Higher education in Sub-Saharan Africa has expanded greatly since the 1970s, with enrollment increasing from 200,000 students to around 10 million currently. Governments allocate about 20% of education spending to higher education, on par with global averages. While public investment has grown, spending per student remains low at $2,000 annually compared to $600 million in annual international support. Expansion challenges include balancing public and private financing, improving gender equity, and ensuring curriculum aligns with market needs.

1. HIGHER EDUCATION
IN SUB SAHARA AFRICA
YPIA Africa Program
Jocelyn McDaniel
Andrew Trembley
21 October 2015

2. History
Pre-Independence
Close ties with universities of colonizing country
Small class of local elites as administrators
Early Post-Independence
Founding of most national public universities
“Africanisation” of education
Pampered sector & source of national pride
Limited private universities

3. History
1980s-1990s
Limited Resources
Continued Growth of National Universities
Increase of private universities
2000s - present
Demand Expands
Continued Enrollment Growth

4. Individual
Government
Employers

5. Individual
Government
Employers
● Economic Mobility
● Equity of Opportunity
● Freedom of Choice
● Social Order
● Civic Identity
● Fiscal Restraint
● Relevant Training
● Relevant Quantities

6. Gross Enrollment Rates
There are
approximately
ten million
tertiary
education
students in
SSA compared
to approximately
200,000 in
1970.

7. Secondary Enrollment by Gender
9
36
13
43
-
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
Female Male

8. Tertiary Enrollment by Gender
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
Female Male
Source: World Bank Edstats (2015) data.worldbank.org
University Graph: Salmi, J (2010), The Challenge of Establishing World-Class Universities

9. Change in Tertiary Per Student Spending

10. Challenges
• Brain Drain of Academics
• Growing Pressure for further Expansion
• Resource Constraints
• Urban vs. Rural
• Tight budgets make disallow universities to afford an effective learning infrastructure. Military
spending, for example, is causing education spending to decrease immensely.
• Mismatch between higher education and the job market outside academia. African universities
have traditionally prepared students for public sector jobs, neglecting the needs of the private
sector
• Contrary to global trends, women remain disadvantaged in terms of access to tertiary education
in sub-Saharan Africa, as well as South and West Asia. The tertiary GER in sub-Saharan Africa for
women is 4.8%, compared to 7.3% for men.
• Large numbers of students complete tertiary education abroad. In 2008, about 223,000 students
from sub-Saharan Africa were enrolled in tertiary education institutions outside of their home
countries.
• The tertiary degrees undertaken do not necessarily align with promising career paths such as
telecommunications, engineering, agriculture, IT, health, banking and education.

11. Discussion Questions
• How can the curriculum be reformed towards entrepreneurial skills
and jobs in the private sector?
• How can a greater emphasis be placed on locally-relevant diploma
and certificate programs, instead of over-producing university
graduates?
• How can gender mainstreaming be improved?
• How can countries increase institutional capacity in higher education
to meet growing enrollment?
• What role do governments play in financing mass tertiary education,
and how can they afford it?
• What can be done to improve gender outcomes in higher education?

12. Addition Issues to Consider
Financing
Institutions
Gender Equity

13. Financing Models
Private (Upfront) Simple
Market driven
Cheap (for Government)
Deferred
Dual-Track
Universal Public

14. Financing Models
+ -
Private (Upfront) Simple
Market driven
Cheap (for Government)
Inequitable
Limited Regulation
Deferred Low-cost Repayment Difficulty
Dual-Track Regulates Labor Force
Targeted Financing
How much subsidy?
Equity or Merit Formulas?
Universal Public Equitable Most Expensive
Inefficient to reflect labor needs
Runaway Costs

15. Individual
Government
Employers
● Economic Mobility
● Equity of Opportunity
● Freedom of Choice
● Social Order
● Civic Identity
● Fiscal Restraint
● Relevant Training
● Relevant Quantities

16. Institutional Growth Options
+ -
Unregulated Private Meets enrollment demand
Lowest cost
Low Quality
Accredited Private Low Cost Difficult to monitor/regulate
Unproven
Decentralized
Public
Easier to manage institutionally High variability in quality
Unwieldy to monitor/regulate
Universal Public Easier to regulate and manage
Easier to ensure quality
Difficult to Scale Up
Can be expensive

17. Institutional Growth Options
+ -
Unregulated Private Meets enrollment demand
Lowest cost
Low Quality
Accredited Private Low Cost Difficult to monitor/regulate
Unproven
Decentralized
Public
Easier to manage institutionally High variability in quality
Unwieldy to monitor/regulate
Universal Public Easier to regulate and manage
Easier to ensure quality
Difficult to Scale Up
Can be expensive

18. Education by Colonist
France
State-provided
Tightly Regulated
Core Subjects
Assimilation of French Identity
Limited Access
Closely linked to French Universities
Generated Elite Classes
Great Britain
Church, local, or government provided
Unregulated
Variable subjects, including religion/civics
Africanised
Broad access at low levels
Closely linked to British Universities
Created broad basic skills plus elite

19. Deferred Loans
Tanzania: Less than 5% of loans due have been repaid
Namibia: Less than 10% of loans due repaid
Ethiopia: Collections conducted by Revenue Auithority and are high
Botswana: P20 million of P14,000 million due repaid in past 15 years
South Africa: 40% of loan forgiven for good performance: repayment unknown
Burkina Faso: 7,000 of 10,000 loans in arrears

20. Success: Makerere University in Uganda
Government Financing maintained for limited
students
Private Entry Scheme for growth
In 1997: 14,400 public students
In 2004: 34,500 total students
Decreased unit costs by scaling up
Public students depend on consistent public
financing

21. Public Expenditure by Country
HIGH INVESTMENT
• Cameroon (9.0%)
• Cape Verde
(14.9%)
• Côte d'Ivoire
(8.4%)
• Ghana (6.2%)
• Guinea (9.2%)
• Mauritius (25.9%)
• Namibia (8.9%)
LOW INVESTMENT
• Burkina Faso (3.4%)
• Burundi (2.7%)
• Central African
Republic (2.5%)
• Chad (2.0%)
• Eritrea (2.0%)
• Ethiopia (3.6%)
• Madagascar (3.6%)
• Malawi (0.5%)
• Niger (1.4%)
• Uganda (3.7%

22. Expansion of Higher Education Enrollment
• Sub-Saharan Africa’s higher education sector has expanded greatly since the
1970s.
• SSA allocates approximately 20% of its current public expenditure on
education to the higher education subsector, which is comparable to the
world average and higher than the corresponding rate of non-African
developing countries (18%).
• There are approximately ten million tertiary education students in SSA
compared to approximately 200,000 in 1970.
• An increase in public investments into tertiary education demonstrate
changing perceptions about the role in role SSA’s development priorities.
• GOVERNMENT PUBLIC EXPEDITURE PER STUDENT : US$2,000 per year
• INTERNATIONAL SUPPORT: US$600 million annually