep rain gardens operating effectively. Additional or continued studies could address many of these concerns.
Introduction
Several means have been used to deal with storm-water runoff in urban areas. Traditional systems of curbs, gutters, and storm drains carry storm-water runoff directly to local streams and rivers without any bioretention, filtering, processing, or attenuation of runoff. This direct runoff can result in erosion and delivery of sediment and nutrients to receiving waters. Catch basins allow sediment to settle and retain nutrients that reduce the amount of material transported to nearby streams and lakes. Although effective at attenuating runoff and suspended solids, they often create a hazard and can create breeding grounds for mosquitoes and other pests.
Rain gardens are becoming important landscape tools for water managers and land-use planners. These retention basins provide water storage and an area for infiltration of storm- water runoff while providing attractive landscaping. Rain gardens are designed to retain runoff and encourage infiltration to ground water. Retention encourages uptake and biodegradation of compounds that may be present in the runoff. The assumption of rain-garden design is that sediment, nutrient, and other chemical removal occurs as the runoff comes in contact with the soil, bacteria, and roots of shrubs or other vegetation within the rain garden. It also is assumed that this process results in improved surface-water overflow quality, and improved quality and amount of ground water as a result of infiltration.
Rain gardens are being installed around the United States (Rain Garden Network, 2005), including in several communities around the Minneapolis-St. Paul metropolitan area of Minnesota. Although data have been collected from some sites, few published studies document effects of the rain gardens on the quality of surface and ground water. To help address this need for information, a study was done by the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) in cooperation with the Metropolitan Council of the Twin Cities, Department of Environmental Services, during 2002-04. The objective of the study was to describe the quality of water as it flowed into and through rain gardens following runoff events.
The expected processes that occur in rain gardens and an idealized schematic diagram of typical site instrumentation are shown in figure 1. Runoff water is directed into the rain
Effects of Rain Gardens on the Quality of Water in the Minneapolis–St. Paul Metropolitan Area of Minnesota, 2002-04
By Lan H. Tornes
8. Figure 1. Schematic diagram of expected processes and monitoring points of a rain garden.
garden through storm drainage and subsequently allowed to pond temporarily until water can infiltrate into the ground and (or) be taken up by the garden vegetation. Rain gardens are designed to overflow during large runoff events with a specified recurrence interval. Retained water undergoes a variety of biotic or abiotic processes that include uptake by vegetation with subsequent transpiration, evaporation, and infiltration. Sedimentation and biological transformation also remove suspended solids, nutrients, and other contaminants that could be detrimental to receiving waters.
Purpose and Scope
This report discusses the results from sampling rain-garden sites located throughout the Minneapolis-St. Paul metropolitan area during June 2002 through October 2004. The amount of precipitation, the volume of inflow and overflow, and the amount of infiltration and other losses were not measured and were not considered in this report. Sources of water to the rain gardens were evaluated only qualitatively because most sites had relatively flat contributing areas that may have sporadically added to the inflow.
Sampling focused primarily on determining the concentration of a few selected constituents considered to be indicative of runoff including suspended solids (particulate material carried in suspension by flowing water, also called residue, total at 105 degrees Celsius, suspended), nitrogen, phosphorus, chloride, and gross measures of dissolved constituents. Although the changes in mass transported throughout the system relative to sources were not measured, the data provide initial information to evaluate measured concentrations in components of the water system in a rain garden that were sampled and determine how they interrelate at each of the sites sampled. Other important factors including precipitation characteristics, antecedent conditions, and flow volumes from which to compute loads were not measured. Long- duration storms that exceeded the capacity of the automatic samplers were not adequately sampled. Other factors that could contribute to a better understanding of the systems including delineation of drainage areas, contributing drainage areas, and detailed information on land-use characteristics also were beyond the scope of this study. Determining how these samples relate to the existing climate or changing climate, changes in land use, and other factors also was beyond the scope of this report.
Results in this report will improve understanding about the fate of chemical constituents transported to rain gardens in runoff and can be used by water managers and land-use planners to better understand the environmental impacts and effectiveness of rain gardens in protecting water quality. This can lead to improved designs and enhanced protection for surface and ground water. Findings about the significance of local site conditions, such as soil texture and permeability, will allow for improved rain-garden design that more effectively
Effects of Rain Gardens on the Quality of Water in the Minneapolis-St. Paul Metropolitan Area of Minnesota, 2002-04
'ROUNDWATER)NFILTRATION 7ATERTABLE %VAPOTRANSPIRATION4EMPORARYPONDING2AINGARDEN)NFLOWSAMPLER/VERFLOWSAMPLER7ELL7ELL ,YSIMETER,YSIMETER .OTTOSCALE
9. treats storm-water runoff. Results should be transferable to other areas of the nation.
Acknowledgments
The USGS gratefully acknowledges the Metropolitan Council of the Twin Cities, Department of Environmental Services, who supported and helped design this study. Gratitude also is extended to all of the local units of government, developers, and landowners who assisted with installation and allowed continued access to these sites. The following companies provided maps of rain-garden design that were used to sketch simplified diagrams of sites shown in figures 3, 4, 5, and 7, respectively: Bonestroo, Rosene, Anderlick, and Associates; Emmons and Olivier Resources, Inc.; Westwood Professional Resources; and Barr Engineering.
Description of Study Sites
The Minneapolis-St. Paul metropolitan area of Minnesota is situated on relatively flat to gently rolling land that was mostly prairie before settlement. Relief is much greater near the rivers and streams that cross the area. Most of the area has an altitude of about 1,000 ft or less. The rain-garden sites that were studied range in altitude from about 925 to more than 1,000 ft.
Five rain-garden sampling sites were selected with the input from the Metropolitan Council of Environmental Services and other interested stakeholders. The sites represent a wide range of hydrologic and land-use conditions that also represent a range of impervious surface conditions that included parking lots, driveways, walkways, and roofs. The rain gardens also may receive runoff from grassy areas including athletic fields and lawns.
The five sites (fig. 2) are located in the communities of Chanhassen, Hugo, Lakeville, Minnetonka, and Woodbury. The sites are distributed across an area of nearly 4,000 mi2 within the seven-county Minneapolis–St. Paul metropolitan area. The percentage of clay in the uppermost 5 ft of the soil profile (fig. 2) was estimated from the State Soil Geographic (STATSGO) data for Minnesota by averaging the percentage of clay in mapped units of the soil profile. The STATSGO data set is “… a digital general soil association map developed by the National Cooperative Soil Survey. It consists of a broad based inventory of soils areas that occur in a repeatable pattern on the landscape and that can be cartographically shown at the scale mapped. The soil maps for STATSGO are compiled by generalizing more detailed soil survey maps. Where more detailed soil survey maps are not available, data on geology, topography, vegetation, and climate are assembled, together with Land Remote Sensing Satellite (LANDSAT) images. Soils of like areas are studied, and the probable classification and extent of the soils are determined.” (U.S. Department of Agriculture, 2005).
The sampling sites at each of the rain gardens sampled for this study are listed in table 1. Also included is information, such as site identifier, that would be useful in locating additional information about these sites and the actual data that are currently (2005) available.
The climate across the area ranges from relatively warmer in the southwest to relatively cooler in the northeast. However, these long-term climate patterns often are confounded by weather systems that have local effects.
Climate conditions in the area are relatively uniform. Normal mean monthly temperatures at the Minneapolis -St. Paul International Airport (1971-2000) vary from 70.6°F (August) to 13.1°F (January) and average 45.4°F annually. These normal means are slightly higher in the south and west and lower in the north and east. Inner-city areas are slightly warmer than outlying areas at all times of the year (Minnesota Department of Natural Resources, 2005a).
Seasonal variability in precipitation also occurs in the area. Nearly two-thirds of normal mean annual precipitation falls during the growing season from May through September and only 8 percent of the normal mean annual precipitation falls in the winter (December through February). Normal annual precipitation varies across the area from about 29 to 30 in. and increases from the southwest to the northeast. The lowest normal mean monthly precipitation occurs in August (Minnesota Department of Natural Resources, 2005b).
During parts of this study, precipitation was less than normally would be expected. This resulted in collection of fewer samples than were anticipated during certain seasons.
Climatic variations are minor among the rain-garden sites. Weather variations resulting from convective thunderstorms are more likely to create variability among sites and result in substantial differences in the amount of precipitation delivered to the rain gardens studied. Use of other hydrologic data, including records of precipitation, inflow and overflow volumes, and rates of evapotranspiration, which could have been useful to estimate loading and attenuation of materials delivered to the rain gardens, was beyond the scope of this study.
The effectiveness of rain gardens is related to the topographic and land-use settings of each site, including the texture and hydraulic conductivity of soils and unconsolidated glacial deposits that underlie the sites. Most of the rain-garden sites were chosen with the intention of capturing runoff immediately downstream from an impervious surface, such as a roof or parking lot, and soil characteristics were not always as important a consideration as location. Although the soil types (fig. 2) are a general guide, local variations may occur that cannot be mapped at the scale shown. Soil tests and other engineering considerations similar to a percolation test take into account the variables that contribute to infiltration in a rain garden. The site at Lakeville apparently had a highly permeable substrate that resulted in little or no overflow from the storms sampled, but another rain garden being installed (2005) about 1 mi north of the existing rain garden does not have the permeable substrate and requires special engineering
Introduction
10. Figure 2. Location of rain-garden sampling sites and percentage of clay in soils in the Minneapolis-St. Paul metropolitan area of Minnesota.
Effects of Rain Gardens on the Quality of Water in the Minneapolis-St. Paul Metropolitan Area of Minnesota, 2002-04
WhiteBearLake BigMarineLake Forest Lake Chisago Lake North SouthCenterLakes Buffalo Lake Pelican Lake Howard Lake Lake Waconia Lake Minnetonka Lake Byllasby SpringLake Lake Pepin Lake St. Croix RAMSEYANOKAHENNEPINWRIGHTCARVER SCOTT DAKOTA WASHINGTON GOODHUERICELE SUEUR SIBLEYSHERBURNE ISANTICHISAGO NICOLLET MC LEOD N.F. Crow R. S.F. Crow RiverCrow RiverRumRiver Mississippi St.Croix RiverMinnesota River River Vermillion RiverCannonRiver 353594949435E35E35W35W69449465169212121010616152101Coon Rapids Brooklyn Park PlymouthMinneapolisSaint Paul BloomingtonBurnsvilleBlaineBrooklyn Center Maple Grove MaplewoodSaint Louis ParkMinnetonkaEdinaRichfieldEden Prairie EaganApple Valley Fridley 44°30' 44°45' 45°00' 45°15' 94°00'93°45'93°30'93°15'93°00'92°45' Hugo Woodbury Minnetonka Chanhassen Lakeville Base from U.S. Geological Survey Digital data, 1:100,000, 1985 U.S. Albers projection 01020304050 MILES 01020304050 KILOMETERS PERCENT CLAY 0 to less than 8 8 to less than 16 16 to less than 24 24 to less than 32 RAIN-GARDEN STUDY SITE EXPLANATION Map area MINNESOTAMINNESOTA
11. Table 1. Rain-garden sites sampled in the Minneapolis - St. Paul metropolitan area of Minnesota
[Latitude and longitude: DD, degrees; MM, minutes; SS, seconds; NA, not applicable]
Site identifier
Site name
Latitude
DDMMSS
Longitude
DDMMSS
Start date
End date
445149093365502
Rain garden lysimeter near Chanhassen, MN
445149
0933655
Aug. 2003
Nov. 2004
445149093365503
Rain garden inflow near Chanhassen, MN
445149
0933655
Sep. 2003
Sep. 2004
445150093365402
Rain garden background lysimeter near Chanhassen, MN
445150
0933654
Sep. 2003
Oct. 2004
445150093365403
Rain garden outflow near Chanhassen, MN
445150
0933654
Aug. 2003
Sep. 2004
450943092593901
Rain garden well at Hugo, MN
450943
0925939
Aug. 2002
Nov. 2004
450943092593902
Rain garden lysimeter at Hugo, MN
450943
0925939
Aug. 2002
Nov. 2004
450943092593903
Rain garden inflow at Hugo, MN
450943
0925939
Jul. 2002
Sep. 2004
450946092593901
Rain garden background well at Hugo, MN
450946
0925939
Jun. 2002
Nov. 2004
450946092593902
Rain garden background lysimeter at Hugo, MN
450946
0925939
Aug. 2002
Nov. 2004
450946092593903
Rain garden outflow at Hugo, MN
450946
0925939
NA
NA
443914093171801
Rain garden well at Lakeville, MN
443914
0931718
Sep. 2002
Nov. 2004
443914093171802
Rain garden lysimeter at Lakeville, MN
443914
0931718
Sep. 2002
Nov. 2004
443914093171803
Rain garden inflow at Lakeville, MN
443914
0931718
Sep. 2003
Sep. 2004
443920093173501
Rain garden background well at Lakeville, MN
443920
0931735
Oct. 2002
Nov. 2004
443914093173602
Rain garden background lysimeter at Lakeville, MN
443914
0931736
Sep. 2002
Nov. 2004
443920093173503
Rain garden outflow at Lakeville, MN
443920
0931735
NA
NA
445643093253801
Rain garden well near Minnetonka, MN
445643
0932538
Nov. 2003
Oct. 2004
445643093253802
Rain garden lysimeter near Minnetonka, MN
445643
0932538
Aug. 2003
Oct. 2004
445643093253803
Rain garden inflow near Minnetonka, MN
445643
0932538
Aug. 2003
Oct. 2004
445645093254001
Rain garden background well near Minnetonka, MN
445645
0932540
Aug. 2003
Oct. 2004
445645093254002
Rain garden background lysimeter near Minnetonka, MN
445643
0932538
Aug. 2003
Aug. 2004
445645093254003
Rain garden outflow near Minnetonka, MN
445645
0932540
Aug. 2003
Oct. 2004
445512092564401
Rain garden well near Woodbury, MN
445512
0925644
Oct. 2002
Oct. 2004
445512092564402
Rain garden lysimeter near Woodbury, MN
445512
0925644
Aug. 2003
Oct. 2004
445512092564403
Rain garden inflow near Woodbury, MN
445512
0925644
Jun. 2003
Sep. 2004
445516092563801
Rain garden background well near Woodbury, MN
445516
0925638
Oct. 2002
Oct. 2004
445516092563802
Rain garden background lysimeter near Woodbury, MN
445516
0925638
Aug. 2003
Aug. 2004
445516092563803
Rain garden outflow near Woodbury, MN
445516
0925638
Jun. 2003
Sep. 2004
Introduction
12. Figure 3. Rain-garden configuration at Chanhassen, Minnesota.
to encourage infiltration (Keith Nelson, Lakeville City Engineer, oral commun., 2005). Soils maps indicate that both the established and under-construction rain gardens are situated in the same type of soils. Other considerations such as the water- table altitude also may affect infiltration and may need to be evaluated on a site-specific basis.
The closest resemblance to a soil test available for this study was the lithologic logs for the monitoring wells that were installed at the rain-garden sites (table 2). Materials encountered ranged from coarse sand to clay, with some gravel and cobbles. The least-permeable material was present at Chanhassen, where wells were not installed because the clay was impervious to water transport.
Many of the rain gardens have multiple inflows because water can come from several surrounding impervious surfaces. Rain gardens generally are situated in low-lying areas. Because it is difficult to install multiple intakes that can collect a representative, proportionate sample from each of the inflows, one inflow was selected at each site that was expected to provide the largest, most representative inflow to that rain garden. These largest inflows are assumed to be the appropriate sampling sites for this qualitative study.
The typical site installation (fig. 1) encompassed two automatic samplers. One was configured to collect water at the primary site of inflow. The other was configured to sample the overflow when sufficient water passed into and through the rain garden to generate overflow. A well and lysimeter were installed within the rain garden to measure the quality of water that might infiltrate from the water ponded within the rain garden. A well and lysimeter also were installed in an area believed to represent background conditions that are not influenced by infiltration from the rain garden.
The Chanhassen site (fig. 3) is located within the parking lot of the University of Minnesota Landscape Arboretum. The site is underlain by clay-rich soils derived from glacial till. Consequently, observation wells were not installed. Inflow consisted of runoff from a series of parking lots interspersed with vegetated strips. The inflow was sampled by using a float-activated sampler at the primary point where storm-water runoff enters the rain garden. Overflow samples from this site are unique because they come from a drain tile installed beneath the rain garden. The drain tile empties into a culvert that serves as an overflow during major rainfall events. Data collection from this site was complicated by several factors. Arboretum staff attempted to maintain flowering plants in the rain garden that required frequent watering, which could produce overflow without inflow. The source of this added water was assumed to be the public water supply for the arboretum. In addition, ongoing construction surrounded the site during the sampling period. The effects of construction on runoff loading to the rain garden were not measured during the study.
The Hugo site (fig. 4) is underlain by sand and gravel that is part of the Anoka Sand Plain. Runoff to the rain garden is from the parking lot and from the roof of Hugo City Hall. Other nearby areas also may contribute runoff to the rain garden. Ground water is assumed to flow toward the site from the northwest, an area that consists mostly of gravel roads and athletic fields. The background well and lysimeter are located in this area. No overflow from the rain garden was observed during the study and consequently an overflow sample was not collected.
The Lakeville site (fig. 5) is underlain by a mixture of sandy soils and glacial till. The site was in a state of transition during the study. Much of the contributing drainage area consists of a townhouse development that was under construction throughout the sampling period. The effects of construction on the volume and quality of runoff to the rain garden were not measured during the study. The background observation well and lysimeter were located away from areas of construction, but generally near road rights of way that could influence the quality of water recharged to those monitoring points.
Effects of Rain Gardens on the Quality of Water in the Minneapolis-St. Paul Metropolitan Area of Minnesota, 2002-04
#HANHASSENSITE)NFLOW,YSIMETER!UTOMATICSAMPLER 0ARKING0ARKING 0ARKINGLOT 0ARKING #ONTRIBUTINGAREA)NFLOW/VERFLOW,YSIMETERACKGROUNDLYSIMETERABOUTMILEWEST0OND !CCESSROAD .
13. Table 2. Lithologic log of wells installed at rain-garden sites in the Minneapolis - St. Paul metropolitan area of Minnesota
Site identifier
Site name
Minnesota unique number
Well depth (feet below land surface)
Material drilled
Color
Hardness
Depth range
(feet)
From
To
443914093171801
Rain garden well at Lakeville, MN
620719
15
Coarse Sand
Brown
0
9
Silty Gray Clay
Gray
9
15
443920093173501
Background well at Lakeville, MN
685801
24
Top Soil
Dark Brown
0
2
Clay
Brown
2
3
Sand Gravel with Clay
Brown
3
6
Sandy Gravel
Brown
6
10
Silty Sand Gravel with Cobbles
Brown
10
14
Silty Sand without Cobbles
Brown
14
17
Silty Sand, Gravel, Cobbles
Brown
17
21
Gray Clay
Brown
21
24
445512092564401
Rain garden well near Woodbury, MN
685807
11
Fine Silty Sand
Brown
Medium
0
11
445516092563801
Background well near Woodbury, MN
685803
20
Top Soil
Black
0
2
Clay
Brown
2
7
Sandy Clay
Red
7
13
Sandy Clay
Red
13
17
Sand
Red
17
19
Clay
Brown
19
20
445643093253801
Rain garden well near Minnetonka, MN
620660
6
Organic Peat
Black
Soft
0
1
Medium Coarse Sand
Brown
Soft
1
6
445645093254001
Background well near Minnetonka, MN
620659
12
Medium Sand
Brown
Soft
0
12
450943092593901
Rain garden well at Hugo, MN
620717
19
Organic Topsoil 0-0.5 feet
Black
0
1
Fine Sand
Brown
Soft
1
19
450946092593901
Background well at Hugo, MN
620718
22
Topsoil 0-0.5 feet
Black
0
1
Medium Sand
Brown
Soft
1
22
445159093365503
1Rain garden well near Chanhassen, MN
cancelled
22
Fill Sand
Brown
Soft
0
2
Clay
Brown
Hard
2
22
1Well was never installed.
Introduction
14. Figure 4. Rain-garden configuration at Hugo, Minnesota.
Effects of Rain Gardens on the Quality of Water in the Minneapolis-St. Paul Metropolitan Area of Minnesota, 2002-04
City Hall Parking lot Rain-garden infiltration basinsBackgroundwell and lysimeter OverflowstormsewerRain-gardenwell and lysimeter 170 feet 61Road Drainage Hugo City Hall siteOverflowWell and lysimeterAutomaticsamplerInflowInflowUnder construction OverflowWell Lysimeter NInflow
17. Figure 6. Rain-garden configuration at Minnetonka, Minnesota..
The Minnetonka site (fig. 6) is underlain by soils with a relatively high percentage of clay (fig. 2). Much of the contributing drainage area near the rain garden consists of athletic fields and a maintenance facility. However, the majority of runoff to the site is from general-use parking. This parking inflow was the only one of five inflows to this rain garden that could be routinely sampled because of technical considerations described previously.
The Woodbury site (fig. 7) is underlain by soils with a relatively large percentage of clay (fig. 2). The rain garden receives runoff from nearby roadways, housing developments, and a series of small impoundments. The site was unusual because overflow commonly occurred during periods of little or no runoff, indicating that it was supplied from upstream ponds or ground-water inflow.
Methods
An idealized concept of sampling points at each site is shown in figure 1. The installation included inflow and overflow samplers, two ground-water observation wells completed just below the water table, and two soil-moisture lysimeters installed in the unsaturated zone.
Suction lysimeters were installed in the unsaturated zone underlying each rain garden to facilitate collection of infiltration water before it reached the water table. Water-table observation wells were installed near the middle of each rain garden to sample water reaching the underlying aquifer. To provide background (presumably upgradient) chemical information, an additional suction lysimeter and well were installed some distance from the rain garden. Comparison of the chemical data from the surface runoff (inflow) samplers and the suction lysimeters with the data from the water-table wells provides information regarding the attenuation of the chemical constituents by the rain garden as well as by the unsaturated zone. The suction lysimeters and water-table wells generally were sampled monthly for indicator constituents during the sampling period, although it was not uncommon for some of these sampling points to have insufficient water for collection and analysis.
Automated samplers were designed to obtain samples of inflow to and overflow from the rain gardens. Samplers were programmed to collect initial runoff and to sample at a reduced frequency as the runoff continued during a rainfall event. One minute after sensing runoff, 1.6 liters of water were collected. An additional 1.6 liters of water were collected after 2 minutes had elapsed since the previous sample, continuing until three samples had been collected. A fourth sample of 0.4 liter was collected after 10 minutes had elapsed since the sampler first was activated by an event. The remaining samples of 0.4 liter each were collected every 5 minutes until all the bottles were filled. If runoff stopped before all the bottles in the sampler were filled, a partial sample was collected. If the runoff continued beyond the capacity of the sampler, that water was not sampled.
Individual site-monitoring installations varied because of conditions specific to each site. Wells were not installed at the Chanhassen site because the subsurface consisted primarily of clay, and wells would not have yielded water. Other complications included delays in site-monitoring installation due to delays in rain-garden construction. Also, some sites were so effective in attenuating runoff, such as the Hugo site, that little or no overflow occurred and few or no samples of overflow were collected.
Wells and lysimeters were installed in a manner consistent with the guidance provided by Wood (1976). Inflow and overflow automatic samplers were installed according to manufacturer’s recommendations (Isco, Inc., 1996, instruc10
Effects of Rain Gardens on the Quality of Water in the Minneapolis-St. Paul Metropolitan Area of Minnesota, 2002-04
-INNETONKASITE)NFLOW!UTOMATICSAMPLER7ELL,YSIMETERACKGROUNDWELLANDLYSIMETER!THLETICFIELD !CCESSROAD !CCESSROAD !CCESSROAD 0ARKING4REESANDGRASS-AINTENANCEFACILITY)NFLOW,YSIMETER7ELL/VERFLOWACKGROUNDWELLACKGROUNDLYSIMETER.
18. tion manual for 3700 portable sampler, 209 p.). Samples were collected and processed by using standard methods developed and published by the USGS. A complete list of the techniques that were adapted to collect and process samples for this study is available as part of the USGS Techniques of Water- Resources Investigations publication series (U.S. Geological Survey, variously dated) that can be accessed at http://water. usgs.gov/pubs/twri.
Samples collected by the automatic samplers were transported to the USGS Water Science Center of Minnesota and composited into a churn splitter for collection of representative subsamples for analysis. Field values were determined from these subsamples. Water samples were filtered and preserved, and analyzed at the USGS National Water Quality Laboratory using the methods described in Fishman and Friedman (1989). Samples were analyzed for constituents listed in tables 3 through 7.
The data collected for this study are available from two sources, including the annual USGS water-resources data reports (Mitton and others, 2003, 2004, and 2005), which also are published electronically on the USGS Water Science Center of Minnesota website at http://mn.water.usgs.gov. Data also can be retrieved from the USGS National Water Information System website (NWIS-Web) at http://waterdata.usgs. gov/nwis.
The timing of the sampling varied. Some samples were collected early in the study, as the sites were being established and instrumented (table 1). A period of less-than-normal precipitation ensued after the installation that resulted in few or no samples. Although sites were routinely visited, site and weather conditions sometimes prevented collection of water for chemical analysis. In some instances lysimeters were dry and ground-water levels had dropped below the screened interval of the wells because of the extended dry period.
The areal extent of the area of study also resulted in substantial variability in rainfall. Local rainfall sometimes produced deluge conditions at a site while leaving other sites without precipitation. The density of real-time rainfall monitoring was not sufficient to provide adequate information for ideal timing of site visits in several instances.
Approximately 15 percent of all water-quality samples were collected for quality-assurance (duplicates, blanks, splits) purposes. All water-quality samples were collected and analyzed by using the USGS quality-assurance protocols documented at http://water.usgs.gov/owq/quality.html and http://wwwrcolka.cr.usgs.gov/uo/proposals/ Tables12DQOs. pdf. Coding of water-quality samples followed the procedures documented at http://ar.water.usgs.gov/nawqa/sample-coding/ outline.html.
Water Quality at Rain-Garden Sites
Periods without water-quality data resulted from the lack of runoff and recharge that occurs during the winter. Persons were dispatched on several occasions to manually sample snowmelt runoff because the automatic samplers likely would have been damaged by freezing conditions, but water samples rarely were collected. When hydrographers arrived, runoff generally was not sufficient to provide adequate sample volume. Because most of these sites drained roadways or parking lots, any snow or other frozen precipitation that had accumulated typically was pushed or transported to areas where it did not contribute to the inflow of the rain garden.
After the sites had been established and the weather became more conducive to generating runoff, more samples were collected. Substantial variability among the sites resulted
Figure 7. Rain-garden configuration at Woodbury, Minnesota.
20. from differences in site conditions and rain-garden design. The data allow for general observations about each of the sites and about differences among the individual sites.
Median concentrations for the data collected from all five of the rain-garden sites are shown in tables 3 through 7. These tables also show the approximate number of each type of constituent measured from each of the media sampled. Individual sample numbers used to compute the median varied depending on a variety of factors, such as availability of adequate water to complete the intended analysis. Water-quality results are summarized in this section.
Chanhassen
The median specific-conductance value of the overflow at the Chanhassen site was much higher than that of the inflow (table 3). The increase may be attributed to additional, unsampled storm-water runoff from the parking lot and (or) infiltration through the substrate, which leached minerals to the drain tile and was sampled as overflow. Total suspended solids were retained by the rain garden to levels less than the 10 mg/L method reporting limit for this measurement. The concentration of most nitrogen species measured at the rain-garden overflow decreased by an order of magnitude from that measured at the inflow. The median chloride and dissolved-solids concentration increased from inflow to overflow. Median dissolved phosphorus concentrations generally were similar from inflow to overflow, but median total phosphorus concentrations decreased from inflow to overflow.
The background lysimeter was frequently dry, so few samples were collected from that site. When both background and rain-garden lysimeters were sampled concurrently, pH and conductance were similar, and nutrient concentrations were similar but near method reporting limits. Concentrations of nitrogen and phosphorus greater than median values in some samples indicate that fertilizers may have been applied to the rain garden during the course of this study.
The soils beneath this site had a high clay content, which precluded installation of monitoring wells. Therefore, no data are available to assess the effects of the Chanhassen rain gardens on ground-water quality.
Data from the Chanhassen site indicate that the chemistry of each sampling site (inflow compared to overflow, and background lysimeter compared to rain-garden lysimeter) converges over time. Throughout much of the study, nitrogen and total phosphorus concentrations were lower in the overflow as compared to the inflow, indicating that the rain garden was assimilating much of the nutrients that might have otherwise been transported to the overflow. Water quality had changed little from inflow to overflow during the most recent sampling visits as determined from measurements of specific conductance, pH, and concentrations of chloride, dissolved solids, and dissolved phosphorus. This indicates that the Chanhassen rain garden may approach a state of equilibrium with respect to quality of inflow and overflow for some constituents.
Hugo
Samples from several inflow events were collected, but overflow samples never were observed or sampled. This indicates that storage within the rain gardens was adequate to assimilate the inputs, and that infiltration to the subsurface was effective.
Samples from the background and rain-garden lysimeters had similar median values of constituents measured (table 4). Median chloride concentrations in the rain-garden lysimeter were about half those measured in the background, indicating some dilution effect.
The background and rain-garden wells had similar pH and nutrient concentrations. Chloride concentrations in samples collected from the background and rain-garden wells were
Table 3. Median values of selected physical properties, chemical constituents, and nutrient species of water from the rain-garden site in Chanhassen, Minnesota, 2002-04
[cm, centimeter; mg/L, milligrams per liter; °C, degrees Celsius; N, nitrogen; P, phosphorus; n/a, no samples for that constituent]
Sample location
(approximate number
of samples; may be
fewer for some
measurements)
pH, water, whole, field
(units)
Specific conduct- ance
(micro- siemens/ cm at 25°C)
Chloride
(mg/L as Cl)
Solids, residue at 180 oC, dis- solved
(mg/L)
Residue total at 105 oC, sus- pended
(mg/L)
N
itrogen,
ammonia + organic, total
(mg/L as N)
N
itrogen, ammonia, dissolved
(mg/L as N)
N
itrogen, nitrite + nitrate, dissolved
(mg/L as N)
N
itrogen, nitrite, dissolved
(mg/L as N)
Phos- phorus, dis- solved
(mg/L as P)
Phos- phorus, total
(mg/L as P)
Inflow composite (5)
7.8
176
3.2
198
190
3.6
0.85
1.15
0.05
0.04
0.29
Overflow composite (6)
7.5
656
17
426
10
.43
.04
.15
.01
.04
.04
Background lysimeter (2)
7.8
725
n/a
n/a
n/a
.31
.04
.06
.01
.03
.03
Background well (0)
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
Rain-garden lysimeter (2)
7.5
645
10
n/a
n/a
.32
.04
.10
.01
.06
.06
Rain-garden well (0)
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
12 Effects of Rain Gardens on the Quality of Water in the Minneapolis-St. Paul Metropolitan Area of Minnesota, 2002-04
21. substantially different and diverged over time, indicating that runoff entering the rain garden may dilute existing concentrations of dissolved salts as recharge is focused on the ground water immediately beneath the rain gardens (G.N. Delin, U.S. Geological Survey, oral commun., 2005). The specific-conductance value in samples from the background well increased during this study and decreased in samples from the rain-garden well. Chloride concentrations showed similar trends to specific conductance during this study.
Lakeville
Samples from several inflow events were collected, but overflow samples never were observed or sampled. This indicates that storage within the rain gardens was adequate to assimilate the inputs and that infiltration to the subsurface was effective. On one occasion a sample of standing water from the rain garden was collected and is referred to as an overflow sample.
Specific conductance and concentrations of chloride and nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus species) in inflow generally were low (table 5). A runoff event sampled on July 30, 2004, had a suspended-solids concentration of 230 mg/L and concentrations of several nutrients, including ammonia plus organic nitrogen and total phosphorus, that also were the highest measured during this study. Because more conservative components of runoff such as specific conductance and chloride concentration generally did not vary, it is assumed that nutrient-enriched soils exposed during ongoing construction washed into the rain garden during this event.
The rain-garden lysimeter had specific-conductance values and chloride concentrations that were much lower than those measured in the background lysimeter, with nitrogen concentrations generally following the same pattern. However, dissolved and total phosphorus concentrations were slightly higher in the rain-garden lysimeter than in the background lysimeter. During a site visit a hydrographer observed evidence of pesticide application near the rain garden (L. Gryczkowski, U.S. Geological Survey, oral commun., 2005), which might indicate that fertilizers also were applied near the site and eventually seeped into the subsurface.
Water from the background well at Lakeville generally had much higher specific-conductance values and concentrations of chloride and measured forms of nitrogen than were measured in the rain-garden well (table 5). Dissolved and total phosphorus concentrations were comparable in the background and rain-garden wells. The maximum value of phosphorus measured in the rain-garden lysimeter coincided with the maximum measured in the rain garden well.
Other than the peak phosphorus concentrations observed in the rain-garden well and lysimeter during September 2004, no trends were apparent. However, increases during the study period (September 2002 through November 2004) were apparent in the background well and lysimeter. Specific-conductance values and concentrations of chloride and nitrite plus nitrate nitrogen generally increased during this study. The reasons for these increases are not known but could be related to ongoing periods of reduced precipitation with less dilution. They also could be the result of roadway runoff because both background sites are located near heavily used transportation routes.
Minnetonka
The rain garden in Minnetonka typically had samples of both inflow and overflow. The large volume of runoff (inflow) relative to the size of this rain garden resulted in a relatively short retention time. The field and laboratory water-quality measurements of inflow as compared to overflow provided results that were very similar during concurrent samplings. The rain garden frequently retained water, indicating that infiltration to the ground-water system was limited. Determination of the soil characteristics beneath this rain garden might indicate whether drainage is adequate. The layer of organic
Table 4. Median values of selected physical properties, chemical constituents, and nutrient species of water from the rain-garden site in Hugo, Minnesota, 2002-04
[cm, centimeter; mg/L, milligrams per liter; oC, degrees Celsius; N, nitrogen; P, phosphorus; n/a, no samples for that constituent]
Sample location
(approximate number
of samples; may be
fewer for some
measurements)
pH, water, whole, field
(units)
Specific conduct- ance
(micro- siemens/ cm at 25°C)
Chloride
(mg/L as Cl)
Solids, residue at 180 oC, dis- solved
(mg/L)
Residue total at 105 oC, sus- pended
(mg/L)
N
itrogen,
ammonia + organic, total
(mg/L as N)
N
itrogen, ammonia, dissolved
(mg/L as N)
N
itrogen, nitrite + nitrate, dissolved
(mg/L as N)
N
itrogen, nitrite, dissolved
(mg/L as N)
Phos- phorus, dis- solved
(mg/L as P)
Phos- phorus, total
(mg/L as P)
Inflow composite (8)
8.0
118
3
65
45.5
0.95
0.18
0.45
0.03
0.19
0.3
Overflow composite (0)
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
Background lysimeter (4)
9.3
174
3.3
n/a
n/a
.35
.04
2.0
.01
.04
.04
Background well (10)
6.7
213
43
138
n/a
.11
.04
2.0
.01
.07
.08
Rain-garden lysimeter (7)
9.2
164
1.6
n/a
n/a
.35
.04
1.28
.01
.09
.07
Rain-garden well (10)
6.9
67.5
.95
56
n/a
.15
.04
.79
.01
.06
.06
Water Quality at Rain-Garden Sites 13
22. peat shown in the well log (table 2) at the point where the observation well was installed would reduce infiltration if it covered the bottom of the rain garden.
Median values of specific conductance and concentrations of chloride and dissolved solids at the Minnetonka site were greater in the overflow as compared to the inflow (table 6). This may be the result of evapotranspiration in the rain garden or inflow from contributing areas that were not sampled for this study, but were sampled as part of the overflow that combined water from several inflow sources.
The concentration of suspended solids and most nitrogen compounds was less in overflow as compared to inflow, indicating sedimentation, dilution, or uptake or attenuation by vegetation. The median concentration of total and dissolved phosphorus was similar in inflow and overflow.
The background lysimeter at this site yielded only one sample sufficient to provide water for analysis, and that was only enough to provide partial results. That sample had a specific-conductance value of 2,110 μS/cm. The rain-garden lysimeter generally yielded sufficient water for most analyses and had lower specific-conductance values and nutrient concentrations as compared to those values measured in the background lysimeter.
The background well at this site had nutrient concentrations that generally were low and often near the detection limit. However, much of the nitrogen measured was in the form of nitrate nitrogen (the nitrite concentration was negligible), with concentrations that ranged from 2.8 to 6.6 mg/L with a median of 5.72 mg/L. Although this is predominantly a residential area, these concentrations could be indicative of fertilizer inputs in agricultural regions that have permeable soils (Hanson, 1998).
One complete analysis and one partial analysis were done (because of insufficient water collected from the well)
Table 5. Median values of selected physical properties, chemical constituents, and nutrient species of water from the rain-garden site in Lakeville, Minnesota, 2002-04
[cm, centimeter; mg/L, milligrams per liter; oC, degrees Celsius; N, nitrogen; P, phosphorus; n/a, no samples for that constituent]
Sample location
(approximate number
of samples; may be
fewer for some
measurements)
pH, water, whole, field
(units)
Specific conduct- ance
(micro- siemens/ cm at 25°C)
Chloride
(mg/L as Cl)
Solids, residue at 180 oC, dis- solved
(mg/L)
Residue total at 105 oC, sus- pended
(mg/L)
N
itrogen,
ammonia + organic, total
(mg/L as N)
N
itrogen, ammonia, dissolved
(mg/L as N)
N
itrogen, nitrite + nitrate, dissolved
(mg/L as N)
N
itrogen, nitrite, dissolved
(mg/L as N)
Phos- phorus, dis- solved
(mg/L as P)
Phos- phorus, total
(mg/L as P)
Inflow composite (6)
7.4
99
1.6
95.5
14
1.3
0.23
0.32
0.02
0.15
0.20
Overflow composite (1)
7.6
63
.5
54
10
.52
.04
.06
.01
.19
.2
Background lysimeter (8)
8.1
2,980
24
n/a
n/a
1.1
.04
9.40
.01
.1
.09
Background well (10)
7.0
1,850
310
661
n/a
.26
.04
3.9
.01
.04
.04
Rain-garden lysimeter (10)
8.4
298
2
n/a
n/a
.33
.04
1.6
.01
.14
.13
Rain-garden well (9)
7.6
307
5.9
147
n/a
.25
.04
.64
.01
.04
.04
Table 6. Median values of selected physical properties, chemical constituents, and nutrient species of water from the rain-garden site in Minnetonka, Minnesota, 2002-04
[cm, centimeter; mg/L, milligrams per liter; oC, degrees Celsius; N, nitrogen; P, phosphorus; n/a, no samples for that constituent]
Sample location
(approximate number
of samples; may be
fewer for some
measurements)
pH, water, whole, field
(units)
Specific conduct- ance
(micro- siemens/ cm at 25°C)
Chloride
(mg/L as Cl)
Solids, residue at 180 oC, dis- solved
(mg/L)
Residue total at 105 oC, sus- pended
(mg/L)
N
itrogen,
ammonia + organic, total
(mg/L as N)
N
itrogen, ammonia, dissolved
(mg/L as N)
N
itrogen, nitrite + nitrate, dissolved
(mg/L as N)
N
itrogen, nitrite, dissolved
(mg/L as N)
Phos- phorus, dis- solved
(mg/L as P)
Phos- phorus, total
(mg/L as P)
Inflow composite (9)
7.9
134
9.6
134
172
2.4
0.45
0.59
0.03
0.13
0.34
Overflow composite (6)
8.1
270
17
183
66
1.9
.13
.46
.04
.14
.35
Background lysimeter (1)
8.0
2,110
n/a
n/a
n/a
4.2
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
.14
Background well (8)
7.5
574
8.4
n/a
n/a
.35
.04
5.72
.01
.04
.04
Rain-garden lysimeter (7)
8.2
964
44
n/a
n/a
.92
.04
1.13
.01
.07
.08
Rain-garden well (1)
12.1
1,940
21
n/a
n/a
n/a
.53
1.15
.54
.04
.09
14 Effects of Rain Gardens on the Quality of Water in the Minneapolis-St. Paul Metropolitan Area of Minnesota, 2002-04
23. in the rain garden used for this study. In those samples, the specific-conductance values and chloride concentrations were relatively high as compared to water from wells at other sites sampled for this study.
Woodbury
The rain garden in Woodbury typically had paired samples of both inflow and overflow. Median values of constituents measured in inflow generally were lower as compared to overflow, including specific conductance, chloride, and dissolved solids (table 7). This could result from evapotranspiration in the series of ponds contributing to the rain garden or from other inflow sources that were not sampled. Some inflows were not sampled for this study, but one overflow combined water from these different sources. Suspended solids and nutrient concentrations were lower in overflow as compared to inflow indicating sedimentation, a dilution effect, or uptake by vegetation. Suspended solids and ammonia concentrations were reduced by at least an order of magnitude between sampled inflow and overflow.
The background lysimeter was sampled only once during this study because it was dry during other visits. The lysimeter in the rain garden was sampled five times. Concentrations of nitrogen in the rain-garden lysimeter samples generally declined during this study.
Eight concurrent samples were collected from the background and rain-garden wells. Specific conductance generally increased over time in the background well while it generally decreased in the rain-garden well. Chloride concentrations followed a similar temporal pattern. Nitrogen concentrations generally were too low to discern trends with any confidence.
Effects of Rain Gardens on Water Quality
Rain gardens are designed to encourage infiltration while allowing overflow during large runoff events. When subsurface flow conditions are stable and little flow occurs, the ground-water chemistry beneath the rain garden might be expected to approach that of recharge from the rain garden. Determining subsurface flow was beyond the scope of this study.
Some of the effects of rain-garden processes on water quality are shown in figure 8.
• Comparison of specific conductance and chloride concentration of inflow to overflow provides mixed results. Differences appear to depend on degree of infiltration as related to permeability. Permeability is related to the relative amount of clay in the soil; however, the percentage of clay can be a localized condition that likely would require a local site assessment to measure permeability and determine whether the desired infiltration relative to runoff inputs can be achieved and maintained. The lithologic logs (table 2) provide some indication of the soil conditions at the point where the observation well was installed.
• Suspended solids and many related constituent concentrations, including nutrients, are consistently reduced in overflow as compared to inflow.
• The size and contribution of storm-water sources relative to the design of the rain garden needs to be assessed by managers designing and installing these systems. Based on information collected for this study, a wide variety of sites have been selected, built, and designed, but they are not all equally effective at reducing overflow to other receiving waters or at enhancing
Table 7. Median values of selected physical properties, chemical constituents, and nutrient species of water from the rain-garden site in Woodbury, Minnesota, 2002-04
[cm, centimeter; mg/L, milligrams per liter; oC, degrees Celsius; N, nitrogen; P, phosphorus; n/a, no samples for that constituent]
Sample location
(approximate number
of samples; may be
fewer for some
measurements)
pH, water, whole, field
(units)
Specific conduct- ance
(micro- siemens/ cm at 25°C)
Chloride
(mg/L as Cl)
Solids, residue at 180 oC, dis- solved
(mg/L)
Residue total at 105 oC, sus- pended
(mg/L)
N
itrogen,
ammonia + organic, total
(mg/L as N)
N
itrogen, ammonia, dissolved
(mg/L as N)
N
itrogen, nitrite + nitrate, dissolved
(mg/L as N)
N
itrogen, nitrite, dissolved
(mg/L as N)
Phos- phorus, dis- solved
(mg/L as P)
Phos- phorus, total
(mg/L as P)
Inflow composite (8)
7.3
125
15
161
138
4.6
0.80
1.08
0.07
0.22
0.71
Overflow composite (6)
7.6
309
33
174
12
.86
.04
.42
.01
.1
.14
Background lysimeter (1)
n/a
422
32
n/a
n/a
.3
.07
.37
.01
.04
.04
Background well (9)
7.1
1,190
247
n/a
n/a
.11
.04
.55
.01
.03
.05
Rain-garden lysimeter (5)
7.6
2,680
505
n/a
n/a
.63
.05
.09
.01
.05
.05
Rain-garden well (9)
7.6
359
35
176
n/a
.54
.04
.06
.01
.04
.07
Effects of Rain Gardens on Water Quality 15
24. Figure 8. Distribution of specific conductance and phosphorus, chloride, and suspended-solids concentration at each of the five rain-garden sites sampled in the Minneapolis-St. Paul metropolitan area of Minnesota, 2004-04.
#/.#%.42!4)/./4/4!,0(/30(/253
28. Figure 8. Distribution of specific conductance and phosphorus, chloride, and suspended-solids concentration at each of the five rain-garden sites sampled in the Minneapolis-St. Paul metropolitan area of Minnesota, 2002-04—Continued.
#/.#%.42!4)/./3530%.$%$3/,)$3
31. infiltration. This study indicates that much of this inequality is related to soil properties within each individual rain garden. Sandy or gravelly soils appear to encourage infiltration to the subsurface, whereas less permeable, clayey soils allow more overflow to downstream waters. It has not been determined whether these conditions will change as vegetation penetrates into the clayey soils or sedimentation clogs permeable soils.
• Based on data collected for this study, there are no consistent trends related to changes in phosphorus concentrations in surface water, although total phosphorus concentrations generally were lower in overflow than in inflow. More information relating to the effect of rain gardens as they mature might help in understanding this aspect of the systems.
• Specific conductance and chloride concentration measured in inflow and in rain-garden wells generally was lower than what was measured in background wells and lysimeters. This indicates that ground waters beneath some rain gardens are diluted by runoff as a result of focused recharge (G.N. Delin, U.S. Geological Survey, oral commun., 2005).
Median specific-conductance values and chloride concentrations measured in rain-garden inflow and rain-garden wells in 2004 are shown in table 8. Because inflow and ground- water quality probably were not in equilibrium during the early part of this study, only results during the last sampling year (2004) are listed.
Table 8. Median specific-conductance value and chloride concentration at each of the five rain-garden sites in the Minneapolis- St. Paul metropolitan area of Minnesota, 2004
[μS/cm, microsiemens per centimeter; °C, degrees Celsius; mg/L, milligrams per liter]
Site
Specific
conductance,
inflow
(μS/cm at
25°C)
Chloride, inflow
(mg/L)
Specific conductance,
rain-garden
well
(μS/cm
at 25°C)
Chloride,
rain-
garden
well
(mg/L)
Chanhassen
176
3.2
No well
No well
Hugo
118
3.0
68
1.0
Lakeville
99
1.6
307
5.9
Minnetonka
134
9.6
1,935
21
Woodbury
125
15
359
35
The distribution of specific conductance measured at the inflow as compared to values measured in subsurface waters of the rain garden is shown in figure 9. These data encompass the entire period of data collection.
There was little similarity in specific-conductance values among the inflow and ground-water samples collected from the rain gardens, which indicates that other factors have a greater influence on the ground-water chemistry than infiltration. The most similar values were measured at Hugo, but the specific-conductance value was far less than the values measured from inflow. Although this could indicate that other factors are influencing the ground-water chemistry at Hugo, it is possible that not all of the inflow was sampled during extended runoff events and that continued, unsampled inflow contributed water that further diluted the ground water. Several factors may be involved that could vary at each rain garden. Ground-water flow, which was not assessed for this study, may overwhelm any evidence of recharge from the rain garden. Evapotranspiration from the rain garden may concentrate constituents before they enter the ground-water system through recharge. Infiltration through the unsaturated zone may be leaching minerals (salts) that could continue until some equilibrium is reached between recharge waters and subsurface moisture.
Temporal plots of the data collected from the rain-garden sites at Hugo (the site showing the most effective infiltration of runoff and no observed overflow) and Woodbury (a site having frequent overflow) are shown in figure 10. The infiltration characteristics at these two sites indicate that they may represent the extremes of sites measured for this study. All of the results show considerable variability, but some generalizations may be made.
There is a general decline in chloride and nitrite plus nitrate nitrogen concentrations at the Hugo rain-garden site relative to background conditions. The large variability of results at the rain-garden site located in Woodbury make it difficult to determine what trends are evident among the media sampled.
Implications of Results
The rain gardens selected for this study provided a wide range of climate, geomorphic, and engineering designs around the Minneapolis-St. Paul metropolitan area, which resulted in a broad range of water-quality results. In all cases the rain gardens were installed to accept runoff from impervious surfaces including paved roadways and parking lots, rooftops, and other surfaces. Rather than convey the water to ditches, creeks, and rivers downstream, they are intended to keep the runoff close to where it originates and encourage infiltration and recharge to the local ground-water system.
The USGS installed the monitoring equipment and sampled the sites, and other entities designed the rain gardens. Factors such as contributing drainage area, frequency and duration of storm events, design capacity of the rain garden to store runoff and enhance infiltration before overflow, vegetation type, and the material used to construct the rain-garden bottom all can affect infiltration and the resulting water qual18
Effects of Rain Gardens on the Quality of Water in the Minneapolis-St. Paul Metropolitan Area of Minnesota, 2002-04
32. Figure 9. Distribution of specific conductance of water samples collected from inflow and rain-garden lysimeter and well at each of the five sites sampled in the Minneapolis-St. Paul metropolitan area of Minnesota, 2002-04.
30%#))##/.$5#4!.#%
35. Figure 10. Change in chloride, nitrite plus nitrate nitrogen filtered, and total phosphorus concentration at the Hugo and Woodbury rain-garden sites in the Minneapolis-St. Paul metropolitan area of Minnesota, 2002-04.
20 Effects of Rain Gardens on the Quality of Water in the Minneapolis-St. Paul Metropolitan Area of Minnesota, 2002-04
#/.#%.42!4)/./#(,/2)$%
62. ity. Management officials have shown interest in learning more about the long-term aspects of these water-management systems.
Much of this study was conducted shortly after the rain gardens were constructed. Therefore, during the early part of this study many of the rain gardens had bare soil and little vegetation. More recently, the rain gardens have been planted with annual and perennial plants and flowers that may vary among sites. This temporal and spatial variability likely will affect the hydrologic characteristics within and among the rain gardens.
Precipitation during the early part of this study (2003) generally was less than normal (Mitton and others, 2004), resulting in few runoff events sampled. This also left soil conditions too dry to sample at many of the lysimeters, and water tables that declined below the screened intervals of some of the observation wells. In other cases, fresh vegetation plantings were augmented by irrigation that had an unpredictable effect on the water quality of recharge.
In all cases where both inflow and overflow were sampled, concentrations of suspended solids and associated materials including some plant nutrients were reduced in surface overflow. It is assumed that nutrient inflow would result in the benefit of enhanced plant growth within the rain gardens. This study did not address the effect of rain-garden maintenance on long-term water-quality effects. Although deposition of suspended solids could reduce infiltration, conduits caused by root systems may maintain pathways to convey water to the subsurface.
At some of the sites sampled there was evidence of changes in ground-water chemistry beneath the rain gardens. It is uncertain whether this is a temporary effect while the local ground-water system adjusts to the changes resulting from rain-garden installation or whether it is from other factors. There was active construction at the Chanhassen and Lakeville sites during much of this study. It likely will take time, possibly years because of the varying seasonal weather in Minnesota, for the systems to reach equilibrium with the variety of inputs including sediments, nutrients, and roadway runoff. We might learn that plants and wildlife not only enhance the aesthetic value of rain gardens, but help maintain their intended purpose of infiltration and reduction of overflow of nutrients and sediments into other surface-water bodies.
The data collected for this study provide a useful baseline that can be used to assess the long-term effects of rain gardens on water quality and associated ecosystems. Several unmeasured variables contribute some uncertainty to the results. Also, it is important to understand how these systems evolve over time and to be aware of what maintenance is required.
The interest in rain gardens as a management tool makes understanding the effects of these systems important to government and non-government organizations at many levels. It would be prudent to continue studying these sites to determine how they develop as a hydrologic system and understand how they behave during the long-term effects of weather variability. The weather encountered during this study was unusual, resulting in minimal runoff and conditions that resulted in reduced infiltration near background wells and lysimeters. Continued monitoring would provide more data from which to determine a better value for the range and central tendency of the results.
Several other factors also may add to the uncertainty of the results. Most of the sites are reasonably flat with various mixtures of grassland, undeveloped land, bare soils, and impervious surfaces. This makes determination of drainage areas and calculation of runoff difficult. Runoff arriving at a rain garden will vary depending on antecedent soil conditions (wet compared to dry, or frozen compared to thawed), wind direction affecting the movement of water across flat surfaces, and other factors that might affect the routing of flow into the rain garden. This study was equipped to sample only one primary inflow, even though several rain gardens have more than one source of inflow. The ability to measure the volume of inflow and overflow would help determine the ability of rain gardens to assimilate known quantities (loads) of materials introduced to them. Also, having only one background well and lysimeter required many assumptions about the site configuration that are useful, but may not be accurate. An additional assumption made was that the sampled inflow is representative of the quality of all inflow to the rain garden as compared to the overflow and ground-water recharge from the rain garden. Subsequent studies of these or other rain gardens could be designed to address, and hopefully quantify, many of these uncertainties.
Summary
Rain gardens are being installed around the United States, including in several communities around the Minneapolis-St. Paul metropolitan area of Minnesota. Although data have been collected from some sites, few published studies document effects of the rain gardens on the quality of surface and ground water. To help address this need for information, a study was done by the USGS in cooperation with the Metropolitan Council of the Twin Cities, Department of Environmental Services, during 2002-04.
Rain gardens are a popular method of managing runoff while attempting to provide aesthetic and environmental benefits. Five rain-garden sites in the Minneapolis-Saint Paul metropolitan area were instrumented to evaluate the effects of this water-management system on surface and subsurface water quality. Most of these sites were in suburban locations and frequently in newer developments and therefore were affected by changing hydrology during the course of this study.
Less-than-normal precipitation during much of the study may have resulted in samples that may not be representative of normal conditions. However, the resulting data indicate that properly designed rain gardens enhance infiltration and can reduce concentrations of dissolved ions relative to background conditions.
Summary 21
63. Sampling was focused primarily on determining the concentration of a few selected constituents considered to be indicative of runoff including suspended solids, nitrogen, phosphorus, chloride, and gross measures of dissolved constituents. Although the changes in mass transported throughout the system relative to sources were not measured, the data provide initial information to evaluate measured concentrations in components of the water system in a rain garden that was sampled and determine how they interrelate at each of the sites sampled. Other important factors including precipitation characteristics, antecedent conditions, and flow volumes from which to compute loads were not measured. Long-duration storms that exceeded the capacity of the automatic samplers were not adequately sampled. Other factors that could contribute to a better understanding of the systems including delineation of drainage areas, contributing drainage areas, and detailed information on land-use characteristics also were beyond the scope of this report. Determining how these samples relate to the existing climate or changing climate, changes in land use, and other factors also was beyond the scope of this report.
The runoff events in one rain garden and several runoff events in the other rain gardens produced no sampled overflow during this study because the gardens captured all of the inflow, which subsequently infiltrated beneath the land surface, evaporated, or transpired through garden vegetation. Where measured, overflow had reduced concentrations of suspended solids and most nutrient species associated with particulate material, as compared to inflow. Many of these materials settle to the bottom of the rain garden and some nutrients may be assimilated by the plant community.
Site design, including capacity relative to drainage area and soil permeability, is an important consideration in the efficiency of rain-garden operation. Vegetation type likely affects the infiltration capacity, nutrient uptake, and evapotranspiration of a rain garden and probably the resulting water quality. The long-term efficiency of rain gardens is difficult to determine from the results of this study because most are still evolving and maturing in relation to their hydrologic, biologic, and chemical setting. Many resource managers have questioned what long-term maintenance will be needed to keep rain gardens operating effectively. Additional or continued studies could address many of these concerns.
Selected References
Fishman, M.J., and Friedman, L.C., eds., 1989: Methods for determination of inorganic substances in water and fluvial sediments: U.S. Geological Survey Techniques of Water- Resources Investigation, book 5, chap. A1, 545 p.
Hanson, P.E., 1998, Pesticides and nitrate in surficial sand and gravel aquifers as related to modeled contamination susceptibility in part of the Upper Mississippi River Basin: U.S. Geological Survey Fact Sheet 107-98, 4 p.
Minnesota Department of Natural Resources, 2005a, Normal temperature maps, accessed August 10, 2005, at http://climate. umn.edu/doc/historical/temp_norm_adj.htm
Minnesota Department of Natural Resources, 2005b, Normal precipitation maps, accessed August 10, 2005, at http://climate. umn.edu/doc/historical/precip_norm.htm
Mitton, G.B., Guttormson, K.G., Stratton, G.W., and Wakeman, E.S., 2003, Water resources data in Minnesota, 2002: Annual Water-Data Report MN-02-1, variously paged.
Mitton, G.B., Guttormson, K.G., Stratton, G.W., and Wakeman, E.S., 2004, Water resources data in Minnesota, 2003: Annual Water-Data Report MN-03-1, variously paged.
Mitton, G.B., Guttormson, K.G., Stratton, G.W., and Wakeman, E.S., 2005, Water resources data in Minnesota, 2004: Annual Water-Data Report MN-04-1, variously paged.
Rain Garden Network, 2005, Local solutions for local stormwater issues, accessed August 24, 2005, at http://www. raingardennetwork.com/
U.S. Department of Agriculture, 2005, State soil geographic (STATSGO) data base for Minnesota, accessed April 19, 2005, at http://www.ncgc.nrcs.usda.gov/products/datasets/ statsgo/metadata/mn.html
U.S. Geological Survey, variously dated, National field manual for the collection of water-quality data: U.S. Geological Survey Techniques of Water-Resources Investigations, book 9, chaps. A1-A9, available online at http://pubs.water.usgs. gov/twri9A
Wood, W.W., 1976, Guidelines for collection and field analysis of ground-water samples for selected unstable constituents: U.S. Geological Survey Techniques of Water-Resources Investigation, book 1, chap. D2.
22 Effects of Rain Gardens on the Quality of Water in the Minneapolis-St. Paul Metropolitan Area of Minnesota, 2002-04
64. L.H. Tornes—Effects of Rain Gardens on the Quality of Water in the Minneapolis–St. Paul Metropolitan Area of Minnesota, 2002-04