The document summarizes the origin of life theories and evolution of life. It discusses theories such as chemical evolution, RNA world hypothesis, Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection, and the modern synthetic theory of evolution. The key points are:
1) The chemical evolution theory proposes that life originated from combinations of chemicals on the primitive Earth through chemical reactions over time.
2) Urey and Miller's experiment provided evidence for this theory by producing amino acids from gases simulating the early Earth atmosphere.
3) Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection through variation and inheritance explained the diversity of life and how species evolved over generations.
4) The modern synthetic theory integrated ideas from genetics and mutation theories with natural selection to
1. The document discusses several theories on the origin of life, including special creation theory, panspermia, abiogenesis, and biogenesis. It also describes early experiments by Redi and Pasteur that disproved spontaneous generation.
2. The formation of early Earth's atmosphere and conditions that led to simple organic molecules like amino acids and nucleotides are explained. Protobionts and protocells are proposed as early life forms before the first cells.
3. Key experiments supporting chemical evolution include the Miller-Urey experiment demonstrating amino acid formation and the RNA world hypothesis suggesting an early RNA-based life form. The modern synthesis of evolution integrating genetics is outlined.
- Charles Darwin developed the theory of evolution by natural selection in the mid-1800s to explain how species change over generations through natural processes. He proposed that populations vary genetically, traits can be passed to offspring, and individuals with traits better suited to the environment will likely survive and pass on their traits, leading to evolution over time. The mechanism of natural selection results in gradual adaptive changes in populations over many generations.
Evolution is the process of change over time through natural selection. The document summarizes key evidence and theories of evolution, including:
1. Evidence from the fossil record shows gradual changes in life forms over billions of years. Comparative anatomy and embryology also provide evidence of common descent.
2. Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection proposed that heritable variations arise by mutation and are selected if they confer a survival or reproductive advantage. This results in adaptation and potentially speciation.
3. Modern theories incorporate genetics and show how variation arises from sexual reproduction, mutation, and recombination of genes, and how selection can change allele frequencies to drive evolution or maintain genetic equilibrium.
This document discusses the origin and evolution of life. It begins by defining key properties of organisms, such as being complex, made of cells, and able to perform vital functions. It then explores early theories on the origins of life, including spontaneous generation and the cell theory. The document discusses the primordial soup hypothesis and experiments by Oparin and Miller supporting organic molecule formation from early Earth conditions. Finally, it analyzes fixist and evolutionist theories on the diversity of organisms, including Lamarckism on adaptation and inheritance of acquired traits, and Darwinism on natural selection.
The document summarizes key concepts in the evolution of life. It discusses early theories of spontaneous generation and the Miller-Urey experiment demonstrating organic molecules can form from inorganic precursors. Modern evolutionary theory developed from Darwin's principles of variation within populations, a struggle for existence, and survival of the fittest. Evidence for evolution includes homologous and vestigial structures, transitional fossils, embryological similarities, and molecular comparisons. Present-day evolution theories have expanded on Darwin's work through ideas like punctuated equilibrium, selfish genes, and the endosymbiotic origin of eukaryotic cells. New species arise through genetic isolation of populations and their gradual differentiation over time. The appearance of human beings is traced from early homin
1. Evolutionary biology studies the history of life forms on Earth and how they have changed over time through processes like evolution and natural selection.
2. The origin of life is thought to have begun around 4 billion years ago on the early Earth through chemical evolution. Early Earth conditions allowed simple organic molecules like amino acids and RNA to form.
3. Over millions of years, through gradual processes like mutation, genetic drift, and natural selection, early life forms evolved into diverse organisms, including the first humans which emerged in Africa around 200,000 years ago.
This document provides an overview of evolutionary genetics and theories of evolution. It discusses Charles Darwin and his theory of evolution by natural selection. The main points covered include:
- Definitions of evolution and evolutionary biology.
- An outline of the contents to be discussed, including theories of evolution like Lamarckism and Darwinism.
- An explanation of Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection, including the mechanisms of overproduction, struggle for existence, heritable variation, and survival of the fittest.
- Other evolutionary theories discussed include Hugo de Vries' mutation theory and the role of gene flow, genetic drift, and natural selection as forces of evolution.
1. The document discusses several theories on the origin of life, including special creation theory, panspermia, abiogenesis, and biogenesis. It also describes early experiments by Redi and Pasteur that disproved spontaneous generation.
2. The formation of early Earth's atmosphere and conditions that led to simple organic molecules like amino acids and nucleotides are explained. Protobionts and protocells are proposed as early life forms before the first cells.
3. Key experiments supporting chemical evolution include the Miller-Urey experiment demonstrating amino acid formation and the RNA world hypothesis suggesting an early RNA-based life form. The modern synthesis of evolution integrating genetics is outlined.
- Charles Darwin developed the theory of evolution by natural selection in the mid-1800s to explain how species change over generations through natural processes. He proposed that populations vary genetically, traits can be passed to offspring, and individuals with traits better suited to the environment will likely survive and pass on their traits, leading to evolution over time. The mechanism of natural selection results in gradual adaptive changes in populations over many generations.
Evolution is the process of change over time through natural selection. The document summarizes key evidence and theories of evolution, including:
1. Evidence from the fossil record shows gradual changes in life forms over billions of years. Comparative anatomy and embryology also provide evidence of common descent.
2. Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection proposed that heritable variations arise by mutation and are selected if they confer a survival or reproductive advantage. This results in adaptation and potentially speciation.
3. Modern theories incorporate genetics and show how variation arises from sexual reproduction, mutation, and recombination of genes, and how selection can change allele frequencies to drive evolution or maintain genetic equilibrium.
This document discusses the origin and evolution of life. It begins by defining key properties of organisms, such as being complex, made of cells, and able to perform vital functions. It then explores early theories on the origins of life, including spontaneous generation and the cell theory. The document discusses the primordial soup hypothesis and experiments by Oparin and Miller supporting organic molecule formation from early Earth conditions. Finally, it analyzes fixist and evolutionist theories on the diversity of organisms, including Lamarckism on adaptation and inheritance of acquired traits, and Darwinism on natural selection.
The document summarizes key concepts in the evolution of life. It discusses early theories of spontaneous generation and the Miller-Urey experiment demonstrating organic molecules can form from inorganic precursors. Modern evolutionary theory developed from Darwin's principles of variation within populations, a struggle for existence, and survival of the fittest. Evidence for evolution includes homologous and vestigial structures, transitional fossils, embryological similarities, and molecular comparisons. Present-day evolution theories have expanded on Darwin's work through ideas like punctuated equilibrium, selfish genes, and the endosymbiotic origin of eukaryotic cells. New species arise through genetic isolation of populations and their gradual differentiation over time. The appearance of human beings is traced from early homin
1. Evolutionary biology studies the history of life forms on Earth and how they have changed over time through processes like evolution and natural selection.
2. The origin of life is thought to have begun around 4 billion years ago on the early Earth through chemical evolution. Early Earth conditions allowed simple organic molecules like amino acids and RNA to form.
3. Over millions of years, through gradual processes like mutation, genetic drift, and natural selection, early life forms evolved into diverse organisms, including the first humans which emerged in Africa around 200,000 years ago.
This document provides an overview of evolutionary genetics and theories of evolution. It discusses Charles Darwin and his theory of evolution by natural selection. The main points covered include:
- Definitions of evolution and evolutionary biology.
- An outline of the contents to be discussed, including theories of evolution like Lamarckism and Darwinism.
- An explanation of Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection, including the mechanisms of overproduction, struggle for existence, heritable variation, and survival of the fittest.
- Other evolutionary theories discussed include Hugo de Vries' mutation theory and the role of gene flow, genetic drift, and natural selection as forces of evolution.
Charles Darwin developed the theory of evolution by natural selection after observing variations in species during his voyage on the HMS Beagle. The document discusses the key points of Darwin's theory, including that 1) organisms produce more offspring than can survive, 2) individuals vary, 3) those best adapted to the environment survive and pass on their traits, leading populations to become better adapted over time. It also describes Darwin's observations of finches on the Galapagos Islands which provided evidence for his theory of evolution.
This document summarizes theories about the origin and evolution of life. It discusses early theories from the 1600s-1920s about spontaneous generation and the formation of organic molecules in the primitive atmosphere. It also describes the Miller experiment and panspermia theory. Current theories propose that hydrothermal vents provided energy and vesicles formed that could self-replicate, with RNA as the first nucleic acid. The document then outlines evolutionary theories from Lamarck to Darwin and modern synthesis. It lists evidence of evolution such as homologous/analogous structures, vestigial organs, fossils, and molecular similarities. Finally, it discusses present-day theories including punctuated equilibrium and neutral theory, as well as speciation and the appearance of human beings
This document provides an introduction to key concepts in zoology. It discusses 7 characteristics of living things, including chemical uniqueness, complexity and hierarchical organization, reproduction, possession of a genetic code, metabolism, development, and environmental interaction. It also covers the scientific method, the difference between experimental and evolutionary science, Charles Darwin and the theory of evolution including natural selection and common descent. Finally, it discusses contributions to cellular biology including the microscope and animal rights issues in scientific testing.
1. The document discusses theories of evolution and human evolution from the origin of the universe to modern theories.
2. Early theories on the origin of life included special creationism, spontaneous generation, and biogenesis.
3. Modern theories proposed include Oparin and Haldane's primordial soup hypothesis and Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection.
4. Darwin proposed that species evolve over generations through natural selection of heritable traits that aid survival and reproduction in the environment.
Evolution is any change in the genes of a population over time. The origin of life theories propose that organic molecules assembled from inorganic elements in the primordial atmosphere and oceans around 4 billion years ago. Charles Darwin's theory of natural selection proposed that populations evolve over generations as individuals with favorable variations are more likely to survive and reproduce, passing on those variations. Evidence for evolution includes the fossil record showing sequences of simpler to more complex organisms over time, comparative anatomy revealing homologous and vestigial structures, and similarities in embryonic development across species.
Scientists Through History provides a timeline of famous scientists and their accomplishments, including:
- Aristotle established the foundations of taxonomy and defined nature's scale.
- Leonardo da Vinci studied anatomy extensively and tried to recreate bird flight.
- Antony van Leeuwenhoek invented the simple microscope and was the first to observe bacteria and other microorganisms.
- Robert Hooke coined the term "cell" after observing cork under the microscope and made other advances in physics.
- Charles Darwin developed the theory of evolution by natural selection, providing a mechanism by which species evolved over generations.
This document provides an overview of the key ideas and evidence related to evolution by natural selection. It discusses early ideas before Darwin, Darwin and Wallace's theory of evolution by natural selection, and the evidence that has accumulated over time to support this theory, including fossils, homologous structures, vestigial structures, biogeography, and molecular biology evidence. Darwin's theory revolutionized biology by proposing a natural mechanism, natural selection, to explain the development of new species over generations.
The document discusses several key aspects of evolution including:
1) Evidence for evolution comes from fossils that show gradual changes in organisms over time, as well as anatomical similarities between organisms that suggest descent from common ancestors.
2) Charles Darwin's theory of natural selection proposed that variations within a species provide advantages for survival and reproduction, leading to changes in populations over generations.
3) The modern synthesis of evolution integrates genetics into natural selection and shows how evolution works at the molecular, organismal, and population levels through a variety of patterns and processes.
The document outlines 4 stages in the origin of life on Earth:
1) Abiotic synthesis of organic monomers like amino acids, sugars, lipids, and ATP.
2) Abiotic polymerization of monomers into proteins and other polymers.
3) Origin of self-replicating molecules like RNA that could fuel replication.
4) Formation of pre-cell structures that had some life-like properties but a huge gap existed between them and true cells.
This document provides an overview of the key concepts and theories related to evolutionary biology. It discusses the origin of life on Earth, the early conditions, and various theories proposed to explain how life first emerged such as chemical evolution. The theory of evolution by natural selection proposed by Charles Darwin is explained, noting that organisms evolve over time through natural selection acting on genetic variations in populations. Several lines of evidence that support the theory of evolution are outlined, including fossils, embryology, comparative anatomy and morphology, and molecular homology.
Origin Of Life: Are we here by chance? Theories on origin of life, Scientific and Special Creation. Different Theories of life's origin including Aristotle's theory, Pasteur, Redi and Leuwenhook experiment, Abiogenesis, etc.
Fossils and its evolutionary significance.
1. Charles Darwin was a British naturalist who developed the theory of evolution by natural selection while traveling around the world on the HMS Beagle from 1831-1836.
2. In 1859, Darwin published On the Origin of Species, which introduced the scientific theory that populations evolve over successive generations through a process of natural selection, in which organisms better adapted to their environment tend to survive and reproduce at a higher rate.
3. Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection was highly controversial at the time due to its conflict with religious beliefs, but it established the modern framework of evolutionary biology and revolutionized scientific thought.
This document discusses several theories on the origin of life on Earth:
1. The Theory of Special Creation proposed that all life forms were directly created by God in their present form, without evolution or adaptation. It lacked experimental evidence.
2. The Theory of Panspermia suggested that life came to Earth from space, carried by meteors and dust.
3. The Theory of Spontaneous Generation was an ancient belief that living organisms could arise from non-living matter, but it was disproven by Pasteur.
4. The Theory of Biochemical Evolution, proposed by Oparin and Haldane, suggested organic compounds could form from simple gases through energy like lightning. Miller
This document discusses several theories related to the origin and evolution of life:
- The theory of chemical evolution proposes that early life arose through natural chemical reactions between simple inorganic molecules in Earth's primordial atmosphere, eventually leading to organic macromolecules, self-replicating molecules, and the first protocells. Miller's experiment supported this theory by producing amino acids from inorganic precursors.
- The theory of special creation asserts that all life forms were created by God with no evolutionary changes. This conflicts with scientific evidence.
- Experiments disproved the theory of spontaneous generation, which proposed that life could arise spontaneously from nonliving matter. The theory of biogenesis established that living things only come from other living things
This document provides an overview of theories related to the origin and evolution of life. It discusses theories such as spontaneous generation which proposed life could arise from non-living matter, biogenesis which claims life only arises from pre-existing life, and panspermia which suggests life came to Earth from elsewhere in the universe. It also describes Darwin's theory that life first originated in a "warm little pond" with simple proteins forming that eventually led to more complex life forms.
I. The theory of evolution proposes that early Earth had an atmosphere containing methane, ammonia, hydrogen and water. Oparin's theory suggested non-living chemicals spontaneously formed and combined to make more complex chemicals until cells formed. The Miller-Urey experiment produced amino acids by sparking gases, supporting the idea that simple compounds could form organic molecules necessary for life. Lamarck proposed traits acquired through use or disuse could be inherited, leading to changes over generations. Natural selection and survival of the fittest were proposed by Darwin to explain evolution through better adapted organisms passing on genes over many generations.
The document discusses several early theories on the origin of life and evolution:
1) The extraterrestrial origin theory states that life originated on other planets and was brought to Earth via meteorites.
2) Creationism believes life was put on Earth by divine forces, but it is not scientifically valid.
3) The theory that life arose spontaneously from non-living matter through random processes that eventually led to the first cell.
4) Evolutionary theory provides an explanation for differences among life forms through the mechanism of natural selection, whereby traits that increase reproductive success are passed on. The peppered moth study is a classic example of this process at work.
Overview
In simpler terms, Evolutionary Genetics is the study to understand how genetic
variation leads to evolutionary change.
Evolutionary Genetics attempts to account for evolution in terms of changes in gene
and genotype frequencies within populations and the processes that convert the
variation with populations into more or less permanent variation between species.
The central challenge of Evolutionary Genetics is to describe how the evolutionary
forces shape the patterns of biodiversity.
Evolutionary Genetics majorly deals with;
a. Evolution of genome structure
b. The genetic basis of speciation and adaptation
c. Genetic change in response to selection within populations
The document discusses the history of life on Earth from its origins to early multicellular life. It describes early scientific theories on the beginning of life and experiments providing evidence against spontaneous generation. Modern scientists believe life began through natural chemical reactions forming organic molecules, as supported by the Miller-Urey experiment. Early life was prokaryotic and anaerobic, with eukaryotes and complex cells developing later through endosymbiosis. Fossils provide evidence of the progression and environments of early life. Radiometric dating allows determining the absolute ages of fossils.
The document provides evidence for evolution through natural selection by discussing several key topics:
1. It outlines Charles Darwin's voyage on the HMS Beagle where he made detailed observations of organisms and fossils that led him to develop his theory of evolution by natural selection.
2. It describes key evidence that supports evolution such as the fossil record, comparative anatomy, biochemistry, and embryology that show life has changed over billions of years from common ancestors.
3. It discusses the development of early humans from australopithecines like Lucy to later hominins like Homo habilis, Homo erectus, Neanderthals, and Cro-Magnons, showing the evolution of biped
Charles Darwin developed the theory of evolution by natural selection after observing variations in species during his voyage on the HMS Beagle. The document discusses the key points of Darwin's theory, including that 1) organisms produce more offspring than can survive, 2) individuals vary, 3) those best adapted to the environment survive and pass on their traits, leading populations to become better adapted over time. It also describes Darwin's observations of finches on the Galapagos Islands which provided evidence for his theory of evolution.
This document summarizes theories about the origin and evolution of life. It discusses early theories from the 1600s-1920s about spontaneous generation and the formation of organic molecules in the primitive atmosphere. It also describes the Miller experiment and panspermia theory. Current theories propose that hydrothermal vents provided energy and vesicles formed that could self-replicate, with RNA as the first nucleic acid. The document then outlines evolutionary theories from Lamarck to Darwin and modern synthesis. It lists evidence of evolution such as homologous/analogous structures, vestigial organs, fossils, and molecular similarities. Finally, it discusses present-day theories including punctuated equilibrium and neutral theory, as well as speciation and the appearance of human beings
This document provides an introduction to key concepts in zoology. It discusses 7 characteristics of living things, including chemical uniqueness, complexity and hierarchical organization, reproduction, possession of a genetic code, metabolism, development, and environmental interaction. It also covers the scientific method, the difference between experimental and evolutionary science, Charles Darwin and the theory of evolution including natural selection and common descent. Finally, it discusses contributions to cellular biology including the microscope and animal rights issues in scientific testing.
1. The document discusses theories of evolution and human evolution from the origin of the universe to modern theories.
2. Early theories on the origin of life included special creationism, spontaneous generation, and biogenesis.
3. Modern theories proposed include Oparin and Haldane's primordial soup hypothesis and Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection.
4. Darwin proposed that species evolve over generations through natural selection of heritable traits that aid survival and reproduction in the environment.
Evolution is any change in the genes of a population over time. The origin of life theories propose that organic molecules assembled from inorganic elements in the primordial atmosphere and oceans around 4 billion years ago. Charles Darwin's theory of natural selection proposed that populations evolve over generations as individuals with favorable variations are more likely to survive and reproduce, passing on those variations. Evidence for evolution includes the fossil record showing sequences of simpler to more complex organisms over time, comparative anatomy revealing homologous and vestigial structures, and similarities in embryonic development across species.
Scientists Through History provides a timeline of famous scientists and their accomplishments, including:
- Aristotle established the foundations of taxonomy and defined nature's scale.
- Leonardo da Vinci studied anatomy extensively and tried to recreate bird flight.
- Antony van Leeuwenhoek invented the simple microscope and was the first to observe bacteria and other microorganisms.
- Robert Hooke coined the term "cell" after observing cork under the microscope and made other advances in physics.
- Charles Darwin developed the theory of evolution by natural selection, providing a mechanism by which species evolved over generations.
This document provides an overview of the key ideas and evidence related to evolution by natural selection. It discusses early ideas before Darwin, Darwin and Wallace's theory of evolution by natural selection, and the evidence that has accumulated over time to support this theory, including fossils, homologous structures, vestigial structures, biogeography, and molecular biology evidence. Darwin's theory revolutionized biology by proposing a natural mechanism, natural selection, to explain the development of new species over generations.
The document discusses several key aspects of evolution including:
1) Evidence for evolution comes from fossils that show gradual changes in organisms over time, as well as anatomical similarities between organisms that suggest descent from common ancestors.
2) Charles Darwin's theory of natural selection proposed that variations within a species provide advantages for survival and reproduction, leading to changes in populations over generations.
3) The modern synthesis of evolution integrates genetics into natural selection and shows how evolution works at the molecular, organismal, and population levels through a variety of patterns and processes.
The document outlines 4 stages in the origin of life on Earth:
1) Abiotic synthesis of organic monomers like amino acids, sugars, lipids, and ATP.
2) Abiotic polymerization of monomers into proteins and other polymers.
3) Origin of self-replicating molecules like RNA that could fuel replication.
4) Formation of pre-cell structures that had some life-like properties but a huge gap existed between them and true cells.
This document provides an overview of the key concepts and theories related to evolutionary biology. It discusses the origin of life on Earth, the early conditions, and various theories proposed to explain how life first emerged such as chemical evolution. The theory of evolution by natural selection proposed by Charles Darwin is explained, noting that organisms evolve over time through natural selection acting on genetic variations in populations. Several lines of evidence that support the theory of evolution are outlined, including fossils, embryology, comparative anatomy and morphology, and molecular homology.
Origin Of Life: Are we here by chance? Theories on origin of life, Scientific and Special Creation. Different Theories of life's origin including Aristotle's theory, Pasteur, Redi and Leuwenhook experiment, Abiogenesis, etc.
Fossils and its evolutionary significance.
1. Charles Darwin was a British naturalist who developed the theory of evolution by natural selection while traveling around the world on the HMS Beagle from 1831-1836.
2. In 1859, Darwin published On the Origin of Species, which introduced the scientific theory that populations evolve over successive generations through a process of natural selection, in which organisms better adapted to their environment tend to survive and reproduce at a higher rate.
3. Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection was highly controversial at the time due to its conflict with religious beliefs, but it established the modern framework of evolutionary biology and revolutionized scientific thought.
This document discusses several theories on the origin of life on Earth:
1. The Theory of Special Creation proposed that all life forms were directly created by God in their present form, without evolution or adaptation. It lacked experimental evidence.
2. The Theory of Panspermia suggested that life came to Earth from space, carried by meteors and dust.
3. The Theory of Spontaneous Generation was an ancient belief that living organisms could arise from non-living matter, but it was disproven by Pasteur.
4. The Theory of Biochemical Evolution, proposed by Oparin and Haldane, suggested organic compounds could form from simple gases through energy like lightning. Miller
This document discusses several theories related to the origin and evolution of life:
- The theory of chemical evolution proposes that early life arose through natural chemical reactions between simple inorganic molecules in Earth's primordial atmosphere, eventually leading to organic macromolecules, self-replicating molecules, and the first protocells. Miller's experiment supported this theory by producing amino acids from inorganic precursors.
- The theory of special creation asserts that all life forms were created by God with no evolutionary changes. This conflicts with scientific evidence.
- Experiments disproved the theory of spontaneous generation, which proposed that life could arise spontaneously from nonliving matter. The theory of biogenesis established that living things only come from other living things
This document provides an overview of theories related to the origin and evolution of life. It discusses theories such as spontaneous generation which proposed life could arise from non-living matter, biogenesis which claims life only arises from pre-existing life, and panspermia which suggests life came to Earth from elsewhere in the universe. It also describes Darwin's theory that life first originated in a "warm little pond" with simple proteins forming that eventually led to more complex life forms.
I. The theory of evolution proposes that early Earth had an atmosphere containing methane, ammonia, hydrogen and water. Oparin's theory suggested non-living chemicals spontaneously formed and combined to make more complex chemicals until cells formed. The Miller-Urey experiment produced amino acids by sparking gases, supporting the idea that simple compounds could form organic molecules necessary for life. Lamarck proposed traits acquired through use or disuse could be inherited, leading to changes over generations. Natural selection and survival of the fittest were proposed by Darwin to explain evolution through better adapted organisms passing on genes over many generations.
The document discusses several early theories on the origin of life and evolution:
1) The extraterrestrial origin theory states that life originated on other planets and was brought to Earth via meteorites.
2) Creationism believes life was put on Earth by divine forces, but it is not scientifically valid.
3) The theory that life arose spontaneously from non-living matter through random processes that eventually led to the first cell.
4) Evolutionary theory provides an explanation for differences among life forms through the mechanism of natural selection, whereby traits that increase reproductive success are passed on. The peppered moth study is a classic example of this process at work.
Overview
In simpler terms, Evolutionary Genetics is the study to understand how genetic
variation leads to evolutionary change.
Evolutionary Genetics attempts to account for evolution in terms of changes in gene
and genotype frequencies within populations and the processes that convert the
variation with populations into more or less permanent variation between species.
The central challenge of Evolutionary Genetics is to describe how the evolutionary
forces shape the patterns of biodiversity.
Evolutionary Genetics majorly deals with;
a. Evolution of genome structure
b. The genetic basis of speciation and adaptation
c. Genetic change in response to selection within populations
The document discusses the history of life on Earth from its origins to early multicellular life. It describes early scientific theories on the beginning of life and experiments providing evidence against spontaneous generation. Modern scientists believe life began through natural chemical reactions forming organic molecules, as supported by the Miller-Urey experiment. Early life was prokaryotic and anaerobic, with eukaryotes and complex cells developing later through endosymbiosis. Fossils provide evidence of the progression and environments of early life. Radiometric dating allows determining the absolute ages of fossils.
The document provides evidence for evolution through natural selection by discussing several key topics:
1. It outlines Charles Darwin's voyage on the HMS Beagle where he made detailed observations of organisms and fossils that led him to develop his theory of evolution by natural selection.
2. It describes key evidence that supports evolution such as the fossil record, comparative anatomy, biochemistry, and embryology that show life has changed over billions of years from common ancestors.
3. It discusses the development of early humans from australopithecines like Lucy to later hominins like Homo habilis, Homo erectus, Neanderthals, and Cro-Magnons, showing the evolution of biped
Chapter wise All Notes of First year Basic Civil Engineering.pptxDenish Jangid
Chapter wise All Notes of First year Basic Civil Engineering
Syllabus
Chapter-1
Introduction to objective, scope and outcome the subject
Chapter 2
Introduction: Scope and Specialization of Civil Engineering, Role of civil Engineer in Society, Impact of infrastructural development on economy of country.
Chapter 3
Surveying: Object Principles & Types of Surveying; Site Plans, Plans & Maps; Scales & Unit of different Measurements.
Linear Measurements: Instruments used. Linear Measurement by Tape, Ranging out Survey Lines and overcoming Obstructions; Measurements on sloping ground; Tape corrections, conventional symbols. Angular Measurements: Instruments used; Introduction to Compass Surveying, Bearings and Longitude & Latitude of a Line, Introduction to total station.
Levelling: Instrument used Object of levelling, Methods of levelling in brief, and Contour maps.
Chapter 4
Buildings: Selection of site for Buildings, Layout of Building Plan, Types of buildings, Plinth area, carpet area, floor space index, Introduction to building byelaws, concept of sun light & ventilation. Components of Buildings & their functions, Basic concept of R.C.C., Introduction to types of foundation
Chapter 5
Transportation: Introduction to Transportation Engineering; Traffic and Road Safety: Types and Characteristics of Various Modes of Transportation; Various Road Traffic Signs, Causes of Accidents and Road Safety Measures.
Chapter 6
Environmental Engineering: Environmental Pollution, Environmental Acts and Regulations, Functional Concepts of Ecology, Basics of Species, Biodiversity, Ecosystem, Hydrological Cycle; Chemical Cycles: Carbon, Nitrogen & Phosphorus; Energy Flow in Ecosystems.
Water Pollution: Water Quality standards, Introduction to Treatment & Disposal of Waste Water. Reuse and Saving of Water, Rain Water Harvesting. Solid Waste Management: Classification of Solid Waste, Collection, Transportation and Disposal of Solid. Recycling of Solid Waste: Energy Recovery, Sanitary Landfill, On-Site Sanitation. Air & Noise Pollution: Primary and Secondary air pollutants, Harmful effects of Air Pollution, Control of Air Pollution. . Noise Pollution Harmful Effects of noise pollution, control of noise pollution, Global warming & Climate Change, Ozone depletion, Greenhouse effect
Text Books:
1. Palancharmy, Basic Civil Engineering, McGraw Hill publishers.
2. Satheesh Gopi, Basic Civil Engineering, Pearson Publishers.
3. Ketki Rangwala Dalal, Essentials of Civil Engineering, Charotar Publishing House.
4. BCP, Surveying volume 1
This presentation was provided by Steph Pollock of The American Psychological Association’s Journals Program, and Damita Snow, of The American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), for the initial session of NISO's 2024 Training Series "DEIA in the Scholarly Landscape." Session One: 'Setting Expectations: a DEIA Primer,' was held June 6, 2024.
This slide is special for master students (MIBS & MIFB) in UUM. Also useful for readers who are interested in the topic of contemporary Islamic banking.
A review of the growth of the Israel Genealogy Research Association Database Collection for the last 12 months. Our collection is now passed the 3 million mark and still growing. See which archives have contributed the most. See the different types of records we have, and which years have had records added. You can also see what we have for the future.
LAND USE LAND COVER AND NDVI OF MIRZAPUR DISTRICT, UPRAHUL
This Dissertation explores the particular circumstances of Mirzapur, a region located in the
core of India. Mirzapur, with its varied terrains and abundant biodiversity, offers an optimal
environment for investigating the changes in vegetation cover dynamics. Our study utilizes
advanced technologies such as GIS (Geographic Information Systems) and Remote sensing to
analyze the transformations that have taken place over the course of a decade.
The complex relationship between human activities and the environment has been the focus
of extensive research and worry. As the global community grapples with swift urbanization,
population expansion, and economic progress, the effects on natural ecosystems are becoming
more evident. A crucial element of this impact is the alteration of vegetation cover, which plays a
significant role in maintaining the ecological equilibrium of our planet.Land serves as the foundation for all human activities and provides the necessary materials for
these activities. As the most crucial natural resource, its utilization by humans results in different
'Land uses,' which are determined by both human activities and the physical characteristics of the
land.
The utilization of land is impacted by human needs and environmental factors. In countries
like India, rapid population growth and the emphasis on extensive resource exploitation can lead
to significant land degradation, adversely affecting the region's land cover.
Therefore, human intervention has significantly influenced land use patterns over many
centuries, evolving its structure over time and space. In the present era, these changes have
accelerated due to factors such as agriculture and urbanization. Information regarding land use and
cover is essential for various planning and management tasks related to the Earth's surface,
providing crucial environmental data for scientific, resource management, policy purposes, and
diverse human activities.
Accurate understanding of land use and cover is imperative for the development planning
of any area. Consequently, a wide range of professionals, including earth system scientists, land
and water managers, and urban planners, are interested in obtaining data on land use and cover
changes, conversion trends, and other related patterns. The spatial dimensions of land use and
cover support policymakers and scientists in making well-informed decisions, as alterations in
these patterns indicate shifts in economic and social conditions. Monitoring such changes with the
help of Advanced technologies like Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems is
crucial for coordinated efforts across different administrative levels. Advanced technologies like
Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems
9
Changes in vegetation cover refer to variations in the distribution, composition, and overall
structure of plant communities across different temporal and spatial scales. These changes can
occur natural.
A workshop hosted by the South African Journal of Science aimed at postgraduate students and early career researchers with little or no experience in writing and publishing journal articles.
This presentation includes basic of PCOS their pathology and treatment and also Ayurveda correlation of PCOS and Ayurvedic line of treatment mentioned in classics.
हिंदी वर्णमाला पीपीटी, hindi alphabet PPT presentation, hindi varnamala PPT, Hindi Varnamala pdf, हिंदी स्वर, हिंदी व्यंजन, sikhiye hindi varnmala, dr. mulla adam ali, hindi language and literature, hindi alphabet with drawing, hindi alphabet pdf, hindi varnamala for childrens, hindi language, hindi varnamala practice for kids, https://www.drmullaadamali.com
Main Java[All of the Base Concepts}.docxadhitya5119
This is part 1 of my Java Learning Journey. This Contains Custom methods, classes, constructors, packages, multithreading , try- catch block, finally block and more.
1. Indeed Biology by Vivek Sir
CHP – 5 Origin and Evolution Of Life
Origin of life (Protobiogenesis)
1. Attributes of living organisms : Responsiveness, growth, metabolism, energy transformations and
reproduction.
2. Various theories and hypotheses to propose origin of life :
Chemical Evolution of Life (Self-assembly theory of origin of life)-
Theory of biochemical origin of life : Life originated on earth by combinations of several chemicals through
constant chemical reactions over a long period of time. Formulated by Haeckel, developed by Alexander I. Oparin
(1924) and J. B. S. Haldane (1929).
The steps in the process of chemical evolution :
Origin of Earth and Primitive atmosphere : Big-Bang theory of Georges Lemaitre (1931).
Formation of reducing atmosphere.
Formation of ammonia, water and methane : Formation of CH4, NH3, H2O and H2S.
Formation of simple organic molecules : Formation of monosaccharides, amino acids, purines, pyrimidines,
fatty acids, glycerol, etc. Formation of water bodies resulting into ‘hot dilute soup’ or ‘primitive broth’.
Formation of complex organic molecules : Formation of complex organic molecules like polysaccharides,
fats, proteins, nucleosides and nucleotides. Protoproteins → proteins.
Formation of protein molecules : Landmark in the origin of life.
Formation of Nucleic acids : Formation of Nucleotides→nucleic acids (RNA, DNA) →acquired self-
replicating ability→ fundamental property of living form.
Formation of Protobionts or Procells : First form of life called protobionts was formed from nucleic acids
by coacervation.
Protobionts : Prebiotic chemical aggregates having some properties of living system.
Protobionts also called Coacervates (Oparin) and protenoids or microspheres (Sidney Fox)
Coacervates and microspheres were non-living colloidal aggregations of lipids and proteinoids
respectively.
They turned into eobionts or protocell.
Name of the theory Characteristic point What does the theory say?
Theory of special creation Oldest theory. No scientific proof.
Only religious beliefs.
All living organisms are created by a
supernatural power.
Cosmozoic theory/Theory of
Panspermia
NASA has reported fossils of
bacteria-like organisms on a piece
of Martian rock recovered from
Antarctica.
Life descended to the earth from other
planets in the form of
cosmozoa/panspermia.
Theory of spontaneous generation
(Abiogenesis)
Disproved by Louis Pasteur. Life originated from non-living material
Theory of biogenesis Explains only the continuity of
life.
Living organisms produced from pre-
existing living forms, by process called
reproduction.
2. Indeed Biology by Vivek Sir
Showed growth and division and hence considered as first primitive living system.
Formation of first cell : First cell developed by formation of RNA and DNA system. First cell was anaerobic,
heterotrophic and obtained energy by chemoheterotrophic processes.
Urey and Miller’s Experiment:-
Stanley L. Miller and Harold C. Urey provided the first experimental evidence for Oparin’s chemical
evolution theory.
The experiment of Urey and Miller was based on the concept of Oparin and Haldane on the origin of life.
Urey and Miller created the early Earth conditions in a flask in the laboratory.
They created the primitive earth's atmosphere in the flask having gases such as ammonia, hydrogen, water
vapour, and methane that existed on the primitive earth.
The mixture of gases was provided with electric discharges for some days which later got condensed and
accumulated in another chamber.
They observed the presence of simple organic molecules like sugars and amino acids in the condensed
liquid-containing chamber which supported the origin of life from pre-existing simple molecules.
Note:- For diagram refer textbook page no. 96
RNA World Hypothesis :
First proposed by Carl Woese, Francis Crick and Leslie Orgel in 1960.
Sidney Altman and Thomas Cech independently found out that RNA can also act as biocatalyst which is
termed as Ribozyme.
Early life must have been based exclusively on nucleic acids, most probably RNA.
Organic Evolution-
Evolution (Latin word, e = from; volvere = to roll) : The act of unrolling or unfolding of nature.
Organic evolution : Slow, gradual, continuous and irreversible changes through which the present-day
complex forms of the life developed (or evolved) from their simple pre-existing forms.
Charles Darwin’s definition of evolution : ‘Descent with modification’.
Lamarck’s theory (Theory of origin of acquired characters/inheritance of acquired characters and use and
disuse of organs) :
The traits are acquired due to internal force, changes in environment, new needs and the use and disuse of
organs.
This gives rise to new species after several generations. Lamarckism was disproved by August Weismann.
Weismann’s theory of Germplasm : Variations produced in somatic cells (somatoplasm) are not inherited
while variations produced in germ cells (germplasm) are inherited to next generation.
3. Indeed Biology by Vivek Sir
Darwinism-
Darwinism or theory of origin of species by Natural Selection.
Darwin’s book : ‘The origin of species by Natural Selection’, wrote in 1859 after observations of variations
between the tortoises and finches on Galapagos islands.
C. Lyell’s viewpoint on which Darwin’s theory was based : The natural forces that existed in the past are
same as those existing at present.
Wallace also made similar observations.
R. Malthus provided the idea that increase in human population leads to competition and struggle for
existence of human species.
Five main postulates of Darwinism :
Overproduction (Prodigality of nature)
It is the natural tendency to produce more number of progeny in geometric ratio for survival of the species.
Darwin observed potential of many species of plats and animals.
Eg. Salmon fish produces about 28 lakh eggs in a single season.
Struggle for existence
Tendency of production leads to struggle for existence.
This is due to limited supply of food or space or to escape from enemies etc.
Organic variations
Various kinds of differences that occur in morphology, physiology, nutrition, habit behavioural patterns etc
is known as variation.
Darwin recognizes these variations as raw material for evolution.
Natural selection (H. Spencer termed natural selection as ‘survival of fittest’)
Organic variation serves as evidence that for some organisms have better adapted to survive exixting
environmental conditions than others.
Organisms with favourable variations are selected by the nature while those with unfavourable variations
perish.
Hence this principle by Darwin is known as Natural selection and named this process as ‘Survival of the
fittest’
Origin of new species
As favourable variations are transmitted from generation to generation, successive generations are
become better adapted.
Gradually these adaptations with few new modifications become fix in the life cycle and finally give rise to
new species.
Evidences Darwinism include :
Evolution of long-necked Giraffe came to existence.
Black colour peppered moths evolved gradually as new species.
DDT resistance.
DDT resistant mosquitoes.
Drawbacks and Objections to Darwinism :
Darwin wrongly considered minute non- heritable fluctuating variation as principal factors. They do not
form part of evolution.
He did not distinguish somatic and germinal variation and considered all variations are heritable.
4. Indeed Biology by Vivek Sir
He did not explain the ‘arrival of the fittest’. He did not explain the cause, origin and inheritance of
variations and of vestigial organs.
He could not explain the extinction of species.
Intermediate form during evolution were not recognised.
He could not explain existence of neutral flowers and the sterility of hybrids.
Mutation Theory-
Hugo de Vries proposed mutation theory based on his observations on Oenothera lamarckiana for 7
generations.
Though offspring resemble their parents in many characters, some sudden and spontaneous variations are
seen in them, which is said to be mutations or discontinuous variations.
Main features of mutation theory :
Large, sudden and discontinuous variations, inheritable changes in a population which provide the raw
material for organic evolution.
Mutation may be useful or harmful. Useful mutations are selected by nature.
Accumulation of useful mutations over a period of time leads to the origin and establishment of new
species, while harmful mutations are eliminated by nature or can remain in population.
Objections to Mutation Theory :
The large and discontinuous variations were chromosomal aberrations which bring about minor changes.
Rate of mutation is very slow.
Chromosomal aberrations are unstable and hence not important in evolution.
Speciation (Formation of new species) :
Small Darwinian variations are directional. Variations due to mutations are large, sudden, random.
Darwin’s opinion : Gradual, inheritable variations over a long period of time, lead to speciation.
De Vries’s opinion : Mutations cause speciation.
Saltation : A single step large mutation.
Modern Synthetic Theory of Evolution-
R. Fischer, J. B. S. Haldane, T. Dobzhansky, J. Huxley, E. Mayr, Simpson, Stebbins, Fisher, Sewall Wright,
Medel, T. H. Morgan, etc. together have synthesised the modern theory of evolution.
Stebbins suggested five key factors for evolution : Gene mutations, chromosomal mutations, genetic
recombinations, natural selection and reproductive isolation → together bring about evolution of new species.
Population : All individuals of the same species form population.
‘Mendelian population’ : Small groups of interbreeding populations.
Gene pool : Gene pool is the total genetic information or sum total of genes of all individuals in a Mendelian
population.
Factors affecting gene pool : Migration, replacement of one generation by another in the Mendelian population.
Gene frequency : The proportion of an allele in the gene pool, to the total number of alleles at a given locus.
Factors of Modern synthesis theory:
5. Indeed Biology by Vivek Sir
Gene Mutation :
Sudden permanent heritable change in the genetic material is called mutation.
Single gene mutations are called point mutations.
Chromosomal aberrations and ploidy too cause mutations.
All mutations lead to variations.
Genetic recombination : Crossing over in sexually reproducing organisms cause variations , during gamete
formation. Crossing over also create recombination.
Crossing over : Exchange of genetic material occurs between non-sister chromatids of homologous chromosomes.
Gene flow : Movement of genes into or out of a population. Migration of organism, or gametes (dispersal of
pollens) or segments of DNA (transformation).
Genetic drift : Any random fluctuation (alteration) in allele frequency, occurring in the natural population by pure
chance.
Chromosomal aberrations : The structural, morphological change in chromosome due to rearrangement cause
chromosomal aberrations.
Types of aberrations :
Deletion : Loss of genes from chromosome.
Duplication : Repetitions of genes or doubling of chromosome number.
Inversion : Sequence of the genes get inverted due to 180° twist.
Translocation : Transfer (transposition) of a part of chromosome or a set of genes to a non-homologous
chromosome.
Natural selection :
Main driving force behind the evolution.
It brings about evolutionary changes by favouring differential reproduction of genes that bring about
changes in gene frequency from one generation to next generation.
The ‘fittest’ (well adapted) survives and leaves more progeny.
E.g. Industrial melanism in peppered moth (Biston betularia) is example of natural selection.
Isolation :
The separation of the population of a particular species into smaller units which prevents interbreeding between
them is isolation.
Isolating mechanisms : Barrier which prevents gene flow or exchange of genes between isolated populations.
Type of isolating mechanisms :
Isolation is the separation of the population of a species or different species due to some barriers that can
be natural or genetic.
Whenever the isolation occurs due to geographical barriers then it is called geographical isolation.
When the isolation occurs due to genetic barriers or reproductive barriers then it is called reproductive
isolation.
There are two types of reproductive isolation:
Pre-zygotic or premating reproductive isolation
Whenever there is no fertilisation due to reproductive isolation, then it is called prezygotic reproductive
isolation
6. Indeed Biology by Vivek Sir
The common reasons for pre-zygotic isolation are:-
Habitat Isolation :- Different habits of individuals in a population
Seasonal or Temporal Isolation :- Individuals sexually mature at different times
Mechanical Isolation :- Different reproductive structures
Ethological Isolation :- Different mating behavior.
Post-zygotic or post-mating reproductive isolation
When the isolation occurs after the formation of the zygote or post-fertilization, then it is called postzygotic
reproductive isolation.
The common reasons for post-zygotic isolation are:-
Gamete Mortality :- Death of Gamete.
Zygote mortality :- Death of Zygote.
Hybrid Sterility :- The sterility of hybrids is also a reason for this type of isolation.
Mechanism of organic evolution-
During evolution population evolves and not the individual.
Basic processes which bring about evolution :
Mutations, gene recombination, gene flow (migration), genetic drift, natural selection, isolation and speciation.
Genetic Drift:-
Any alteration in allele frequency in the natural population by chance is called genetic drift.
Eg. Elimination of a particular allele from a population due to events like accidental death prior to mating
of an organism.
The concept of genetic drift was first given by Sewall Wright, and hence also called Sewall Wright effect.
Genetic drift are random and directionless.
The effect of genetic drift is more significant in small population than in large population.
Sometimes, a few individuals become isolated from the large population and they produce a small new
population in new area.
The original members that drifted and established the new population becomes the ‘founders’ and the
effect is called founder effect.
The bottle neck phenomenon is also a type of genetic drift and hence known as bottle neck effect.
Hardy-Weinberg’s principle-
Hardy-Weinberg’s equilibrium/principle/law states that ‘at equilibrium point both the gene (allele)
frequency and genotypic frequency remain constant from generation to generation.’
This law hold true in diploid, sexually reproducing , large free interbreeding population.
Representation of Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium:-
A single locus has two alleles(A and a).
The frequency of these alleles are p and q respectively.
The allele frequency for any locus is one. i.e. p + q = 1.
The genotypic frequency of both the alleles are represented by (p +q)2 = 1
The binomial expansion of this is p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1
This can be explained by Punnet Square as follows:-
Hybrid Aa
A (p) a (q)
Hybrid Aa
A (p) AA (P2) Aa (pq)
a (q) Aa (pq) aa (q2)
7. Indeed Biology by Vivek Sir
Adaptive Radiation-
When many species are evolved or radiated from a single species that live in a geographical area then it is
called adaptive radiation.
All the radiated species have evolved into different species but they have a common ancestor. The main
reason for adaptive radiation is natural selection.
Darwin's finches on Galapagos island are the best example of adaptive radiation.
There are different species of birds having different feeding habits but all of them evolved from seed-eating
species.
This was observed by Darwin by identifying their beaks.
Evidences of organic evolution-
Evolutionary evidences are based on following types of disciplines : Palaeontology, comparative anatomy,
embryology and molecular biology
Note:- Refer 12th biology textbook page no’ 106-109
Significance of Palaeontology:-
It is useful in reconstruction of phylogeny.
It is helps in studying various forms and structure of extinct animals.
It provides records of missing links.
It helps in study of habits of extinct organisms.
Speciation-
Speciation : The process of formation of a new species from the pre-existing species.
Species : A group of similar organisms that can interbreed and produce a fertile offspring in nature.
Types of speciation:
Allopatric speciation
Formation of new species due to separation of a segment of population by geographical isolation.
Migration of individual also cause allopatric speciation.
The mode of evolution here is called adaptive radiation.
Eg. 14 different species of finches in Galapagos islands and several masupials in the Australian continent.
Sympatric speciation
Formation of new species due to reproductive isolation.
Eg. Cichlid fishes in Lake Victoria.
Mutations are also helpful in sympatric speciation.
Geological time scale –
It is used to understand the sequence of events that took place on the earth in different ages over a period
of time.
It is divided into sic major ‘Eras’.
Each era ended with major environmental changes on earth resulting into extinction of some species and
emergence of new species.
The eras are further divided into periods and epochs based on minor but landmark events in each era.
Note:- Refer table in 12th Biology textbook page no’ 110, 111
8. Indeed Biology by Vivek Sir
Human Evolution-
1. Major changes in evolutionary development of man :
Increase in size and complexity of brain and enhanced intelligence with increased cranial capacity.
Bipedal locomotion, erect posture.
Opposable thumb.
Shortening of forelimbs and lengthening of hind limbs.
Development of chin. Orthognathous face.
Broadening of pelvic girdle, development of lumbar curvature.
Articulated speech, art, development of tools, social and cultural development.
Classification of mammals:
(1) Order Primates is divided into two suborders – Prosimii (including lemurs, lorises : and tarsiers) and
Anthropoidea (including : New world monkeys – Ceboidea, Old world monkeys-Cercopithecoidea, Apes and :
Man – Hominoidea).
(2) Hominoidea evolved in Miocene in three separate lines are shown as under :
Hyalobatidae – Gibbons
Pongidae – Gorilla, Chimpanzee and Orangutan
Hominidae – Primates with human characteristics.
4. Palaeontological evidences of human evolution :
The available fossils are skulls, • mandibles, teeth, bones like humerus, femur and stone implements.
5. Important stages in the origin of man :
Ape like stage : Dryopithecus
Men-like stage : Ramapithecus
Connecting link between ape and man : Australopithecus.
Handy man : Homo habilis
Ape man : Homo erectus
Advanced prehistoric man : Homo neanderthalensis (Neanderthal man)
Modern man : Homo sapiens